UNIT-III

IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION
The social and economic developments of any region or country depend very much on the
efficiency of the transportation system. Hence, a well-planned development of transportation
system deserves high priority. Road transport system could serve independently or as feeder
service to other modes of transport. Considering the importance of energy conservation,
efficiency and cost, an optimum mix of different modes of transportation has to be planned
and developed. It is also desirable to have appropriate coordination between different modes
of transport.
The details of importance of transportation in a nation's economic development is
highlighted below:
1. For the rapid economic, industrial and cultural growth of any country, a good system of
transportation is very essential.
2. Good transport system helps in the movement of people and goods. Thus, it enables
contact between different places. Thereby, it improves considerably the trade and industry.
3. For the basic necessities of people of any region, transportation moves food, clothing.
industrial products, medicines, etc., both at the production and distribution stages.
4. An industrialist can transport the raw materials and then market his finished products. He
can do so efficiently, only through a good network system of transportation.
5. A farmer can market his products to the nearby market economically, only through a good
system of roads.
6. Export of engineering goods, etc., by ships is very important for earning foreign exchange.
7. The security of a country requires a good transportation network, that is, for Army, Navy
and Air Force.
8. As blood transportation through body arteries is essential for the well-being of the human
being, a similar good system of transportation is very essential for the well-being of a nation.
9. Inadequate transportation facilities may impair the socio-economic development of a
country.
The advantages of roads, road transport characteristics, cross-section details of a road, and
structure of a road are already discussed under Overview of Civil Engineering - Chapter 1
ROAD TRANSPORT CHARACTERISTICS
1. Roads can be used by all kinds of vehicles such as lorries, buses, cars, two-wheelers, etc.
2. Roads are equally useful for pedestrians.
3. Railways will lead to railway stations, aero-planes to airports and ships to harbors. But
roads can reach any place.
4. Local communication among villages, villages and towns is possible only through roads.
Other modes of transport cannot go from village to village.
5. Movements on roads are not time-bound as in the case of railways, waterways and airways.
Role of Transportation
1. Economic development
2. Industrial development
3. Social and cultural development

Significance of Road Transportation

1. Transport contributes in Growth of industries whose product requires quick marketing.

2. Transport helps in increase in the demand for goods.
3. Transport creates place utility. Transport bridges the gap between production and
consumption centers.
4. Transport creates time utility. It helps the product to be distributed in the minimum
possible time.
5. Transport helps in stabilization of price.
6. Transport ensures even flow of commodities into the hands of the consumers throughout
the period of consumption.
7. Transport enables the consumers to enjoy the benefits of goods not produced locally.
8. Transport identifies competition, which in turn, reduces price. Prices are also reduced
9. Transport increases mobility of labor and capital. It makes people of one place migrate to
other places in search of jobs.
10. Bring countries closer: No country in the world is self-sufficient. They have to depend on
one another to fulfill their requirements.
11. Creates employment: Transport also contributes to economic development through job
creation. It creates both direct and indirect employment opportunities.
12. Serve several purposes: Transportation provides access to natural resources and promotes
trade, allowing a nation to accumulate wealth and power.

Hence transportation is vital to a nation's economy as it serve several purposes. It includes the
manufacture and distribution of vehicles, the production and distribution of fuel, and the
provision of transportation services.

Transportation in Nation’s Economic Development

Freight Transport Market in India
1. The transportation sector moves goods and people, employs millions of workers,
generates revenue, and consumes materials and services produced by the other sectors
of the economy
2. Good transport network is crucial for sustained economic growth and development of
a nation.
3. Macro economic level- Importance of the transportation for the whole economy.
4. Micro economic level- Importance of the transportation for specify parts only
The sector contributes 6% to 10% GDP with road transportation.
Economic Regulation

 Fare Regulation – Necessary for the government to regulate Fare

• Entry Regulation- Regulation in choosing the most skilled and qualified candidates
for transport industry
• Quality and service Regulation- To ensure an efficient, adequate and proper co-
ordinate transport service
• Tax Regulation- The tax structure should bring the development of the transportation
by using revenues to improve facilities.

Importance of India’s Transport Sector

• Roads carry almost 85% of country’s passenger traffic and 60% of the freights.
• Rail carries 19.8 million passengers and 2.4 million tons of freight a day and is one of
the world’s largest employers.
• India has 13 major ports and some minor ports along 7500 coastal line. Ports play
very significant role in improving foreign trade in growing economy. India ports
handled cargo of 850 million tonnes and about 9 million TEU (Twenty foot
equivalent unit) container traffic.
• India as 128 airports, Including 15 international airports. Indian airports handled 142
million passengers and 1.6 million tonnes of cargo per year. The CAGR (Compound
Annual growth rate) and Freight rate growth over the last decade has been 14.4% and
7.8% respectively.

Types of Highway Pavements

What is a Pavement?
A road pavement represents a solid surface constructed from robust materials placed over an
area designated for both vehicular and pedestrian traffic. The pavement, also known as the
carriageway, bears the weight of vehicles travelling across it and must possess the strength to
withstand the stresses generated by traffic.

To effectively support the loads imposed by vehicles, the pavement should be of adequate
thickness to distribute these external forces onto the underlying earth subgrade safely.
Pavements are composed of multiple layers of construction materials situated above a
prepared soil subgrade.

These layers consist of:

• Surfacing: This uppermost layer is expected to be smooth, resilient to abrasion, resistant to

dust and structurally sturdy. It serves as the road's visible and wear-resistant surface.

• Base Course: Positioned directly beneath the surfacing, the base course functions as a
medium to uniformly distribute the stresses applied to the pavement.

• Sub-Base Course: Providing additional support in the even distribution of stresses, the sub-
base course lies below the base course.

• Sub-Grade: The compacted earth foundation beneath the sub-base course offers
fundamental support to the entire pavement structure.
In addition to structural integrity, pavements should maintain a level and even surface and
incorporate materials with light-reflective properties to enhance nighttime visibility.

Roads can be categorized into various types based on factors such as location, construction
materials, available funding, necessity, usage and traffic volume. These road classifications
encompass earth roads, gravel roads, Water-Bound Macadam (WBM) roads, bituminous or
blacktop roads and cement concrete roads. Each type is tailored to specific requirements and
conditions, ensuring safe and efficient transportation networks.

Essential Requirements for an Ideal Road Pavement:

An ideal road pavement must meet several crucial requirements to ensure safe and efficient
road transportation. These requirements encompass various aspects, including structural
integrity, safety and longevity. Here are the key prerequisites for an ideal road pavement:

Noise Reduction: The pavement should minimize noise generated by vehicle movement,
contributing to a quieter and more comfortable road environment.

Load Distribution: It must possess the appropriate thickness to evenly distribute the wheel
load pressure onto the underlying sub-grade soils, preventing excessive stress.

Structural Strength: An ideal pavement must exhibit exceptional structural strength,

capable of withstanding various types of stresses imposed upon it, including heavy traffic
loads.

Friction Coefficient: To prevent vehicle skidding, the pavement should provide a sufficient
coefficient of friction, ensuring proper tire grip and road safety.

Dust Prevention: The pavement should be dustproof to enhance visibility and air quality,
reducing potential hazards to traffic safety.

Protection of Sub-Grade: It should offer an impermeable surface, effectively shielding the

sub-grade soils from damage and moisture infiltration.

Low Maintenance and Longevity: An ideal pavement design should minimize maintenance
requirements while ensuring a long service life, reducing the overall cost of upkeep.

From a structural behaviour perspective, road pavements are categorized into four main
types:
1. Flexible Pavement: These pavements are constructed with layers of flexible materials,
offering resilience and load distribution through the entire structure. They are well- suited for
various traffic conditions and environments.

2. Rigid Pavement: Rigid pavements are made of concrete or cement materials and are
known for their exceptional strength and durability. They are often used in areas with heavy
traffic loads.

3. Semi-Rigid Pavement: Combining characteristics of both flexible and rigid pavements,

semi-rigid pavements utilize materials like stabilized soil or concrete slabs with a level of
flexibility suited to the specific application.
4. Composite Pavement: Composite pavements incorporate a combination of different
materials and pavement types to optimize performance and cater to the unique demands of
specific road sections.

These classifications allow engineers to select the most suitable pavement type based on
factors such as traffic volume, soil conditions and budget constraints, ensuring that road
networks meet the necessary standards for safety, durability and efficiency.

1. Flexible Pavement (Bituminous Road):

A genuine flexible pavement exhibits elasticity when subjected to traffic loads and is
typically constructed using a bituminous surface treatment or a relatively thin layer of hot-
mix asphalt (HMA) placed over one or more unbound base courses, all of which rest upon a
subgrade.

These flexible pavements are characterized by their minimal or low flexural strength,
rendering them structurally flexible when enduring the pressures of traffic loads. The
deformation caused by these loads primarily affects the lower layers of the pavement
structure, with the consequences extending to the topmost layer.
Consequently, if the lower pavement layers or the underlying soil subgrade exhibit
irregularities, the flexible pavement surface also mirrors these undulations.

Flexible pavement is composed of four essential components:

1. Subgrade (Prepared Road Bed).
2. Subbase Course.
3. Base Course.
4. Surface Course.

1. Sub-Grade: The compacted earth foundation beneath the sub-base course offers
fundamental support to the entire pavement structure.

2. Sub-Base Course: Providing additional support in the even distribution of stresses, the
sub-base course lies below the base course.

3. Base Course: Positioned directly beneath the surfacing, the base course functions as a
medium to uniformly distribute the stresses applied to the pavement.
4. Surface Course: This uppermost layer is expected to be smooth, resilient to abrasion,
resistant to dust and structurally sturdy. It serves as the road's visible and wear-resistant
surface.

In a flexible pavement system, the key to its structural integrity lies in how it manages
the vertical or compressive stresses imposed by the constant movement of vehicles. These
stresses are effectively transmitted to the lower layers of the pavement through a process
known as grain transfer. This transfer of force occurs at the microscopic points of contact
within the granular structure of the pavement layers.

To optimize this load distribution process, it is crucial to have a well-compacted

granular structure. This structure is typically composed of graded aggregates that are capable
of interlocking with one another and it may or may not include binder materials like bitumen.
The strength and effectiveness of this granular structure play a pivotal role in defining the
pavement's ability to handle the stresses induced by passing vehicles.

This unique pressure distribution characteristic has led to the development of the layer
system concept for flexible pavements. According to this concept, the pavement is
constructed in multiple layers, each serving a distinct purpose. The topmost layer is designed
to be the strongest, as it must withstand the highest compressive stresses and endure the wear
and tear caused by traffic. In contrast, the lower layers are subjected to significantly lower
stress Levels and do not experience direct wear from traffic. Consequently, these lower layers
can e constructed using materials that are more cost-effective without compromising the
overall performance of the pavement.

When a vehicle applies a load on the pavement, the vertical compressive pressure is
most intense directly under the wheel load. However, this pressure quickly spreads out over a
larger area as it travels deeper into the pavement structure, creating a pressure distribution
resembling that of a truncated cone. As a result, the pressures experienced by the lower layers
of the pavement are considerably lower than those directly under the wheel load.

Advantages:
1. The abrasion of stones is reduced due to the slurry layer being firmly bonded by bitumen.
2. Bituminous road is free from cracks. Therefore, it offers a smooth riding.
3. It is resistant to weathering agencies like wind, heat and rain. It resists action due to soil
moisture. Hence, it is dust-free and non-slippery.
4. It is fairly impervious.
5. There is no glare due to light reflection. Hence, accidents are minimized.

Dis Advantages:
1. It requires strong foundation.
2. It develops corrugations or pot-holes.
3. Under extreme heat, it is liable to become soft and will creep under traffic. It is not suitable
for heavy iron-tyred traffic which cuts the surface.

2. Rigid Pavement (Cement Concrete Road):

Road constructed of Cement Concrete with or without steel reinforcement is called Cement
Concrete Road or simply, Concrete Road. It is a rigid pavement. It can be constructed with or
without the sub-base course. The materials required are: Cement, Stone Aggregate, Sand and
Water.
Cement Concrete Road can be laid directly on a well prepared Sub-grade. Only in the
case of some compressible soils, Granular Sub-base is required.

Rigid pavements are distinguished by their significant flexural strength or flexural

rigidity and they operate differently from flexible pavement layers. These pavements are
typically constructed using Portland cement concrete, which can be either plain, reinforced,
or pre stressed. Plain cement concrete slabs in rigid pavements are designed to withstand
approximately 40 kg/sq. cm. of flexural stress.

Unlike flexible pavements, rigid pavements exhibit slab action, effectively spreading
the wheel load stresses over a broader area beneath. The key structural difference between
rigid and flexible pavements lies in the critical stress condition. In rigid pavements, the
maximum flexural stress occurs within the slab due to wheel loads and temperature
fluctuations, whereas in flexible pavements, the focus is on the distribution of compressive
stresses.

Surface course: This is the top layer, which consists of the PCC slab, reinforced or
continuously reinforced slabs.

Base course: This is the layer directly below the PCC layer and generally consists of
aggregate or stabilized sub-grade.
Sub-base course: This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A sub-base is not always
needed and therefore may often be omitted.

Advantages
1. Concrete road is smooth, rigid and dustless.
2. It can withstand any volume and intensity of traffic. Wear and tear caused is minimum.
3. It can be laid on any sub-grade.
4. It does not develop corrugations.
5. It can be easily reinforced when required.
6. It has better weather-resisting qualities.
7. It has pleasing appearance with long life and less maintenance

Dis Advantages
1. Cost of construction is very high.
2. Construction of concrete road requires skilled labour and skilled supervision.
3. More number of joints is to be provided, which prove to be weak spots.
4. 28 days curing is required after completion, before they can be opened for traffic.
5. It causes noise under iron-wheeled traffic.
6. It glares due to light reflection and it may lead to accident.
7. Concrete road surface after sometime becomes very smooth and slippery.
8. The cutting and filling of concrete road for works like pipe laying is very difficult.
 Basics of Harbour, Tunnel, Airport, and Railway Engineering

Harbour Engineering

Water transportation: The water transportation can further be subdivided into two
categories:

 Inland transportation and

 Ocean transportation.

 Inland Water transportation is either in the form of river transportation or canal

transportation.
 Ocean Water transportation is adopted for trade and commerce.

 It is estimated that about 75 per cent of international trade is carried out by shipping.

 The development of navy force is intended for national defense.

 Ocean water transportation has a limitation and it possesses high flexibility.

Harbour: A harbour can be defined as a sheltered area of the sea in which vessels could be
launched, built or taken for repair; or could seek refuge in time of storm; or provide for
loading and unloading of cargo and passengers.

Harbours are broadly classified as:

1. Natural harbours
2. Semi-natural harbours
3. Artificial harbours.

1. Natural harbours:

 Natural formations affording safe discharge facilities for ships on sea coasts, in the
form of creeks and basins, are called natural harbours.
 With the rapid development of navies engaged either in commerce or war, improved
accommodation and facilities for repairs, storage of cargo and connected amenities
had to be provided in natural harbours.
 The size and draft of present day vessels have necessitated the works improvement for
natural harbours.
 The factors such as local geographical features, growth of population, development of
the area, etc. have made the natural harbours big and attractive.
 Bombay and Kandla are, examples of natural harbours
2. Semi-natural harbours:

 This type of harbour is protected on sides by headlands protection and it requires

man-made protection only at the entrance.
 Vishakhapatnam is a semi-natural harbour.

3. Artificial harbours:

 Where such natural facilities are not available, countries having a seaboard had to
create or construct such shelters making use of engineering skill and methods, and
such harbours are called artificial or man-made harbours.
 Madras is an artificial harbour.
 Thus, a naval vessel could obtain shelter during bad weather within a tract or area of
water close to the shore, providing a good hold for anchoring, protected by natural or
artificial harbour walls against the fury of storms.

From their utility and situation, harbours are further classified into three major types:

➤ Harbours of refuge including naval bases

➤ Commercial harbours, connected with ports
➤ Fishery harbours.

It is necessary to study the requirements of these types of harbours and provide for such
requirements.

Requirements of harbour of refuge:

 Ready accessibility
 Safe and commodious anchorage
 Facilities for obtaining supplies and repairs

Requirements of commercial harbour:

 Spacious accommodation for the mercantile marine.
 Ample quay space and facilities for transporting; loading and unloading cargo.
 Storage sheds for cargo.
 Good and quick repair facilities to avoid delay.

Accessibility and size of harbours

 Accessibility depends on the location of the harbours.
 The harbour entrance should be designed and located for quick easy negotiation by
ships, overtaken by storms.
 At the same time, it should be narrow enough not to expose the harbour to the effects
of the stormy sea.
 The entrance is generally placed of the sea, with a passage to the interior of the
harbour so arranged as to minimize the effect of rough seas.

Thus; the size is determined by:

 Accommodation required.
 Convenience for maneuvering and navigation.
 Adaptability to natural features.
Site selection for a harbour:
The guiding factors which play a great role in choice of site for a harbour are as follows

 Availability of cheap land and construction materials

 Transport and communication facilities
 Natural protection from winds and waves
 Industrial development of the locality
 Sea-bed subsoil and foundation conditions
 Traffic potentiality of harbour
 Availability of electrical energy and fresh water
 Favorable marine conditions
 Defence and strategic aspects

Shape of the harbour:

The following principles should be kept in mind:

 In order to protect the harbour from the sea waves, one of the pier heads should
project a little beyond the other.
 Inside the pier heads, the width should widen very rapidly.
 The general shape of the harbours should be obtained by a series of straight lengths
and no re-entrant angle should be allowed.

Harbour planning:
The important facts to be studied and scrutinized can be enumerated as follows:

 It is necessary to carry out a thorough survey of the neighborhood including the

foreshore and the depths of water in the vicinity.

 The borings on land should also be made so as to know the probable subsurface
conditions on land. It will be helpful in locating the harbour works correctly.

 The nature of the harbour, whether sheltered or not, should be studied. The existence
of sea insect undermine the foundations should be noted.

 The problem of silting or erosion of coastline should be carefully studied.

 The natural metrological phenomena should be studied at site especially with respect
to frequency of storms, rainfall, range of tides, maximum and, minimum temperature
and of winds, humidity, direction and velocity of currents, etc.

Tunnel Engineering
Tunnels are underground passages used for transportation. They could be used for carrying
freights and passengers, water, sewage, etc. It is understood that the first tunnel was
constructed by Egyptians and Babylonians about 4000 years ago. The length, width, and
height of this tunnel were 910 m, 360 cm, and 450 cm respectively.
 Tunnel engineering deals with the design and construction of underground or
underwater passages that enable transportation through obstacles such as mountains, rivers,
and bodies of water. Tunnel engineers use various construction methods to create these
passageways, considering factors like geology, ventilation, and safety systems. Tunnels are
essential for road and rail networks, as they provide efficient and often faster routes through
challenging terrains.

Reasons to build a Tunnel

 When the lane encounters an obstacle such as a mountain to avoid bypassing the
obstacle.
 Built sometimes to overcome a water obstacle as a replacement for building a bridge
above it.
 Built to connect between military posts so the movement between them will not be
visible for the enemy.
 Sometimes built for infrastructure like electricity cables, water, communication and
sewerage to avoid damage and disruption above ground.

Advantages of Tunnelling
 Tunnels are more economical than open cuts beyond certain depths.
 Tunnels avoid disturbing or interfering with surface life and traffic during
construction.
 Tunnels provide utility Services like water, sewer and gas
 Tunnels prove to be cheaper than bridges or open cuts if tunnels are provided with
easy gradients, the cost of hauling is decreased
 In case of aerial warfare and bombing of cities, the tunnels would grant better
protection as compared to bridges

Disadvantages
 High initial cost.
 Slow progress in construction.
 Need for specialised equipment and skilled supervision.
 Need for illumination both during and after construction.

Terminology: The terminology involved in tunneling is shown in fig;

Crown: The uppermost part of the tunnel Invert: The bottom(floor) of the tunnel
Wall: Side of the tunnel
Heading: The excavated face of the tunnel
Drift: A horizontal excavation
Portal: Tunnel entrance.
Springline: The line at which the tunnel walls break from the sloping outward to sloping
inward towards the crown.

Shape & Size of Tunnels

The size of the tunnel is determined by its utility. For irrigation purpose, the tunnel is
generally designed to run full & if lining is of concrete, the velocity is taken as 366 cm/sec. In
case of road tunnels, it will depend no. of traffic lanes & in case of railway tunnels, it will
depend on the no. of lines & type of gauge.

The shape of tunnel is determined by the material of which the cross-section is built &
material through which the tunnel is bored.

Surveying of Tunnel
Investigations for tunnel construction during planning are:

 Soil exploration - engineering properties of the soils met with.

 Geological conditions of the strata-defects in rocks and petrology of the rocks.
 Atmospheric conditions - Temperature, pressure and humidity.
 Hydrological particulars at the site.
Marking the centre line of a tunnel underground comprises the following:
 Surface Survey.
 Surface alignment.
 Transfer of surface survey to underground.
  Leveling underground in the tunnel.

Airport Engineering

Airport Engineering encompasses the planning, design, and construction of terminals,

runways, and navigation aids to provide for passenger and freight service.

Airport engineers design and construct airports. They must account for the impacts and
demands of aircraft in their design of airport facilities.

Role of Air transportation

 Improves accessibility to otherwise inaccessible areas
 Provides continuous connectivity over land and water (no change of equipment)
 Saves productive time, spent on journey
 Increase the demand of specialized technical skill workforce
 Adds to the foreign reserve through tourism
 Speed: Modern jet can travel at 1000 km/h
 Promotion of trade and commerce
 Military use
 Relief and rescue operations
 Aerial photography
 Agricultural spraying
 Safety: safe mode of transport.

Requirements to Airport Planning

 Helps tourism, generates foreign reserves.
 Requires heavy funds during provision and maintenance.
 Highly dependent on weather conditions compared to other modes.
 Requires highly sophisticated machinery.

Airport Authority of India (AAI)

Controls overall air navigation in India

Functions of AAI
 Control and management of the Indian airspace extending beyond the territory limits.
 Design, development and operation of domestic and international airports.
 Construction and management of facilities.
 Development of cargo ports and facilities.
 Provision of passenger facilities and information systems.
 Expansion and strengthening of operating area.
  Provision of communication and navigational aids (ex: Radar systems)

Components of Airport Engineering

1. Aerodrome
2. Aircraft
3. Runway
4. Runway Visual Range (RVR)
5. Apron
6. Taxiway
7. Stop way
8. Threshold
9. Touchdown Zone
10. Heliport
11. Hangers
Disadvantages of air transport
 Heavy funds are required, not only initially but also during operation.
 Operations are highly dependent up on weather conditions.
 It needs highly sophisticated machinery.
 Adds to the outward flow of foreign reserve.
 Noise pollution.
 Safety provisions are not adequate.
 Specific demarcation of flight paths and territories is essential.
 High energy consumption.

Railway Engineering
Railways form the most important mode of transport in India. Railways have brought about
many political, social and economic changes in the life of Indian people. The network of
Indian Railways is divided into nine zonal divisions for administrative purposes.

Advantages of Railways
Railways have the following advantages over other modes of transportation.

 Migration of people on a mass scale

 Mobilising troops during war periods
 Large scale movement of commodities
 Encourages commercial unity
 Stabilisation of the prices of commodities
 Ensures safe and comfortable journey
 Easy access to major places of tourist attraction
 Development of a nation
 RAILWAY TRACK (PERMANENT WAY)

The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers and resting on ballast and formation is called
the railway track or permanent way. Sometimes temporary tracks are also laid for
conveyance of earth and materials for construction work. The name permanent way is
given to distinguish the final layout from these temporary tracks.

Requirements of a Permanent Way

In order to achieve higher speed and better ride qualities with less maintenance in future,
the following requirements of a permanent way are to be met:
1. Gauge should be correct and uniform.
2. Rails should be in proper level.
3. Alignment should be correct, i.e. it should be free from kinks or irregularities.
4. Gradient should be uniform and any change of gradient should be followed by a smooth
vertical curve.
5. Track should be resilient, i.e., there must be a certain amount of elasticity in the track.
6. Radii and super elevation on curves should be properly designed and maintained.
7. Joints, the weakest points in the railway track should be properly designed and maintained.
8. Drainage system should be perfect.

Components of a Railway Track

1. Rails: The rails on the track can be considered as beams carrying loads. They are made of
high carbon eel to withstand wear and tear.

Functions of Rails
a) To provide a hard, smooth and unchanging surface for the passage of heavy moving loads
with minimum friction between the steel rails and steel wheels.
b) To bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads, lateral and braking forces as
well as thermal stresses.
c) To transmit the load to sleepers and consequently reduce pressure on ballast and formation.

Gauge: Rail gauge is the distance from the inside of one rail on a railroad track to the inside
of the other.

2. Sleepers: Sleepers are laid transverse to the rails. Rails are supported and fixed on them.
They are laid to transfer the load from rails to the ballast and subgrade as shown in Fig. 14.
Sleepers are made of wood, Cast Iron, Prestressed Concrete.

Functions of Sleepers
a) To hold the rails to a proper gauge.
b) To hold the rails at proper level.
c) To interpose an elastic medium in between the ballast and rails
d) To distribute the load from the rails to the underlying ballast.

3. Ballast: Ballast is the granular material usually comprising broken stone or brick, shingle
or kankar, gravel or sand placed and packed below and around the sleepers.

Functions of ballast
a) It is used to transmit load from sleepers to formation and allow drainage of the track.
b) It provides a suitable foundation for the sleepers.
c) It holds the sleepers in their correct position by preventing their displacement by lateral or
longitudinal thrusts.
d) Lateral stability of a track depends on the ballast.

Size and Quantity of Ballast

The size of stone ballast varies from 19 mm to 51 mm with a reasonable proportion of
intermediate sizes. The depth of the ballast is defined as the distance between the bottom of
sleeper and top of subgrade.

Subgrade: It is the naturally occurring soil, prepared to hold the ballast, sleepers and rails for
constructing the railway track. This prepared surface is also called formation. Formation
could be in embankment level or cutting, depending upon the ground condition.

Embankment: It is a raised bank of earth or other materials constructed above the natural
ground. It is constructed when railways have to be carried in lower grounds or valleys.

Cutting: It is raised ground or hill, cut or excavated, for constructing the railway line at the
required level below ground level.

Formation: The prepared surface which is ready to receive ballast is called formation. The
stability of the track depends upon the quality of the formation under it.
The formation for a track is obtained by either constructing an embankment or cutting.

Formation performs the following functions:

1. It bears the load transmitted to it through the ballast in a uniform manner.
2. It prevents the ballast from punctuating into it.
3. It drains off the water entering from its top.
4. It provides a smooth regular and graded surface on which the ballast and the track may be
safely rested.
5. It does not change its volume due to variation in moisture. Otherwise, it would induce
stresses on the track and disrupt the track.
 Water Resources and Environmental Engineering

Water is an important need for all living beings. Study of mechanics of water and its
flow characteristics is another important field in civil engineering and it is known as
hydraulics. Requirement of water in cities for domestic purpose and for industries is
continuously increasing. Water resource engineering means measurement, utilization and
development of water resources for agriculture, municipal and power generation purpose.
Rural areas need water for agricultural field also. Hence, civil engineers have to look for new
water resources and for storing them. It involves the design of new systems and equipment
that help manage human water resources.

Water resource engineering deals with planning, designing and developing water
resources by constructing several hydraulic structures like dams, barrages, hydropower
stations, canal and pipe networks, etc. Water stored in reservoirs by building bunds and dams
should be brought to agricultural fields through canals and distributories. Study connected
with this aspect is known as irrigation engineering. It also includes watershed planning, water
harvesting techniques, soil conservation and soil reclamation. Hydrology is also a part of
water resource engineering. It includes study of sources of water, measurement of rainfall,
study of rainfall, runoff, and flood control.

When water is required for drinking purpose, it should be purified and made potable.
Purification of water and the technology involved in taking it to the houses is known as water
supply engineering. Waste water and solid waste should be treated and disposed so that they
do not create health hazard. This branch of civil engineering is known as sanitary
engineering.

The five essential requirements for human existence are air, water, food, heat and
light. Contamination of these elements may cause serious health hazard not only to man but
also to animal and plant life. The use of water by man, plants and animals is universal.
Without it, there can be no life. Every living thing requires water.

Man and animals not only consume water, but they also consume vegetation for their
food. Vegetation, in turn, cannot grow without water. Growth of vegetation also depends
upon bacterial action, while bacteria need water in order to thrive. The bacterial action can
convert vegetable matter into productive soil. New plants, which grow in this soil, grow by
sucking nutrients through their roots in the form of solution in water. Thus, an ecological
chain is maintained. Water maintains an ecological balance, i.e., balance in the relationship
between living things and environment in which they live.

The use of water is increasing rapidly with our growing population. Already there are
acute shortages of both surface and undergroundwaters in many parts of the country. Careless
pollution and contamination of the streams, lakes, reservoirs, wells and other underground
sources has greatly impaired the quality of available water. This pollution results because of
improper disposal of waste water – both domestic as well as industrial. Organized community
life requires twin services of water supply and sewage disposal.

Need for Protected Water Supplies

It is necessary that the water which is supplied to the public must be invariably free
from all types of impurities both suspended and/ or dissolved in it, any kind of bacteria and
any other contamination which may cause serious harm to the health of the public. It is
therefore imperative to plan and build such a water supply scheme which would provide
potable water free from any kind of contamination.

In general, the water obtained from wells or springs, i.e., groundwater, is free from
impurities and it may be supplied to public without adopting any method of purification. This
is so because, in the course of its movement through the porous sub-strata, the water is
completely relieved of its suspended impurities. However, before supplying to the public this
water may have to be disinfected by chlorination (i.e., by adding chlorine or chlorine
compound to water) or any other methods, in order to remove any harmful bacteria
responsible for causing diseases.
The Water obtained from any of the surface source needs to be purified before it can
be supplied to the public. The most commonly adopted method of purification of water is
filtration. In the process of filtration, water is allowed to pass through sand beds and gravel
whereby minute suspended and dissolved particles are removed. It has been found that the
process of filtration is greatly accelerated if water is pre-treated with certain substances,
which when added to water forms large masses of precipitates or flocs out of the impurities
present which in the process settle down and are ultimately removed.

The water having undergone through the process of filtration is still found to contain
some harmful disease producing bacteria which are minutely-sized living organisms not
visible to naked eye. As such in order to ensure protected supplies of water free from any
health hazard, it is necessary to kill these bacteria by disinfecting water. The most commonly
adopted method of disinfecting is chlorination which is a process of adding chlorine or
chlorine compound to water.

Objectives of Public Water Supply System

The main objectives of any public water supply system are as follows:
• To supply safe and wholesome water to the consumers
• To supply water in adequate quantity
• To make water available within easy reach of the consumers so as to encourage the general
Cleanliness.

Planning of Water Supply Scheme for A Town or City

In planning a water supply scheme for a town or city the following points need to be
considered:
• Sources of water
• Quality of water
• Population
• Rate of consumption
• Topography of area
• Financial aspects
• Trends of future development

Sources of Water: The various sources of water available on the earth can be classified into
the following two categories:
1. Surface sources of water
2. Sub-surface or underground sources of water

1. Surface sources of water: These are those sources of water which are available at the
ground surface. The various sources of water included in this category are as follows:
(a) Lakes and Ponds
(b) Streams or rivers
(c) Storage reservoirs
(d) Oceans

(a) Lakes and Ponds:

Lakes: A large natural depression or hollow formed in the earth’s surface, which gets filled
with water is called a lake. The surface runoff from the catchment area contributing to a lake
enters the lake through small natural streams. The groundwater may also enter a lake through
springs.
The quantity of water available from a lake depends upon its size, catchment area,
annual rainfall and geological formations. The quality of water available from a lake mainly
depends upon the characteristics of its catchment. Thus water in a lake would be relatively
pure and of good quality if it draws water from uninhabited upland hilly areas free from
soluble salts. On the other hand the water in a lake would be contaminated if it draws from
low land areas containing large quantities of soluble salts and other impurities. Moreover, a
small lake containing still water may have plenty of algae, weed and other vegetable growth
imparting bad smell, taste and colour to the water.
Thus, if a sufficient quantity of good quality water is available from a lake then it will be a
very useful source of water supply from which water may be supplied without any treatment
or with some preliminary treatment. However, if the water in the lake is of relatively poor
quality then it should be properly analysed and treated before supplying to the public.

Ponds: A pond is a man-made body of standing water smaller than a lake. The ponds are
formed by digging of ground and they are filled up with water in rainy season. The quantity
of water in a pond is generally very small and often it contains many impurities. As such
pond water is generally not suitable for drinking purposes and it can be used only for bathing,
washing of clothes or for animals.

(b) Streams or Rivers: A stream or river is a natural channel which carries surface runoff
received by it from its catchment or drainage basin. It also carries the groundwater flow
added to it and the runoff resulting from the melted snow. Rivers are the most important
sources of water supply. It is a well-known fact that several big and important cities of the
world are situated on the banks of important rivers. Some of the examples in our country are
the cities such as Delhi, Calcutta, Ahmedabad, etc. This is due to the availability of large
quantity of the water from rivers for water supply throughout the year.
The rivers may be either perennial or non-perennial. Perennial rivers are those in
which water is available throughout the year. Such rivers are fed by rains during the rainy
season and by melting of snow during the summer season. On the other hand, non-perennial
rivers are those in which water is not available throughout the year.
Generally, from perennial rivers, water may be utilized directly for public supplies
without any arrangement for storage of water. However, if during dry weather periods, the
flow in the river is considerably reduced, either the arrangement for raising the water level in
the river or the arrangement for storage of water will have to be made to ensure the supply of
water in the required quantity. This may be achieved either by constructing a weir or barrage,
or by constructing a dam and creating a storage reservoir.

(c) Storage reservoirs: The flow rate of a river or natural stream may vary considerably
during different periods of the year. It may carry little or no water during dry weather periods
and may carry huge amount of water during rainy season. Thus, if water is drawn directly
from a river then during extremely low flows it may not be possible to meet the demands of
the consumers, while during high flows there may be operational problems.
As such it is essential to create a storage reservoir or an artificial lake by constructing
a dam across the river, which can store excess water that flows in the river during the periods
of high flows, for use during the periods of low flows or draughts.
The quality of water in a storage reservoir mainly depends on the quality of the water
flowing in the river on which the reservoir is created. As such the water from a storage
reservoir also needs to be properly analysed and treated before supplying to the public.
The storage reservoirs are the main sources of water supply for big cities. However,
the storage reservoirs are created not only for water supply but also for other purposes such as
irrigation, hydropower generation, navigation, flood control, etc. A storage reservoir for
supplying water for more than one purpose is termed as multipurpose reservoir.

(d) Oceans: Oceans carry huge amount of water which is estimated to be about 94 to 97
percent of the total quantity of water available on our planet Earth. However, the ocean water
being highly saline cannot be used for water supply unless the excessive salt content of the
water is removed. The process of removing salt from water is known as desalination and the
salt free water so obtained is known as fresh water. As indicated, several methods of
desalination have been developed later for the conversion of salt into fresh water.
However, because of the tremendous cost involved, the procurement of fresh water
for water supply by desalination of ocean water has not become common.

2. Sub-Surface or Underground sources of water: The underground (or sub surface)

sources of water are of the following four forms.
(a) Infiltration galleries
(b) Infiltration wells
(c) Springs
(d) Wells

From each of the first three forms, relatively small quantity of groundwater is
obtained and hence, these may be considered as the minor forms of underground sources of
water. On the other hand, most of the groundwater is extracted from the last form viz., wells,
and hence it is a major form of underground source of water.

(a) Infiltration galleries: An infiltration gallery is horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel

usually rectangular in cross-section having permeable boundaries so that groundwater can
infiltrate into the same, and hence it is also sometimes known as horizontal well.
It is generally provided in highly permeable aquifers with high water table so that
adequate head is available for gravity flow of groundwater into the gallery. It is frequently
located near a perennial recharge source and hence, it is usually placed along the bank or
under the bed of river. The usual depth at which the gallery is placed ranges from 3 to 10 m
below the ground surface.

Fig: Infiltration galleries

(b) Infiltration wells: Infiltration wells are the shallow wells constructed in series along the
banks of river to collect the water seeping through the banks of the river. The wells are closed
at top and open at bottom. These wells are constructed of brick masonry with open joints. For
the purpose of inspection, manhole is provided in the top cover of the well. The water
infiltrates through the bottom of these wells and as it has to pass through sand bed it gets
purified to some extent.
The various infiltration wells are connected by porous pipes to a collecting sump well
known as jack well. The water collected in the infiltration wells flows by gravity into the jack
well. The water from the jack well is pumped to treatment plant and supplied to the
consumers.

(c) Springs: A spring is natural outflow of groundwater which appears at the ground surface
as a current or stream of flowing water. Springs may be classified into
(i) Those resulting from gravitational forces, and
(ii) Those resulting from non-gravitational forces.

(i) Gravity springs results from water flowing under hydrostatic pressure. The following are
the different types of gravity springs.
(a) Depression springs: These springs are formed due to overflowing of the water
table, where the ground intersects the water table.
(b) Contact springs of surface springs: These springs are created by a permeable
water bearing formation overlying a less permeable or impermeable formation that intersects
the ground surface.
(ii) Non-gravity springs include volcanic springs and fissure springs. The volcanic springs
are associated with volcanic rocks and the fissure springs result from fractures extending to
great depths in the earth’s crust these are usually thermal springs.
In general springs are capable of supplying small quantity of water and hence these
may serve as sources of water supply only for small towns, especially near hills or bases of
hills. Further the hot springs cannot be used to supply water for domestic purposes. However,
the water obtained from some of the hot springs is found to be useful for the cure of certain
skin diseases.

(d) Wells: A water well is a hole or shaft, usually vertical, excavated in the groundwater to
the surface. Water wells may be classified as (i) Open wells or dug wells (ii) Tube wells

(i) Open wells or Dug wells: Open wells are the wells which have comparatively large
diameters but low yields (or discharge) and are not very deep.
 The diameters of the open wells usually vary from 1 m to 10 m. The yield of such
wells in most of the cases is about 20 m 3 /hour or less. However, a properly
constructed open well penetrating a permeable aquifer can yield 100 to 300 m3 /hour.
The depths of open wells may generally range from 2 m to 20 m.
 Since these wells are usually constructed by digging, these are also known as dug
wells. The walls of an open well may be built of brick or stone masonry or precast
concrete rings. The thickness generally varies from 0.5 m to 0.75 m depending on the
depth of the well.
Open wells may be further classified as:
(a) Shallow open wells
(b) Deep open wells
 Shallow open wells are those which rest in the top water bearing strata and draw their
supplies from the surrounding material.
  On the other hand, deep open wells are those which rest on impervious strata and
draw their supplies from the previous formation lying below the impervious strata
through bore holes made in the impervious strata.
(ii) Tube wells: A tube well is along pipe sunk into the ground intercepting one or more
water bearing strata. As compared to open wells, the diameters of tube wells are much less
and usually range from 80 mm to 600 mm. The tube wells can also be further classified as:
(a) Shallow tube wells
(b) Deep tube wells
 Shallow tube wells have their depths limited to about 30 m and may have a
maximum yield of about 20 m3 /hour.
 On the other hand, deep tube wells may have maximum depth of about 600 m yield
more than 800 m3 /hour.

Quality of Water: The water required for public water supply schemes should be potable
or wholesome water that is fir for drinking purposes. The potable water or wholesome
water with relation to various uses of water are discussed below.

1. Domestic use: The water required for domestic consumption should possess a high
degree of purity and it should be free from suspended impurities, bacteria etc. A tolerance
of small degree of hardness developed due to certain dissolved salts is however
permissible. Thus the drinking water and water used in the food industry and some other
industries must meet the highest standard of purity.
Following are the requirements of potable or wholesome water for domestic use.
1. It should be clear, odourless and colourless.
2. It should be free from harmful and disease producing bacteria.
3. It should be free from all objectionable substances.
4. It should be fresh and cool.
5. It should be palatable that is aesthetically attractive.
6. It should be tasty.
7. It should not cause corrosion to the pipes and other fittings.

2. Civic use: For this purpose, a large quantity of water is required to fulfil various civic
purposes such as washing of roads, cleaning of sewers etc. The nature of use of water is
such that any degree of impurity can be tolerated. Hence, the water containing large
amount of suspended and dissolved impurities may be permitted for this purpose. But the
water considerably mixed up with sewage and other refuse cannot be tolerated for this
purpose.

3. Trade or business use: The water required for a particular trade will depend upon
nature of that trade. For instance, the water required for laundry should not be hard as it
well result in more consumption of soap. Similarly the water required for bathing cattles
and washing floors in case of stables may contain any type of impurities.
 4. Commercial or industrial use: The water required for this purpose should be
chemically pure. The various chemical processes involved in the production make it
essential to use chemically pure water. A slight amount of impurity may considerably
affect the final results of the product.

Analysis of water: In order to ascertain the quality of water, it is subjected to the various
tests. Theses test can be divided into the following three categories.
1. Physical test
2. Chemical test

1. Physical tests: Under this category, the tests are carried out to examine water for the
following: (a) Colour
(b) Taste and odour
(c) Temperature
(d) Turbidity
Other physical characteristics for which tests are sometimes carried out are density,
electrical conductivity, radioactivity and viscosity.

(a) Colour: The pure water is colourless and following are the sources which contribute
colour to the water.
 Algae metabolism
 End products of degraded organic matter.
 Discharge of untreated and partially treated waste water from various industries like
food processing, textile industry tanneries, paper production etc.
 Divalent species containing iron and manganese etc.

(b) Taste and odour: The water possess taste and odour due to various causes and they make
the water unpleasant for drinking. The taste and odour of water may also be tested by
threshold number. For public water supply, the threshold number not more than 3.

(c) Temperature: The test for temperature of water has no practical meaning in the sense
that it is not possible to give any treatment to control the temperature in any water supply
project. The measurement of temperature of water is done with the help of ordinary
thermometers. The desirable temperature of potable water is 10°C while temperature of 25°C
is considered to be objectionable.

(d) Turbidity: The colloidal matter present in water interfers with passage of light and thus
imparts turbidity to the water. The turbidity is expressed in terms of parts of suspended matter
per million parts of water or shortly written as p.p.m. The permissible turbidity for drinking
water is 5 to 10 p.p.m.

2. Chemical Tests: Under this category, the tests are carried out to examine water for the
following:
(a) Chlorides
(b) Dissolved gases
(c) Hardness
(d) Hydrogen-ion Concentration (pH Value)
(e) Alkalinity
(f) Acidity

(a) Chlorides: The chloride contents, especially of sodium chloride or salt, are worked out
for a sample of water. The measurement of chloride contents is carried out by the titration
method. For potable water, the highest desirable level of chloride content is 250 mg/litre and
its maximum permissible level is 600 mg/litre.

(b) Dissolved gas: The water contains various gases from its contact with the atmosphere and
ground surfaces. The usual gases are nitrogen, methane, hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide
and oxygen. The contents of these dissolved gases in a sample of water are suitably worked
out. The quantity of oxygen for potable water should be 5 to 10 ppm.

(c) Hardness: The term hardness is defined as the ability of the water to cause precipitation
of insoluble calcium and magnesium slats of higher fatty acids from soap. The hardness is
usually measured by the soap solution test. For potable water, the hardness should preferably
be more than 5 degrees but less than 8 degrees or so.

(d) Hydrogen–ion Concentration (pH Value): The acidity or alkalinity of water is

measured in terms of pH value or H-ion concentration. Two methods are employed to
measure the pH value of water. It is desirable to maintain pH value of water very close to 7.

(e) Alkalinity: The term alkalinity with reference to the water and waste water is defined as
the capacity of substances contained in the water to take up hydronium to reach a defined pH
value 4.3 to 14.

(f) Acidity: The term acidity with reference to the water and waste water is defined as the
capacity of substances contained in the water to take up hydroxyl ions to reach a defined pH
value 0 to 8.2.

Rainwater Harvesting

In the present scenario, management and distribution of water has become centralized.
Living creatures of the universe are made of five basic elements, viz., Earth, Water, Fire, Air
and Sky. Obviously, water is one of the main resource, without which, it is not possible for us
to sustain our lives. A country’s level of water use is one of the key measure of its level of
economic development. Developing countries like India uses 90 percent of its water for
agricultural purpose, just 7 percent for industry and hardly 3 percent for domestic use.
Despite having a great regard for water, we seem to have failed to address this sector
seriously. Human being could not save and conserve water and it sources, probably because
of its availability in abundance. But this irresponsible attitude resulted in deterioration of
water bodies with respect to quantity and quality both. Now, situation has arrived when even
a single drop of water matters. However, “better late than never”, we have not realized the
seriousness of this issue and initiated efforts to overcome these problems. System of
collection of rainwater and conserving for future needs has traditionally been practiced in
India. The Government of Tamil Nadu passed a Government Order (GO) to implement the
Rainwater harvesting as compulsory in the state. This scheme was highly appreciated by the
Government of India in the parliament house. Now-a-days, many states are following this
scheme and ultimately they found the benefits.
The term rainwater harvesting is being frequently used these days; however, the
concept of water harvesting is not new for India. Water harvesting techniques had been
evolved and developed centuries ago. Groundwater resource gets naturally recharged through
percolation. But due to indiscriminate development and rapid urbanization, exposed surface
for soil has been reduced drastically with resultant reduction in percolation of rainwater,
thereby depleting groundwater resource. Rainwater harvesting is the process of augmenting
the natural filtration of rainwater into the underground formation by some artificial methods.
“Conscious collection and storage of rainwater to cater to the demands of water, for drinking,
domestic purpose and irrigation is termed as Rainwater Harvesting.”

Objectives of Rainwater Harvesting:

• To provide water for domestic purposes
• To increase water resource
• To reduce water scarcity
• To arrest groundwater decline and augment groundwater table
• To beneficiate water quality in aquifers
• To conserve surface water runoff during monsoon
• To reduce soil erosion and run-off losses
• To inculcate a culture of water conservation

Methods of Rainwater Harvesting Rainwater can be harvested by any one of the following
methods after analyzing the soil characteristics, topography, rainfall pattern and the climatic
conditions.
• By storing in vessels, tanks and reservoirs above or below the ground
• By constructing pits, lagoons, dug wells or check dams, etc.
• By recharging the groundwater.

Broadly, there are two ways of harvesting Rainwater:

(i) Surface runoff harvesting
(ii) Rooftop rainwater harvesting

(i) Surface runoff harvesting: In urban areas, rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This
runoff could be caught and used for recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.
(ii) Rooftop rainwater harvesting (RTRWH): It is a system of catching rainwater where it
falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the catchments and the rainwater is collected
from the roof of the house/building. It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to artificial
recharge system. This method is less expensive and very effective and if implemented
properly, helps in augmenting the groundwater level of the area.

III. Components of the Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting System: The system mainly
constitutes of the following sub components:
(i) Catchment: The surface that receives rainfall directly is the catchment of rainwater
harvesting system. It may be terrace, courtyard, or paved or unpaved open ground. The
terrace may be flat RCC/stone roof or sloping roof. Therefore, the catchment is the area,
which actually contributes rainwater to the harvesting system.
(ii) Transportation: Rainwater from rooftop should be carried through down take water
pipes or drains to storage/harvesting system. Water pipes should be UV resistant (ISI
HDPE/PVC - High-density polyethylene, Polyvinyl chloride - pipes) of required capacity.
(iii) First Flush: First flush is a device used to flush off the water received in first shower.
The first shower of rains needs to be flushed-off to avoid contaminating storable/
rechargeable water by the probable contaminants of the atmosphere and the catchment roof. It
will also help in cleaning of silt and other material deposited on roof during dry seasons.
Provisions of first rain separator should be made at outlet of each drain pipe.
(iv) Filter: There is always some doubt regarding roof top rainwater harvesting, since doubts
are raised that rainwater may contaminate groundwater. There is remote possibility of this
fear coming true if proper filter mechanism is not adopted. Secondly, all care must be taken
to see that underground sewer drains are not punctured and no leakage is taking place in close
vicinity. Filters are used for treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity, colour and
microorganisms. After first flushing of rainfall, water should pass through filters. There are
different types of filters in practice, but basic function is to purify water.

IV. Methods of Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting

(i) Storage of Direct Use: In this method, rainwater collected from the roof of the building is
diverted to a storage tank. The storage tank has to be designed according to the water
requirements, rainfall and catchment availability. Each drain pipe should have mesh filter at
mouth and first flush device followed by filtration system before connecting to the storage
tank. It is advisable that each tank should have excess water overflow system.
Excess water could be diverted to recharge system. Water from storage tank can be
used for secondary purposes such as washing and gardening, etc. This is the most cost
effective way of rainwater harvesting.

(ii) Recharging Groundwater Aquifers: Groundwater aquifers can be recharged by various

kinds of structures to ensure percolation of rainwater in the ground instead of draining away
from the surface. Commonly used recharging methods are:

(a) Recharging of bore wells: Rainwater collected from rooftop of the building is diverted
through drainpipes to settlement or filtration tank. After settlement, filtered water is diverted
to bore wells to recharge deep aquifers. Abandoned bore wells can also be used for recharge.

(b) Recharge pits: Recharge pits are small pits of any shape rectangular, square or circular,
constructed with brick or stone masonry wall with deep hole at regular intervals. The top of
pit can be covered with perforated covers. Bottom of pit should be filled with filter media.

(c) Recharging of dug wells: Dug well can be used as recharge structure. Rainwater from the
rooftop is diverted to dug wells after passing it through filtration bed. Cleaning and desalting
of dug well should be done regularly to enhance the recharge rate. The filtration method
suggested for bore well recharging could be used.

(d) Percolation Tanks: Percolation tanks are artificially created surface water bodies,
submerging a land area with adequate permeability to facilitate sufficient percolation to
recharge the groundwater. These can be built in big campuses where land is available and
topography is suitable.

V. Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting

• Improves the quality of groundwater
• Rises the water levels in wells for future use
• Improves soil moisture
• Low cost expenses with little maintenance
• Helps in recharging the aquifers
• Reduces water scarcity
 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Environmental engineering deals with pollution control and public health engineering.
Different types of pollutions are water, air, noise and others. Due to large scale
industrialization, population growth, rapid urbanization and several other human activities
like construction, mining, transportation, etc., environment gets polluted. Environmental
engineering deals with technologies and facilities which are engaged in reducing pollution.
It includes design, construction and maintenance of water treatment plant, waste water
treatment plant, water distribution network and sewerage system; it also deals with solid
waste management in towns and cities. Public health engineering includes water treatment,
water distribution network and solid waste management.
Environmental engineering is concerned with the application of scientific and
engineering principles for protection of human population from the effects of adverse
environmental factors; protection of environments, both local and global, from potentially
deleterious effects of natural and human activities; and improvement of environmental
quality.

Environmental engineering can also be described as a branch of applied science and

technology that addresses the issues of energy preservation, protection of assets and control
of waste from human and animal activities. Furthermore, it is concerned with finding possible
solutions in the field of public health, such as waterborne diseases, implementing laws which
promote adequate sanitation in urban, rural and recreational areas. It involves waste water
management, air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, radiation protection, industrial
hygiene, animal agriculture, environmental sustainability, health and environmental
engineering law. It also includes studies on the environmental impact of proposed
construction projects.