CHAPTER 3: Planning and Scheduling (PERT/CPM)

Introduction to Construction Planning and Scheduling

The document emphasizes that any project involves planning, scheduling, and controlling several
interrelated activities using limited resources such as men, machines, materials, money, and time.
It highlights the need for a dynamic planning and scheduling system, especially for large and
complex projects like the construction of housing, highways, and shopping complexes.

Phases of Project Management

Planning:
• This involves setting objectives, identifying activities, and determining resources needed.
• It includes estimating costs and creating a network diagram that shows the relationship
between activities.

Scheduling:
• Based on time estimates, the start and finish times for each activity are worked out using
forward and backward pass techniques.
• The critical path is identified, along with slack or float for non-critical paths.

Controlling:
• This phase involves analyzing and evaluating the actual progress compared to the plan,
reallocating resources, and making changes as necessary. Crashing and project reviews are
also conducted.

PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique)

• Developed in the late 1950s, PERT is used for projects where activity times are uncertain.
• It involves three time estimates (optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely), and probability
theory is used to evaluate the likelihood of completing a project on time.
• PERT answers questions like: "Is this a feasible schedule?" and "What are the probabilities of
making it?"

CPM (Critical Path Method)

• Developed by DuPont Company for chemical construction projects.
• CPM is used where activity times are known. It calculates the earliest and latest start/finish
times for each task to avoid project delays.

Advantages of PERT/CPM
• Graphical display of project activities.
• Estimation of project duration.
• Identification of critical activities that control project timing.
• Float determination, or how long an activity can be delayed without delaying the project.

Further advantages include:

• Helping pinpoint delays and providing methods to speed up the project.

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 • Time estimates for resource allocation, such as manpower and equipment.
• Cash flow prediction for budget planning.
• PERT/CPM in Government Infrastructure Projects
• The text mentions that the Philippine government, through P.D. 1594 and Rep. Act No. 5979,
mandates the use of PERT/CPM for projects costing over P100,000. The PERT/CPM network
helps provide accurate progress reporting and ensures proper scheduling.

Fundamental Elements of PERT/CPM

Activities
• Represent the work operations required to complete a task.

Events
• Denote the start or end of an activity.

Critical Path
• The longest sequence of activities that determines the total project duration.

Precedence Diagrams
Precedence diagrams show the relationship between activities. Four types of relationships are used:

• Finish-to-Start: An activity can’t start until a preceding one finishes.

• Start-to-Start: Two activities start simultaneously.
• Finish-to-Finish: Two activities finish at the same time.
• Start-to-Finish: An unusual sequence where an activity must start before a preceding one
can finish.

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CHAPTER 4: Construction Estimates

Introduction to Construction Estimates

A cost estimate is defined as "the approximation of the cost of a program, project, or operation." It
forms the foundation of project cost management.

Types of Cost Estimates:

1. Design Estimates
- Estimates developed during different stages of design.

2. Screening (order of magnitude)

- Based on past similar projects.

3. Preliminary (conceptual)
- Uses conceptual design elements.

4. Detailed (definitive)
- Based on detailed design with well-defined scope.

5. Engineer’s estimates
- Based on completed plans ready for bidding.

6. Bid Estimates
- Contractors submit these estimates to owners for competitive bidding, reflecting direct
construction costs (subcontractor quotations, quantity takeoffs, and construction
procedures).

7. Control Estimates
- Used to monitor costs during construction. These include the budget estimate for
financing and updated estimates based on project progress or change orders.

Cost Estimation Techniques:

1. Unit Costs for Bill of Quantities
- A unit cost is assigned to each facility component or task, then multiplied by the
corresponding quantities.
2. Historical Data
- Past cost data help estimate future projects, adjusted for inflation and local factors.

Value Engineering
"Value engineering is a systematic and organized approach to provide the necessary functions in a
project at the lowest cost." It promotes cost-saving alternatives without sacrificing function or
quality.

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Key Phases of Value Engineering:
1. Information Phase
- Understand project goals, functions, and criteria.

2. Speculation Phase
- Generate ideas for alternatives to improve value.

3. Evaluation Phase
- Analyze alternatives, focusing on cost savings and improvements.

4. Development Phase
- Propose recommendations with cost comparisons and sketches.

5. Presentation Phase
- Present recommendations for client review and feedback.

Stages of a Project Where VE Applies:

• Planning: Offers alternatives and reviews key criteria.
• Design: Applies VE to optimize the design stage.
• Construction: Value Engineering Change Proposals (VECP) can be introduced by
contractors, offering cost-saving solutions during construction.

Modern Project Management and VE:

- Value engineering is integrated into modern project management, particularly in areas like
sustainability, circular economy approaches, and life cycle costs.

Methodology:
Five-Step Job Plan:
1. Information Phase: Define functions and objectives.
2. Speculation Phase: Brainstorm alternatives without judgment.
3. Evaluation Phase: Analyze and select the best alternatives.
4. Development Phase: Formulate detailed recommendations.
5. Presentation Phase: Present findings to stakeholders.

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CHAPETR 5: Construction Methods
Key Learning Outcomes
Definition and Description of Construction Methods
• Understanding techniques that improve construction operations.
Modern Construction Methods
• Identifying and explaining the requirements for building and basic operations.

Construction Overview:
• Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure, which differs from
manufacturing in that it involves on-site activities for a known client. It contributes to 6-9% of
the GDP in developed countries.
• Large-scale construction requires collaboration across various disciplines, typically
managed by an engineer or architect with supervision by a construction manager or project
manager.

Steps in Construction:

Electrical/ Roof
Surveying Signages Excavation Beams Testing
Mechanical Deck

Clearing Mobilization Footing Slabs Plumbing Painting Demobilization

Finishing/ Power
Framing Layout Columns Wall Handover
Partitions Supply

Types of Construction:
Building Construction:
• Divided into residential and non-residential (commercial/institutional). Many jobs are small
renovations, though construction can face challenges like structural collapse or cost
overruns.

Infrastructure/Heavy Construction:
• Involves large public works like dams, bridges, and highways.

Industrial Construction:
• Refers to refineries, power generation, and manufacturing plants.

Design and Financial Considerations:

• Construction involves the translation of designs into reality through a design team that
includes architects, engineers, and consultants. Financial management is critical to ensure
the project is adequately funded and executed, with involvement from mortgage bankers,
accountants, and cost engineers.

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Procurement and Legal Aspects:
• Procurement refers to obtaining a building, typically through traditional methods like design-
bid-build, design-build, or management contracting. New forms like public-private
partnerships are growing in use.
• Construction must comply with zoning laws and building codes.

Construction Phases:
Vision/Idea Design Topped-out Completion Repair
Building
Proposed Procurement Fitting Out Renovation
Operation
Under-
Approved Commissioning Maintenance Demolition
Construction

Modern Construction Methods:

The document details various modern methods of construction (MMC), which help in reducing
construction time, promoting sustainability, and offering cost savings:

Precast Flat Panel System:

• Used for repetitive, cellular projects; offers factory quality and accuracy.
3D Volumetric Construction:
• Modules are produced off-site and assembled on-site, useful for fast construction with built-
in services.
Tunnel Form:
• A fast-track method for repetitive structures like hotels.
• Hybrid Concrete Construction: Combines precast and cast in-situ techniques for greater
speed and quality.

Construction Order:
For various projects like buildings, highways, and pools, there are specific steps and sequences to
follow:

Buildings:
• Start with site clearance, followed by foundation, framing, roofing, and internal works like
plumbing, electricals, and wall finishes.
Highways:
• Involves surveying, earthwork, pavement, and drainage installation.

Equipment Selection and Planning:

• Proper equipment selection is vital for efficiency and profitability. Planning must account for
factors like equipment productivity, cost per unit, and the specific needs of each project.

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Lesson 6: Construction Equipment, Maintenance, and Operation

Construction Equipment Selection

Introduction:
• Effective project management in construction involves the meticulous planning and
utilization of labor, material, and equipment.
• Selecting the appropriate type and size of construction equipment often affects the required
amount of time, effort, and job-site productivity.

Advantages of Construction Equipment:

• Increases the rate of output through effective methods.
• Reduces overall construction costs, especially for large contracts.
• Performs tasks that cannot be done manually, economically, or quickly.
• Reduces manual labor, fatigue, and potential hazards.
• Maintains production rates during labor shortages and ensures high-quality standards.

Factors Behind Equipment Selection

Economic Considerations:
• Owning costs, operating labor costs, fuel costs, resale value, replacement, and salvage value
are essential.

Company-Specific:
• Company policy regarding ownership or renting impacts the selection.
• Emphasis on owning focuses on future project needs, while renting may prioritize short-term
benefits.

Site-Specific:
• Site conditions such as ground and climate affect the equipment selection decision,
including equipment type like crawler-mounted or wheel-mounted.

Equipment-Specific:
• Standardized equipment, manufactured in large numbers, ensures easy availability of spare
parts and better salvage value.

Client and Project-Specific:

• Client preferences may override company policies, based on schedule, quality, and safety
requirements.

Manufacturer-Specific:
• Companies may prefer uniformity in equipment purchases and have familiarity with certain
manufacturers and dealers.

Labor Consideration:
• Shortages or lack of trained manpower may influence the decision to procure automated
equipment.

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Other Factors in Equipment Selection
• Suitability for job conditions.
• Equipment size – must match other units on-site.
• Standardization for ease of maintenance.
• Availability of spare parts.
• Versatility – equipment that can perform multiple functions.
• Equipment availability and reputation.
• Service support and reliability.
• Economical aspects like minimum production cost.
• Reliability measured by Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) and Failure Rate (λ).

Plant & Equipment Acquisition

Three ways to acquire construction plant and equipment:
1. Cash or outright purchase.
2. Renting: Suited for short-term needs and trying equipment before purchase.
3. Leasing: Suitable when equipment is used frequently but buying outright is not feasible.

Cost of Owning and Operating Equipment

• Ownership Cost: Fixed costs, including initial cost, depreciation, investment, insurance, tax,
and storage.
• Initial Cost: About 25% of the total investment, including purchase price, shipping, and
assembly.
• Depreciation: Decline in market value due to wear and tear, economic decline, or
obsolescence.
• Investment Cost: The annual cost of capital invested in a machine.
• Insurance, Tax, and Storage Costs: Expenses associated with fire, theft, accident insurance,
and property taxes.

Operating Costs: Variable costs that depend on operating hours, equipment types, and site
conditions. Includes:
1. Maintenance and repair costs.
2. Tire and fuel costs.
3. Equipment operator cost.

Equipment Life and Replacement Alternatives

• Physical life: When the machine is worn out and no longer productive.
• Profit life: When equipment can still generate profit.
• Economic life: The period that maximizes profit from the equipment.
• Replacement Alternatives: Decisions regarding replacing equipment based on factors like
minimum cost, maximum profit, and payback period.

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Lesson 7: Construction Manpower Safety

What is Safety?
• "The quality or condition of being safe; freedom from danger, injury, or damage; security."
• In engineering terms, safety is the control of recognized hazards to attain an acceptable level
of risk.

Importance of Safety in Construction Site:

1. Moral responsibility.
2. Financial consequences.
3. Schedule impacts.
4. Quality of work.
5. Market response.

What is a Hazard?
• A hazard is a situation that poses a level of threat to life, property, or the environment.
Unidentified or ignored hazards can lead to accidents.

Types of Hazards:
1. Safety Hazards: Confined spaces, working from heights, machinery-related, electrical
hazards, etc.
2. Biological Hazards: Bacteria, viruses, insect bites.
3. Physical Hazards: Radiation, temperature extremes, loud noise.
4. Ergonomic Hazards: Poor posture, improper lifting, awkward movements, repetitive actions.
5. Chemical Hazards: Cleaning products, paints, acids, solvents, propane.
6. Work Organization Hazards: Workload demands, violence, sexual harassment.

Accident vs. Incident:

• Accident: An undesirable event that could have been prevented if hazards were recognized
earlier.
• Incident: An event or occurrence.

Reasons for Accidents:

• Unsafe Act: Performing tasks in a way that threatens health/safety (e.g., operating without
qualifications, improper use of PPE, bypassing safety devices).
• Unsafe Condition: A workplace condition likely to cause damage or injury (e.g., defective
tools, inadequate supports, poor housekeeping).

Can Hazards Be Eliminated?

• The document prompts whether accidents can be prevented, leading to the concept of
Hazard Control Hierarchy and the importance of Personal Protective Equipment.

OSHA Regulations (Standards - 29 CFR, Part 1926):

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 • Contractors and subcontractors must ensure that no laborer works in unsanitary, hazardous,
or dangerous conditions (Section 107 of the Act).
• Accident Prevention Responsibilities: Employers must initiate and maintain safety
programs that include frequent and regular inspections of job sites, materials, and
equipment.

Employer’s Safety & Health Program (OSHA):

1. Management Commitment & Leadership.
2. Assignment of Responsibility.
3. Identification & Control of Hazards.
4. Training & Education.
5. Record Keeping & Hazard Analysis.
6. First Aid & Medical Assistance.

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