1. Theme: The Prince The theme is in the ID itself.

Cesare Borgia, was the inspiration and hero of Machiavellis The Prince. The Prince was about political power, and how the ruler should maintain it, gain it, and increase it. Machiavelli, gain these ideals from the way Borgia conquered and untied the Italian peninsula. Borgia gained control by conquering land, and increased it by using the newly conquered land as a resource which lead him to spread his army. Borgia maintained it because the peninsula became united. Henry VII of England used Machiavellis methods to crush the nobility and to established order. Herny VII used ruthlessness, efficiency, and secrecy to establish the order. Borgia was the roots of these methods. 2. Theme: Renaissance During the time of the Renaissance artist became a important role for the new nobility. The Nobles wanted to show their power through art, and this lead into Materialism. This meant that material became more important than religion. They would find the cause of a problem through matter and items and not through religion. This was known as secularism. This life style separates the religion from actual facts. 3. Theme: Humanist Thomas Mores lifestyle served as a reference for a Christian household and an idol for foreign and English humanist. He trained as a lawyer and lived as a student in London. Desiderius Erasmus was a Dutch humanist as a young boy he was forced to join a Christian monastery. These two men both have a strong humanist theme in their books. More wrote utopia which explained a perfect life, while Erasmus wrote a book to show the true way to live as a Christian. Another great figure was Jan Van Eyck, also was a great humanist. His oil paintings always glorified the human beings 4. Theme: Reformation These three men were all great reformers, and they all had ideals in their religion. Ulrich Zwingli affirmed that the lords last supper is a memorial of the last supper and that no change have occurred. John Calvin believed that the body and blood of Christ are spiritually and not physically. John Calvin wrote The Institutes of Christian Religion to show the real meaning behind the Christian religion. This showed his ideals to what the sermonizes mean. John Knox was a Scottish reformer who brought Calvins ideals to the Catholic Church in Scotland. 5. Theme: Protestant Henry VIIIs divorce led to a separation of the Church of England and the Holy Union. His son Edward VI had a very strong protestant ideas exerted a significant influence on the religious beliefs in the country. Archbishop Cranmer simplified the liturgy, and invited protestant theologians to England. The Elizabethan Settlement required outward conformity to the Church of England and uniformity in all the ceremonies. During Elizabeths reign, the Church on England was moved in a protestant direction.

6. Theme : Reformation Pope Paul III created the Council of Trent to reform the church and to reconciliation with the Protestants. Angela Merici founded the Ursuline Order of Nuns. This order was known for the education for women. They also helped reform the church to show the true Christianity. Merici had a

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great difficulty gaining approval because the Council of Trent placed great stress on the castration of religious women and ordered an end to all women ministries. Theme: Huguenots Huguenots were French Protestants. The Saint Bartholomews Day Massacre was a period of time where many Huguenots were killed because of their religion and beliefs. About twelve thousand Huguenots died at Meaux, Lyons, Orleans, and Paris. This lead to war between the three Henrys. The Edict of Nantes granted the Huguenots liberty and rights. This act was in 50 towns. Theme: limitations Because of the Peace of Augsburg the religion of the prince would determine the religion of the subjects. Lutherans feared that the Augsburg principles would be undermined by the catholic and Calvinist gains. This caused the Lutheran Princes to create the protestant union and the Catholics retaliated. Ferdinand of Styria began to close to close protestant churches, which began the Thirty Years War. Since the war lasted for a long time, resources became scarce. Without the resources no side was able to win, so they created The Peace of Westphalia, which was a series of treaties that ended the Thirty years war. Theme: Power Hernando Cortes was a Spanish adventurer who claimed the land he had discovered for Spain. The land he had discovered was Mexico; he conquered the Aztecs for Spain so he could have full authority over all the imperial lands. Corregidores were local officials that held judicial and military powers. Because of mercantilism it had polices that placed severe restrictions on foreign industries that might compete with Spain. Mercantilism is the life style where the gain money without losing anything in return. Theme: Destruction Cardinal Richelieu had become president of the council and then he became the first minister of the French crown. He had a policy that was the total subordination of all groups and institutions to the French Monarchy. Richelieu France into thirty two generalities and each had an intendant. Richelie wasnt an absolute monarch but the way he ruled he did have a lot of power. Richelieus successor as Chief Minister and then a regent for the boy king Louis XIV was Cardinal Jules Mazarin who continued Richelieus policies, but in his attempt to increase royal revenues to the Fronde. Theme: Government Charles I of England did many actions that his subjects did not enjoy, he changed the constitutionalism into his own beliefs. He tried to rule his empire without the help of parliament. He would pay for his own empire. He began to add levy taxes. His people did not like this so he was beheaded. A republican government was established. Because the army defeated the royal forces controlled the government, and Oliver Cromwell controlled the army. Cromwell constituted a military dictatorship.

12. Theme: Baroque Art Moliere, Racine, and Poussin are all great Artist. They all would use emotion in their work. Using emotion in art was called Baroque. Moliere was a great play writer and actor. He would comedy in his work. By using comedy he would make his audience laugh and be happy. Racine was a French

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Dramatist. He would write dramatic stories that would catch the reader. The reader would feel the emotion fly off the pages. Poussin was another great baroque artist. He was a artist and his paintings would stand out. Instead of a classical portrait of somebody, he would have them doing an action or feeling an emotion. Theme: Prussia During this time Prussia was going through many changes. Prussian Junkers were people who would go through and colonize and Christianize the northeastern part of Europe. Frederick the Great Elector ruled from 1620-1688. He was known as the great elector because during this time Prussia had a strong military force. Frederick the Great began to enlighten this part of Prussia. He modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and promoted religious tolerance throughout his realm. Theme: War Ivan the Terrible declared war on the remnants of Mongolian power. Mongols were a group of Mongolian warriors led by Genghis Khan. He had defeated them and added new parts to Russia. Peter the Great was determined to reduce the defeats the tsars armies had occasionally suffered in their wars with Poland and Sweden since the time of Ivan the Terrible. Theme: Art Bartolommeo Rastrelli was peters youngest daughter, and Elizabeths Chief Architect. Throughout the Eastern Europe, war and the needs of the state in the time of war heavily in Triumph of absolutism like Peter the Great. Also the baroque style of art had grown throughout Europe. Baroque is a style of art that involves emotion and action, unlike earlier art works. Theme: Power Frederick the Great had invaded Maria Theresas Habsburg dominions. Both were very strong monarchs. They went to war against each other which was called the Seven Years War. Catherine the Great of Russia was one of the most remarkable rulers of that time. She ruled during the time when Russia was expanding by conquest and diplomacy.

17. Theme: Discovery of new scientific ideas Galileo was found out about acceleration, inertia, and the experimental method as well as the telescope that discovered the moons of Jupiter. Copernicus believed that Earth, the planets, and stars revolved around the sun because the sun was the center of the universe, but these ideas brought questions regarding crystalline spheres, size of the universe, and planets. Brahe and Kepler had twenty years of observations before Kepler found the three laws of planetary motion. The laws were that orbits are elliptical not circular, planets dont move at universal speed, and distance from the sun determines the speed of the planet. 18. Theme: New ways of thinking The idea of skepticism came back through Pierre Bayle who believed noting can be known beyond doubt and he compared religious beliefs and persecutions. French intellectuals during the 17th and 18th centuries began with Montesquieu who created The Spirit of Law and he believed in the separation of power to avoid despotism. He also stated that the powers checked powers in order to avoid tyranny. Diderot and DHolbach, who were the editors of the Encyclopedia, had the reasoning to expand human knowledge and believed in progress.

19. Theme: Effective ways to maintain food The open-field system fields were cultivated communally by peasants. The land was mainly divided up into long narrow strips and there were no dividers, like fences, between these strips of land. Fertilizer wasnt an option then, so this resulted in splitting one third and one half would not be

cultivated during the year in order to have nitrogen in the soil. The fallow fields/land would then be cultivated the following year, also known as crop rotation. Then enclosure came about, which is the fencing of common land, or land nobody owned, in order to cultivate it to take advantage of the higher agricultural yields. The peasants had lost their right to gaze farm animals in common pastures and the new agricultural innovations werent practical for the small land owners. 20. Theme: New creations to improve products The British Navigation Acts were the British trade monopoly in its colonies and it required that most goods exported to England were to be carried on British ships. The spinning jenny was a spinning machine created by James Hargreaves that used spindles mounted on a carriage to spin a thread. The rural workers made the products from raw materials furnished by the merchant and the peasant did the work in their abode cottage system and this supplemented income through this system. 21. Theme: Making peace and dealing with trade France and England were at war again over the colonies. This was resolved with the Treaty of Paris and France lost its North American and Indian colonies. Mercantilism created a favorable balance of trade because it was a system of economic regulations that aimed at increasing the power of the state. The Peace of Utrecht was a series of treaties that ended the War of the Spanish Succession, ended French expansion in Europe, and marked the growth of the British Empire. 22. Theme: Results to families with children before the Industrial Revolution The most common in pre-industrial western and central Europe was a nuclear family. A nuclear family consisted of a father, mother, and their children. Married couples created their own households and a pre-industrial childhood did not normally consist of having their grandparents living with them. Later on, killing nurses had their name given to them because they were nurses with whom no child ever survived. 23. Theme: Similar thoughts on the church with different groups John Wesley formed a group of students at Oxford who were named Methodists. They viewed the Church of England as sick due to the lack of emotion and the uncommitted church leadership, completely corrupted. However, the Jesuits, the Society of Jesus, were extraordinary teachers, missionaries, and agents of the pope. 24. Theme: Power and territory Napoleon could be defined as a liberator and a tyrant. He was a liberator because he created the ideals of the French Revolution due to his French laws and abolishment of feudal dues and serfdom. He was a tyrant because of his French first policy with heavy taxes and family ruled states. Napoleons continental system was organized to exclude British goods from the continent and force the empire to its knees and this ended in failure. Napoleon tried to bring his army to northern France but was destroyed by Lord Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar. 25. Theme: Conflicts that led to death Political conflict between the Mountain and the Girondists began. The Reign of Terror all started when the Mountain and the Committee of Public Safety created political unity and this mobilized the entire nation for the war effort. After the threat of defeat was the past, Robespierre continued the Reign of Terror to try to create an Ideal democratic republic. He did this by killing forty thousand and imprisoning three hundred thousand. 26. Theme: Exposes how no one really has equal rights Mary Wollstonecraft challenged Burke (in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman), arguing that it was time for women to demand equal rights. Olympe De Gouges wrote The Declaration of the Rights of Women to expose the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to gender equality. The National Assembly followed and the government in Paris would fall under the influence of the Parisian population, or the Sans Culottes without britches. 27. Theme: No government interference

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Laissez-faire economics are based on Adam Smiths Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations which describes an indivisible hand, a self-regulating market with no government interference. Zollverein is the idea of customs union with the German states and had no tariffs between the internal German states. High protective tariffs focused on foreign goods. The main goal was that Germans were to buy German products and encourage German industrialization as well as economic nationalism. Theme: Revolutions in Energy Robert Owen, a successful manufacturer in Scotland, proposed limiting the hours of labor and child labor, which led to the Factory Act of 1833 that limited child labor and the hours children could work in textile factories. Some of the creators of the early stem engines were Thomas Savery and Thomas Newcomen and later on was James Watts, who created a more proficient steam engine. This new steam engine allowed for more coal production and more coal was utilized to power steam engines. After this, Henry Cort created the puddling furnace that led to increase production of pig iron. Railroads made shipping coal cheap and professional, especially because the steam engine powered the early trains. Theme: Living and working conditions Friedrich Engels wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England and it attacked the middle class with murder, wholesale robbery, and more. This was due to competition with other factories with long working hours, low wages, and dangerous working conditions. Thomas Malthus argued that the population would always exceed the food supply. David Ricardo said that wages would always be low. Both were proved to be wrong. Theme: Evolution Jean Baptiste Lamarck claimed that all life had grown from a continuing adaption to the environment. His flaw was that he thought the course of a childs life is inherited from the parent. Charles Darwin theorized that life had evolved gradually from a common origin through an endless "struggle for survival" that led to the survival of the fittest by natural selection. Herbert Spencer, a Social Darwinist, applied Darwin's ideas to human affairs. Theme: Public health Edwin Chadwick claimed that life was improving for the middle class because they had more minor luxuries. This was due to conditions progressing, there was more provided jobs, and there were supplementary produced inexpensive consumer goods for the masses. Louis Pasteur discovered that fermentation was created by growth of organisms and can suppress activity of these organisms by heat. He also found that specific diseases were caused by specific organisms. Joseph Lister determined that aerial bacteria created infected wounds and the removal of it would reduce infections. Theme: Realist and writers Emile Zola was an enormous realist movement in literature and he believed that his literature should depict life as it really was. His first novel was charged with pornography and corruption of morals even though that was exactly what he thought life was like around him. Leo Tolstoy was a Russian writer who primarily wrote novels and short stories and was known as a moral thinker and social reformer. Theodore Dreiser was an American novelist and journalist and his novels often featured main characters that succeeded at their objectives despite a lack of a solid moral code, and literary situations that resemble studies of nature.