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History - 112 - Class - Notes-1 2

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
304 views35 pages

History - 112 - Class - Notes-1 2

History notes

Uploaded by

talinda mwasinga
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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IDENTITY FORMATION, -PRECOLONIAL STATES, ETHNICITY, GENDER, RELIGION, SERVITUDE OR SLAVERY

OR BONDAGE SELFDOM ETC.

PRECOLONIAL STATES

The Malawi state formation can be traced following different timelines divided into two

Namely early state builders comprised of the Maravi, tumbuka, nkhamanga and the ngonde states.

The late state builders including the Yaos, Ngonis and the Kololos.

1.The early state builders: It is believed that the they already existed even before the formation of the
first Zambian kingdoms.

[A] THE MALAVI KINGDOM

The word Malavi, [Malawi] is derived from Chewa, frames, [Malawi amoto].

This is just because most parts seem like frames during hot seasons.

The state was being firstly occupied by the proto-chewas who assumed the land ownership.

Orally, these proto-chewas, [bandas or the Kalimanjiras or the wandas] previously found the abathwa
akafula or amwandiwonera pati, who were the oldest inhabitants in Africa.

The two mingled and related well.

The Bandas had a religious and social aspects of life.

Religiously, they had a rain cult, [culture of making rain].

Socialy, they had a Nyawu secretive societies.

The Bandas chieftainship was based on a ritual power in rain making where the chiefs were connected
to this rain making.

THE MALAVI KINGDOM [PLOPER MALAVI STATE BUILDERS].

The Malavi of the Phiri clan are believed to be responsible for the earliest process in the state formation
in Malawi.

They came to Malawi around 15th century AD.

They migrated from Uluba in the eastern side of Congo region and they spoke Bantu language.

The Malavi [ Phiris[ were of several tribes comprised of the Chewa, the Mang,anja, the chipeta, the
Nyanja and the Chikunda.
Together, they established a big Malavi empire.

REASONS FOR THEIR MIGRATION

I. Need of new land for settlemet


II. II. Need for new land for agriculture [crops and animal production]
III. Iii. Political conflicts interms of succession disputs
IV. As they were migrating away from Congo [Zaire], they were led out by a military leader by
the name Mazizi and their quin mother, Nyangu.
V. They migrated Southwards and stoped at Choma in Zambia.
VI. Mazizi was succeded there by Chinkhole who led them from there to Malawi.
VII. Chinkhole adopted the title, Kalonga in Malawi [The first Kalonga].
VIII. Oral sources maintains that the Malavi people settled first at Kaphilintiwa [The Western
part of Lilongwe].
IX. They believed that they were created at Kaphilintiwa [BY Mphambe].

The history asserts that the incomingMalavi abandoned Kaphirintiwa as they wanted to avoid
conflicts with the proto-Chewa [The Bandas and the Kalimanjiras] who regarded that they were the
soil owners.

It further states that they moved at Mayere Anyangu [In the upper shire valley].

Also they moved from there to a place known as Manthimba which is described as a good place.

It is closed to Phirilongwe between Mangochi and Ntchewu.

Here, they had created the headquarters named as Manthimba, close to Mtakataka.

Several titled officials assisted the leadership of the Kalonga here.

Nyangu, the quin mother was one of the important titles among the Malavi people.

The Nyangu title was passed onto the daughter of the quin mother, whilest the Kalonga title was passed
onto any of the Nyangu’s son, nephew of the Kalonga[Matrilinal succesation], where by power follows
the mothers side.

Nyangu was the source and life of the kingship in this case.

ROLES OF THE Kalonga

Was respondsible for the:

1. Distribution of the land


2. 2. Distribution of goods and food staffs to his followers or subordinates.
3. 3. He protected his people from both internal and external threats [by establishing laws and
having a centralized system of governance to avoid rebelions] and promotion of unity through
fair distribution of resources.
4. Externally, he had a standing army which ensured peace and controlling of resources by
overseeing no any by-pass of the trade.
ROLES OF PEOPLE TO KALONGA

[A]. People paid tributes to Kalonga [gifts that showed royalty and In return, he gave back the other to
the poor.

The Phiri clan associated with the royal clan [where they were a ruling clan]

Kalonga had other officials who assisted him e.g. the Khombes, who were the warriors, and other people

who assisted in disciplain led by Khombe [the executioner who settled disputs among the people].

THE POLITICAL HIERARCHY OF THE MALAVI

1; Kalonga

1. 2. Mwini dziko or traditional chiefs


2. 3. Phungu or tributary chiefs
3. 4. Mwini mzinda
4. 5. Ordinally people.

FACTORS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MALAVI KINGDOM

1. Knowledge of good governance interms of the centralized government system.


2. For example, they had a clear defined hierarchy from the paramount down to the traditional
chiefs, hence enabling them to be called for the paramount to be very strong and influencial.
3. The paramounts were chosen based on their capabilities.
4. By the 17th century, Malavi was one of the most influencial kingdom.
5. Tentions between the Bandas and the Phiris erupted interms of the religions, where by the
Bandas had worshiping of the ancenstral spirits, hence they did not want to lose their religion
because they much respected their shrine, [ancenstral spirits where they could present their
worries].
6. Kalonga prevented the conflicts by letting the Bandas to be controlling their religions.
7. The Kalonga were trying to unite the converged people, [the Bandas and the Kalimanjiras].
8. He kept religion free hence prevented from internal conflicts.
9. Their religions beliefs united them thus inhencing unity.
10. 2. The Kalonga married sister of the Bandas, hence the Phiris became relatives of the Bandas.
11. The bandas had knowledge of agriculture where they were growing sorghum and millate and
keeping birds, ETC.
12. This is known by the choice of land where they settled at the valley.
13. 3. TRADE; They traded with even foreigners E.G. the Portuguese, Chikunda hunters as well as
with each other [ihnternal or domestic trade ] exchanging crops, animal skins.
14. In the external trade, tgheyn exchanged cotton clothes, porcelain ware, guns.
15. The Kalonga monopolized the trade [took control of the trade], where by anybody doing trade
was to pay tribute to Kalonga hence the kingdom economically expanded, [grew rich].
16. This expansion was also interms of size, where by the population grew large.
17. This led to the competition over the control and distribution of land and resources and the
Kalonga decided to carry out decentralization [dispatching or sending out some sub-chiefs to
other areas.]
18. It is that Kabunduli was once under the chewa who was sent as a representative.

FACTORS FOR THE FALL OF THE MALAVI KINGDOM

Decentralisation; Whilest some chiefs were sent out to other areas to represent the Kalonga, some
chiefs just bloke away from chiefdom because of dissatisfaction with how the Kalonga was discharging
the duties, EG, Undi who was not happy with the succetion system.

It is believed that he was the rightfull heir to the kingdom, but was not given hence moving to the Katete
in Zambia.

Also Lundu who migrated to the lower shire, Kaphwiti who was blamed of socery, [whichcraft]
migrated to Mozambique. Mkanda went to Mchinji, Mwase in Kasungu, Dzole and Msakambewa in
Dowa.

These break aways led to the expansion of the Kalonga where all believed the same religion, hence
forming an empire.

They had a symbol of fire where the ceremony was annually occurring, fire were to be obtained from
the Kalonga to be set in their kingdoms.

In the absence of Kalonga, the breaking chiefdoms started trading with foreigners without passing
through the Kalonga.

2. The Portuguese interfering with the political afairs of the empire.

3. The coming in of the slave trade where the Malavi people were captured.

4. The coming in of the 19th century imigrants such as the Yawo and the ngoni worriors who invaded the
Maravi kingdom.

[B] THE TUMBUKA-NKHAMANGA STATE

They developed in the North Malawi around the 18th century on the Nkhamanga plain around the henga
valley, [Hewe area, South Nyika plateu].

People around the area were known as the Henga-Nkhamangas [Tumbuka speakers], but belonged to
Mkandawire, munthali.

They were not politically centralized.

The balowoka [people who crossed lake came in, surround Nyika and started an economic spheres of
influence.
Evidence shos that before the coming of the Balowoka, the tumbuka speakers who occupied the Henga
valley, they were a simple agricultural community and they were a self sufficient in the sense that their
land was plentifull.

People also accessed other necessities through internal production [apart from agriculture] through
exchanging of goods, domestically termed as trade.

The tumbuka people did not generally fillto organize themselves politically and militarily because they
were living peacefully.

Their survival strategy was not under threat, hence no need for the defence.

There were very few quarles over the land since it was enough for them.

However, things changed.

With the coming of the Balowokas, ivory hunters and trader chiefs, of Balowoka country came to be
linked to a trading network.

This network stretched from Katanga in the North-West, the network also extended to Kilwa In the East.

The Balowoka were patrinial, where by the Tumbuka were matrinal.

Evidence also suggest that it was the availability of ivory in the Tumbukaland that facilitated the
involvement of the Balowoka in trading network.

The group of the Balowoka were led by KAKALALA MSAWIRA GONDWE.

As they were coming, the Tumbuka did not previously know much about the value of the ivory until the
Balowoka knew the commercial value hence they took an advantage in the Nkhamanga plain near
Luangwa valley.

With the passage of time, Gondwe used his experience and knowledge of the external trade.

He assumed the tribe of mulowoka and decided to use it as the title for the kings amongst the
Balowokas.

He also used his health accumulated trade to transform social position into political position, where by
he started to interfere with the Tumbuka political.

The transformation started with the distribution of beads, mbande shails, and pieces of clothes to heads
of tumbuka clans including the luhangas.

Mlowoka intermarried with the Luhanga family and other Balowokas married with the influencial
Tumbuka families.

This was a way of preventing an internal conflicts between the two groups. And this led to the
establishment of the Balowoka people into the Tumbuka society.

Evidence shos that through such marriages, Mlowoka was able to impose the patrilineal system on the
matrilineal to ensure the continuing of his chiefdom.
Mlowoka also gave turbans to the various local leaders as a symbol of authority driving from him and
through these strategies, Mlowoka managed to set up the foundation of his social as well as political
position.

He also embarked Decentralization made Mlowoka political influence to grow hence a successifull
carrying out of trade.

Mlowoka tried to control his influence through buying empathy through distribution of holes hence the
title Chikuwa Mayembe was given to him, meaning a carrier of holes.

The imployed streteges helped Mlowoka to carry out successifull trade and to expand his empire.

He was in a position to export ivory to the Eastern markets of Africa.

He also had a previous connection on the East-Cost of lake Nyasa.

Chikulamayembe caravans of trade provided an imployment opportunities to the Tumbukas, hence an


involvement of the local traders to the external trade.

Some of the local traders came from the Phoka hill, where the archaeologists excarvated cowrie shails,
and glass beads, hence an evidence of trading with the foreigners.

The Chikulamayembe was assisted by the Msisya families from Nyamwezi.

He was also assisted by the Nyerenda families hence was being able to command an influence on the
local traders.

These indunas were encorporated in the political system.

It was an increase trade in the Eastern that imerged the kingdom stronger.

This also is how the political structure was formulated.

Chikulamayembe as a leader exacted, [getting] tribute in form of a single tusk of elephantkilled, thus he
became more richresulting to the economically and politically dominant.

His successifull political and economically attributed his traphant over Katumbi Mulindafwa chayinga.

This was another immigrant from the East of the lake Nyasa

And established himself in the present day Hewearea.

There, he organized a smaller but viable state than that of Chikulamayembe and Chikulamayembe
envayed himas he felt threatened by the activities of Katumbiwho controlled the access to the Northern
part of lake Nyasa region which was rich with ivory.

He also controlled the Chilumba ferrywich was used to transport to the East.

Chikulamayembe wanted to take overwwhere he wanted a free access via Chirumbabut was fear.

When Katumbi died, the Chikulamayembe got involved in the succession crisis by succeeding in
promoting a weeker candidate.
Chikulamayembe made arrangements with the other leaders in Katumbi’s regionin which chiefs agreed
not to cause problems to Chikulamayembe’s trade in the area.

Despite the political and economical evidence, of the Nkhamanga state, its fortunes began to wane or
dwindling, [decline].

From the midd 19th century due to the change over trading itams, [from ivory to slaves], a trade was
controlled by the Arabs.

This led to the decline of the state.

During the same time, a negative impact emerged. the Ngoni invasion, lack of a standing army, the new
intruders of the area.

Again towards the end of the 19th century, the area was affected by the imposition of the British colonial
state.

Some argue that Chikulamayembe did not create a state, but rather he ruled over the trade routes.

[C] THE NGONDE STATE KINGDOMS

The ngonde state kingdom was founded by an immigrant groupcalled the Ngulubes.

These Ngulubes came from Ukinga[Bukinga] country in Tanzania around 16th century.

They founded the Ngonde state in the North-western conner of Malawi, which lies partly Karonga
district and Kikuyu [Tukuyu] in Tanzania.

However, there were some people already settled the place such as the Lambias, the Chifungwes, the
Sukwa and the Nyakusa.

They established there kingdom, but the Ngondes colonized them through the leadership of two
grandsons of Ngulube, [Lwumbe and Chawaka].

It was Chawaka who founded the kingdom through his son namely Mghemo[A grandson of Chawaka].

He adopted the title, KYUNGU as a title of their kings.

He leterally founded the Ngonde Chawaka kingdom.

It is believed that the group assumed the political control through force, [by invading the already
established kingdoms].

They also invaded another kingdom, Simbowe, who were farmers.

There were also a group of people who came from South-Western Tanzania who came earlier than all.
They moved South and South-Eastern side of Malawi in 300 AD.

In Malawi, they introduced the practice of using iron imprements, during the same period.

Upon the arrival of the Simbowes, they found Mwenefumbos and the Mwenekisimbiles already
established.

The Simbowes were based at Mbande hill, whilest the Mwenekisimbiles and The Mwenefumbos were
in the hands of a high prist.

They still had some political indipendents and secular leaders with the religious those with high powers.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE NGONDE KINGDOM

[A] Conquests

[B] Poor political organization of the proto-Ngondes

C. Agriculture

D. Conflict theory.

HOW DID THE NGONDE CONSOLIDATED THEIR POWERS.

1. They killed the Simbowes


2. 2. Recognised a prist of the land owner.
3. 3. Intermarried with the influencial clans.
4. 4. Distributed gifts E.G. headclothes to the local chiefs.
5.
6. 5. Started to recognize the domestic economy to strength by the

Introduction cattle keeping, and the cartivation of bananas.

These reforms led to the population increase.

Casava was also introduced as a second staple food.

Keeping of animals became prestigious, [uplifted the family status] since they could be used as dories or
lobolas.

They were also groing grain crops E.G. milates, cassava and sorghum.

And the bananas in the 19th century.

They could export surplus to the Kingas, [Kis] in Tanzania.

This was done by the extensive farming.


They werewere more advance where fertilizer application from the weeds, wood ashes and village
litters.

They also constructed large mounts to prepare fertilizer.

2. Consolidation through conflict

3. consolidation through colaborations.

THE FALL OF THE NGONDE KINGDOM

[A] The political influence was affected by the Swahili Arabs in the 19th century, [though they were less
affected due to diversification.

[B] They were affected with the entry of European missionaries by the declaring of the British
protectorate toards the end of the 19th century.d

Accordiing to Kalinga, the researcher used two’

1. Because of the conflicts between the Ngonde and the Simbowes

2. THE LATE STATE BUILDERS, [THE 19TH CENTURY IMIGRANTS INTO MALAWI]

These included three;

The Yawo, the Ngoni and the Kololo people.

[A] THE YAWO

1. They came into small migratory groups and followed the trade routes from the North of
Mozambique and South of Malawi around18 30s. to the Southern Malawi.
2. They entered for about three decades and by 1860s, the majority settled South and Central
Malawi permanently.
3. To the South, they riched South-end of lake Malawi [Mangochi, and part of Machinga], and
along the upper shire of Malawi, [Machinga, and Balaka].
4. They also occupied shire highland.
5. To the Central, they settled dedza and Salima, and later Nkhotakota.
6. The Makuwa and the Lomwe people were their neighbouring people in Mozambique.
7.
8. BANDS OR GROUPS OF THE YAWO PEOPLE
9. 1. The Machinga yawo’ These settled in Machinga led by Msamala and Mkata. They were the
militant people who managed to displace the people of Mangochi Kuntumanje, Malemya of
Zomba.
10. 2. Masaninga from around Misaninga valley to the South-Eastern tip of lake Malawi.

Their chief was Makanjira and they were the traders.


3. Amangochi Yawo; They were the first to leave Mozambique and settled Mangochi, Blantyre and
Mulanje.

2. 4. The Achisi Yawo’ They crossed lakes to Malawi with their leader namely Katuli and they were
known with iron smelting, thus connected to trade and farming in Mangochi.

CAUSES OF THEIR MIGRATION

I.They were running away from drought in Mozambique.

I. II. Running away from the Makuwa and the Lomwe civil arrests.
III. To trade with the other tribes.
II. IV. Running away from the Maseko Ngoni invasion from Songeya.
III. V. Running away from civil wars in the competition for resources.
IV. The Yao imposed their powers when they riched the country on the the Mang,anja using
two strateges;
V. Military forces and trade [ economic skills such as iron working].

IMPACT OF THE YAO

[A] They introduced a long distance trade with the Eastern Swahili Arabs.

[B] Trading in ivory and later slave trade , [with Makanjira, jalasi, chikumbu and Mponda chiefs]

[C] Devastation of the Southern Malawi

[B] THE NGONI

They came from South Africa, [Kwazulu Natawo].

The Jere and Maseko were under Ndwandwe In South Africa and under Zwide as they were leaving.

There was a war between Jere under Zwide with the Mthetwa under Tchaka.

Tchaka was very strong and defeated the Ngoni under zwide and a sub-group under Zwangendaba

Zwangendaba decided to move away because he did not want to be under Tchaka. It was also because
there was famine and and pasture shortage.

Their migration started in 1821 and after 30 years, they finally settled Malawi.

The civil wars that happened in South Africa were known as Mfecane or Defaquane or lifekane,
[scattering].

MIGRATION OF THE JERE NGONI


The moving was caused by their defeats by Tchaka.

They also defeated a lot of people as they were moving away who were assimilating their group.

They passed through Mozambique and Zambabwe.

In their ways, they were also encountering defeats, EG. Zwangendaba in Mozambique.

They were strong militarily and desciplained army They travelled and templarily settled in Malawi, and
then Upipa in Tanzania to defeat the catle owners there.

Along the way, they were assimilating the defeated groups with them to expand their army.

It is believed that they crossed Zambezi in 1835, when there was an eclips and riched Tanzania around
1845.

DIFFERENT GROUPS OF THE JERE NGONI.

After the death of Zwangendaba in Tanzania, there was a succession disput among his sons, Mbelwa,
Mthwalo and Mpezeni.

Mpezeni was a rightfull heir to the throne. The group who supported Mbelwa moved to Malawi
with Gwaza Jere as a regent, [one who stand on behalf of some one else].

Leter, mbelwa was crowned at Ng’onga around 1859 as the area was a part of Nkhamanga state at
Henga, a Nkhamanga-Tumbuka area.

In early 1870s, they were joined by the Mpherembe ngoni.

Mpezeni settled in Zambia.

Then later Mbelwa moved from Ng’onga for Hora and Choma hills with a largest group.

REASONS FOR CHOSING A PLACE BETWEEN HORA AND CHOMA:

I. It had a small population.


II. II. There was a lot of pasture for their grazing animals.

They created their states using the following ways:

[a] Conquest: They waged war and killed Chikulamayembe Nkhamanga in 1855.

[b] They imposed their political system to the people they found.

POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF THE JERE NGONI


They followed a centralized system of leadership.

i. Inkosi Yamakosi
ii. II. Makosi: They were district chiefs from the Jere clan and took an authority of issuing
orders to their juniors.
iii. Iii. Balumuzana: These were chosen on merit, [Would also come from the captured group].
iv. The chosing was depending on how stronger and tactifull they were.
v. Some of them were from Kampingo swandes and Njerenjere Mkosi.
vi. Iv Makosana, [Ward chiefs]: They discharged their powers in village headmens.
vii. V. Makhanda, [Village headmen]: They were ruling over the villagers.

THE MASEKO NGONI

There were an offshoot of the Zwangendaba group. They confederated with the msene led by Nxaba.

CAUSES OF THEIR BREAKING AWAY

They migrated from South Africa earlier than the Jere ngoni.

They were defeated by the Shoshanganes in Mozambique, who forced them wostland up to the
Barotseland.

They found the Kololo people under their leader, Sebetwane.

Sebetwane then killed Nxaba and this led to the separation of the Nsene and the Maseko people.

The Masekos went towards Tete led by Ngwane.

Coming to Malawi, they riched Songwe, meeting Magwangwala, an offshoot of Jere Ngoni under
Mputa.

They later quarreled and fought and the Maseko were defeated under Mputa.

They consequently moved Southwards under the leadership of Chidyawonga in 186657.

After the death of Chidyawonga, 1867 in Ntchewe, Dedza,there was a succession crisis where some
people supported Mputa’s son, Goman while others supported Kachindamoto, Chidyawonga’s son.

This civil war started from 1891 to 1894 and it thus divided people into two groups:

[a] Kachindamoto group in Mtakataka and

[b] the Gomani group in Ntchewu.


THE CLASS STRUCTURE OF THE NGONI, [BOTH JERE AND MASEKO]

1. Abenzasi: They were on the top of the class, comprised of the pure Ngonis and there were light
in complection hence could be easly identified.
2. They maintained there status by discouraging intermarriages.
3. 2. The Abafo, [The Serfs]: These were the slaves, who were the capturedpeople.
4. They included the Tongas, the Tumbuka, the Senga and partly the Chewas.
5. Some Ngonis settled among the Chewas such as Chiwere Ndlovu.
6. The Abafo had a responsibility of paying tributes to the Ngonis, thus it once made them to
rebel in 1870s.
7. Such rebelions included [a] The Tonga rebellion and they fleed to Mabulabo in 1875, and this
angered the Jere Ngonis especially.
8.

THE KOLOLO, [MAKOLOLO] PEOPLE

These established themselves through major economical hardships.

They started as tributary labourers in Barotseland, [Western Zambia] in 1860s.

They started to work for dr. David Livingston, a British missionary as his porters, [they were carrying him.

They could carry him using something like a stretch, [machila].

It was during their travels with Dr. Livingston, that 16 men were brought at Zambezi valley connected
to the shire.

He left them there for London and by the time, they were already brought in Malawi around 1858 using
the Shire river.

They consequently became the canoe-men, thus their services were higherly demanded in the
Lowershire where wages were commanded.

The Kololos were very conscious about their work and understood no any demanded work by Dr. Divid
Livingston as he had returned from England.

In around 1860s, they revolted and parted company with Dr. Livingston.

And started establishing themselves in the Lowershire and could no longer go back to the Barotseland.

In the Lowershire, they used guns and knowledge of labour power which helped them to establish
themselves.

The Kololos chose to stay at Lowershire because the area was decentralized and with their guns, they
conquered and capture the local people.
The first local group to inhabit this area were the Mang,anja people.

The Kololos also were getting marriages with the original peopleBy 1875s, the kololo people spread
throughout the Lowershire valley especially in Chikwawa district.

Apart from using guns, they also had an ability to extract labour from the Mang,anja in ivory trade.

In their rise to power, i.e. between 1860s and 1870s, the Kololos loged or defeated Mankhokwe, the
ruler of Lundu people and murdered the important successor of Paramount Lundu at Mbewe wa-
mitengo.

This led to the establishment of their chieftainships which were very stronger.

They were six in number and they included chief Chiputula, Kansisi, Maseya, Mwita and Molokwa .

THE CONSOLIDATION OF POWER OF THE KOLOLOS OVER THE MANG’ANJAS

The consolidation process began around 1870s with the reduction of Mang’anjas autonomy and it took
different forms as follows:

- They waged war against Mbona cult which was a religious cult of the local inhabitants and a
hotbed.
- The Mang’anja, however could resist the action since this was their religious belief.
Additionally, the Kololos surplanted [removed] other local institutions such as Chinamwali
initiations amongst the Mang’anja and encouraged their children to be sent to school.
They also encourage Nyawu cult which consequently brought about a division amongst the
Mang’anja, whereby other group couldn’t follow.
The Kololos used a reversed rite to dismiss the local chiefs which led to dismissal of many local
leaders including females.
Their positions were insteadily replaced by Yao leaders who were also known as Returners.
Some of them were put in chiefs’ courtes and others were acting as the scribes, [secretaries]
due to their literacy.
The kololos also introduced new responsibilities such as collection of tributes in form of food
and labour from the local people.
Every village headman had to supply people to Kololo chiefs so that they could build the
palaces and their fields were known as Magala.
Starting from the midd 1870 onwards, the villagers could provide manpowers such as being as
porters to the Kololos and they were carrying trade itams to different places.
It was therefore through these labour services that the Mang’anja of the Northern lowershire
especially Chikwawa supported the commercial activities.
This meanwhile led to the loss of the local people’s political as well as economical autonomy.

EFFECTS OF THE KOLOLO POWER CONSOLIDATION OVER THE MANG’ANJAS


-The Mang’anjas helped in the ending of the slave trading activities in the Northern Lowershire,
[Chikwawa], which arised in 1860s following the opening of the slave market in the East Africa.
People were taken to Zanzibar and then to America for labour.
In addition, they intensified cultivation activities in Dimbas and Mundas with such crops as
cotton which replaced the ilegitimate slave trading activity.With a rich soil in Chikwawa, they
produced bumper yields in Chikwawa.
- Emergency of the peasantry in the Lowershire. This period witnessed the transformation of
previously independent producers into partially subordinated peasants.
- This was as a result of erosion of the old non-agricultural sectors which previously made
Mang’anjas to depend on a worldly market.
- They hence were said to be a unit of production.
- As peasants, they were made to cultivate new crops such as Sesame, [oil seeds].
- This plant was chosen because it had a high demand on a world market.
- - The Kololo mobilized the Yao trade experts in order to be connected internationally as
porters.
- - They started to protecti game reserves to ensure the availability of ivory from the elephants .
- Because of this ivory trade, the Kololos collaborated with the African Lakes Corpperation and
this created a trade route as well as the accessibility of guns.
- However, they were not selling guns to them, but they instead could sell to the Europeans.
-

ETHNICITY IN THE HISTORY OF MALAWI, [TRIBALISM]

An ethnic group is a set of social group having a common national or cultural tradition.

They basically start to identify themselves from other groups, [against other groups].

This exposes that they also share enemities due to differences.

For them to compete, therefore, there might be some kind of resources, political powers, economic
resources, [all in material or immaterial resources].

This would lead to divisions consisting of families or communities that are lived together through blood
ties, cultures, religions, marriage ties, etc.

They also tend to recognize leaders connected to them.

IMPACT OF THE ETHNICITY

Some historians have argued that ethnicity was largely brought by the Europeans either as explorers,
missionaries or colonialists.

For the missionaries, it is believed that they brought about social divisions through their education
which divided people into literates and iliterates.
They are also blamed by bringing religious divisions among people whereby some converted to
Christianity whilest others remained pagans.

They also promoted some collaborated groups at the expensive of others through creation of official
languages, ethnic histories, e.g. that of Tongas.

For the colonialists, they worked towards the emphasis of class, race and ethnicities.

They classified people interms of economic and political race, [colour bar] superiority.

They falt that they were an ethnic group to dominate and gave a task to the inferiors.

They were said to conduct the primitive people e.g selling of one another.

They used the three Cs, civilization, Christianity, and commercialization.

They also introduced politics known as divide and rule, whereby they were basically sidelining those
going against the Europeans from means of production,

Interms of social life, [education], political participation, they created boundaries for the colonies they
claimed as theirs.

The boundaries were created along ethnic livories hence creation of cosiousness among people.

They divided the countries into three provinces or regions.

Other scholars see ethnicity rise from African pre-colonial communities.

For instance, the state builders believed that a good state establishment is from the new intruders.

Political leaders tended to promote their ethnic basis at the expense of others.

Ethnic conflicts have therefore resulted from this kind of operation affecting the political, [leading to
the political disputs].

In the post-colonial Malawi, ethnicity and regionalism have become contentious issues.

This has resulted into ethnic conflicts leading to poor political opperations, e.g. stagnation of
democratic culture, retarded economic growth and other problems.

An example is the Ngonis who defeated the Tumbukas and Maravis.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ETHNIC COSIOUSNESS IN MALAWI

Historian discovered Nothern region of Malawi because it is far from the centre of Malawi’s production,
trade and commerce.

It is characterized by the great cultural divisions.


In the far North, there are different culturally related people such as the Ngondes, Sukwa and Lambia.

In the Southern North, there are Tumbukas, Ngoni and Tongas. Under an influencial of Mbelwa.

Upon their arrival, the ngonis conquered the Tumbukas and Tongas, and suppressed their religion and
culture, e.g. Chikhang’ombe cult.

Around 1870s, the captives successfully escaped from their Ngoni rule, e.g the Sengas who moved at
the North-end of Lake Malawi.

Then the Henga group formed an irland over the Tonga people by their language.

These rebelions are still helpful to the historians to understand the cause route of these ethnic
cosiousness..

The languages there include Nyiha, ndali, sukwa, ngonde, tumbuka, bias, benba, Swahili, sukuma,
fipa, senga and Nyanja which were spoken by other tribes who were already assimilated by the Ngonis
on their way.

At a point or another, they were practicing their own ways of life.

Religion also played a role in the development of ethnic cosiousness in theNorth.

It is believed that the first Christian missionary station was established at the area, particularly
Bandawe.

However, after their stay, they realized that it would be difficult to spread Christianity using Tonga
language, hence they decided to use Chinyanja and English.

It was because chinyanja was easier to learn and it was also spoken to the people to the South-West.

They chose Nyanja both for preaching and teaching.

The british adminstrators relied the language even in the protectorate trainings.

However, the Tongas did not like and made it impossible to adopt chinyanja.

SEEDS OF TUMBUKAS ETHNICITY

i. Missionaries were attracted to the Tongas.


ii. 2. The Ngondes suffered from the Swahili Arabs hence they became attracted to the british.
iii. This helped the Ngondes to maintain their intelligence, and coherent economy, thus
contented with their lives.
iv. This made them to be resented by the Tumbuka speaking people especially the hengas.
v. The Ngondes viewed the Tumbukas as refugees and former allies of Swahili-Arabs because they
once became trade allies of the Swahilis.
vi. Additionally, they were weak already hence envying the Ngondes from restoring of their lost
glory.
vii. The Tongas were very eager for mission education thus they were known of being dalings of
the missionaries.
viii. They wanted to use education as a tool for developing their trade and for the employment.
ix. THE TONGAS
x. The late side Tongas had a language abit similar to that of Chitumbuka and they used it as an
ideology for their ethnic identity or cosious.
xi. Young Tonga intellectuals banded together in 1919 to form the WestNyasa Native association.
xii. The members of this association were hostile to the colonial injustice and oppression.
xiii. Except West Nyasa Native Association, the Tongas also formed three more native associations,
but this one was the vocal.
xiv. These associations were mostly encouraged by some of the missionaries such as Robert Laws.
xv. It was also influenced by one of the Tongas by the name Edward Manda.
xvi. Manda became a chair person of the association in 1925 and became so unpopular to the
among the British missionaries who hated him because he was acting against the injustice and
oppressive actions of the Europeans.
xvii.He had also started glorifying African chiefs and even supported associations formed by the
Tumbuka paramount chief, Chikula Mayembes status.
xviii. This is also what angered the Europeans.
xix. Similar to the Tumbukas, the Tongas encouraged education.
xx. They took a lead in independent church as well as migrant labour.
xxi. Most of the educated elites and able youngmen migrated in South Africa to work in the mines.
xxii.It was this migrant group that helped nationalism in Nyasaland.

THE CHEWA PEOPLE

They form a first largest grouping even interms of population.

The Chewas are concentrated in the Central region districts of Malawi such as Mchinji, Kasungu,
ntchisi, Salima, Dedza, Nkhotakota, Ntchewu, and Lilongwe.

Their main language is Chichewa, just except Ntchewu which is mixed with Chingoni.

The majority of the Chewas are Christians.

However, they had developed their ethnic society through a sicret society known as Gulewamkulu.

This sicret society is also a traditional practice .

It is believed that the chewa tribe has its stronghold of the MalawiCongress Party, [MCP], where the
first country president during the independence time who ruled for 31 years came from this tribe.

The Chewa people enjoyed a big and better share of the appointments in top government positions.

They later formed what is known as Chewa Heritage foundation, [Chefu].


HOW DID THE CHEWA HERITAGE FOUNDATION BROUGHT UNITY AMONG THE CHEWAS AND DISUNITY
TO the among nation

The Chewa heritage foundation, [chefo] background started from between 1994 and 2005.

The United Nations Education Scientific organization in collaboration with the Department Of Culture
conducted a civic education across the country.

They civic-educated people about the the rights of citizens, their freedom of associations and ideals of
preserving cultural customs, values and traditions as well as promotion of unityamong the tribal
members.

In responding to this,the Chewas formed this grouping society of Chewa heritage foundation in 2006,
which was aimed at preserving their customs, values and tradition throughout the country.

It was comprised of about 437 chiefs under chefo

It was formed because of the concerns over the decline of moral standards among people due to
copying of bad foreign behaviours.

The Chewa formulated Chefo to promote their unity, language and other cultural activities.

To ensure that all Chewas are following their cultural ceral practices, they have their own ceremony,
Kulamba which is performed at Katete, Zambia where they assemble annually.

They ensure no dilution of their culture and encouraging developments.

They also pay respect to the Chewa king, Gawundi where unity is expressed.

Additionally, the chefo is also aimed at providing social services to both Chewas and non-Chewas in
regardless of ethnic groupings and religions.

They organize different supports to the victims of natural disasters.

For instance, the Chewa Heritage Foundation donated itams of over one mellion Kwacha to the flod
victims to the Chikwawa camp.

According to the Nyasa times, they also supported flood victims in Salima with various itams including
food.

MLAKHO WA-ALOMWE, [MWA]

It was founded by the late president of the country, Bingu Wa Mutharika in 2008.

Its aims included:

1. Diveloping the Lomwe people, 2. Energizing the Lomwe people, 3. Preserving the history of the
Lomwe people.
2. 4. Preserving Lomwe traditions and curture and their customs.
3. Since its inseption, [establishment], the association organizes annual Lomwe cultural festivals.
4. These festivals are held at Chonde, basically in the month of October.
5. The main focuss of this group is on exposing children and people from other tribes, even from
other countries to to their ethnic customs which include dances, poetry, tribal history, their
arts and crafts as well as creating and preserving the Lomwe tribal customs.

This was a means of promoting their self esteem.

Some petinant issues awhich the association seeks to address includeI. Re-painting the attitudes
that people had right away from the colonial times about the Lomwe people.

Therewere some negatives or derogatory policies toards the Lomwe that they were basically
excluded from the mainstream of social and cultural evolution of the country.

They wanted also to address issues of steriotypes that were leveled against them, some of which
included being regarded the primitive or backward people because they came in this country as
migrant people and worked for the Colonial peoples who opened tea states in Chiradzulu, Mulanje,
Thyolo and Phalombe.

Because of these steriotypes, most of them had been hiding their identities.

Just as an evidence, the current Lomwes can hardly speak their language and traditions.

This means that the Lomwe tradition and culture were at previously not exposed.

When the Mlakho Wa Alomwe came in 2008, it tried to turn the tables through the reneaesence
brought by Bingu Wamutharika, where the Lomwe identity was revived.

Bingu Imbarked on a number of programs such as mobilizing resources from local people, especially
the Lomwes.

He also mobilized them from international organisations.

Just because the association had a weak financial base.

He also facilitated a construction of museum, specifically a cultural centre at Chonde, which has a
museum, library and a school.

CHALLENGES ASSOCIETED WITH THE SOCIAL ETHNIC GROUPINGS.

1. They contributed to regionalisms, tribalism and nepotism.


2. This, therefore, is dangerous because national unity is at a stake that is, it can not be fully
achieved, And also leading to low national imunity.
3. 2. They are also affecting politics in a nation as the afilliations in two parties are based on where
one is coming from.
4. 3. Appointments in public portfolials are based in ethnicity.
6.
Other heritage foundations formed in Malawi are Mulakho wa-Alomwe, Ndamo Sya Ayao, Mgumano
Wa-Asena Na-Amang’anja.

However, politicians are highjarcking these ethnic groupings or foundations, using them as campanning
groups since they are formed by the specific groups.

king

MAJOR RELIGIONS IN THE PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD

These include Makewana,[Mangadzi], M,bona cult Chikhang,ombe, ETC.

THE ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES IN MALAWI

Africans were not know how to control environment.

The nature controlled itself and people mainly focused on production and survival only.

The British had different views on environment withAfricans.

The Europeans knew the value of land while Africans did not.

Chiefs could exchange land with materials like wine, clothe, etc. to British.

This changed minds of Africans over land.

They opened their minds.

We knew this through literature and oral sources.

They did not believed that they had exploitable resources.

Our economy was on land, lakes, and rivers.

Land was a backbone of our economy because it was a source of timber, fertile soil for agriculture, etc.

Lakes also had a value on economic source.

People used water for transportation and domestic farming.

Mountains also attracted tourists.

The plains had fertile soil which attracted people.

Fish provided an economic source to the people, but Mmwera wind made fishing very difficult.

People believed that fishing should be stopped during Mmwera cause the nature would punish them
would they continue.
It was believed that they could be killed by hippo, famine, heavy winds, clockdile, etc as a revenge of
nature.

Another resource that the Pre-colonial people relied was vegetation.

Grasses and trees provided materials for building.

HOW PEOPLE UTILIZED THESE RESOURCES

The Europeans admired the land of Malawi, for example, Livingston said that Zomba plateau is woody,
evergreen and it could rain even in dry season.

Shire highlands provided a fertile land and people grew crops like cotton, tobacco,.

Southern region is fall under European planters because of its fertile landsHuge land was for planters,
while the local people were throne uphills and infertile lands or reserves.

Livingstone told Europeans that Africans were doing slave trade, so he invited the missionaries to come.

Aims of Missionaries

-spread of Christianity

-introduction of legitimate trade

-introduction of agricultural systems in Malawi.

They interacted with the Nyanja people because their cultivation was suitable.

Nyanjas established their gardens very close to their homes.

They planted protective crops from wild animals.

They also used iron holes, sickles, and etc for cultivation.

Farmars used three methods to cultivate:

1. Mound cultivation, [Matuto or Katoto].


2. This hads small-like hips of soil.
3. Crops grown were sweet potatoes, cassava and tomato.
4. Phoka and Nyanja liked to use this method.
5. Farmers saw mounds better interms of that it provided a room for the crops like tuberous ones
to grow.
6. Mounds also helped in controlling soil erosion especially in hilly areas.
7. It also contains fertile soil.
8. 2. Kulima pansi, [Chitipula].
9. In this way, farmers removed all grasses and till ground before planting.
10. Crops suitable are maize, milates, pease, Rice, ETC.
11. It is suitable in flat lands like areas along Lake chirwa and Phalombe plain.
12. On hilly areas, it requires much labour, for example stons must be removed.
13. It is associated with wait seasons since the soil is still wait and hence easy to till.
14. 3. Makasu, [Makusa]
15. This is a form of shiefting cultivation, where farmers plant crops at the start of the rainy season
within the ash that has been already burn during preparation.
16. Ash was one way of improving soil fertility. For example, ash produce phosphorous which is
important to plants.
17. It is also adaptive way of dealing with unsuitable tropical vegetation in Africa.
18. This method also maximizes the use of labour.
19. However, the Europeans said that it was westfull to the environment as it led to deforestation,
burning, glob warming and burning of micro-organisms.
20. This method was practiced by tribes that were on the move, [nomadics].
21. In Zambia, the method was called “VISOSO”.
22. Pre-colonial people practiced this method because the land was plentifull while the labour was
few.
23. The could move to search for fertile land to ensure that the food security was much higher.
24. Crops grown were cucumbers, mphonda, pumpkings, ETC.
25. The Europeans condemned it because it led to deforestation and soil erosion.
26. 4. Intercropping
27. People along the shire highlands practiced this method.
28. It is where different crops are grown on the same piece of land.
29. Nyanja people liked this method.
30. Its advantages included:
31. –If one crop failed, another one could do better
32. –It saved land because local people had small portions since the lands were in the hands of
Europeans.
33. –It increased soil fertility
34. –It saved labour
35. –It reduces crop failure,[interdependence].
36. –It protected land from soil erosions since some crops cover lands and conserve moisture.

-It reduced the growth of weeds and in the process, reducing the amount of labour.
-It reduced the threat of famine because some crops were peraenial, EG. Cassava.
5. Dimba or waitland cultivation
It went on throughout the year during dry season, people practiced dimba.
Crops grown were vegetables, maize.
Dry grown crops were purposed for commercial activities, while during rainy season, crops were
grown for subsistence farming.
7. Mphala cultivation
8. It was being practiced along the Shire valley during the rainy season when people move to
uplands.
9. It is also called “Upland cultivation”.
10. During dry season, people moved to lowlands.
LIMITATIONS OF PRECOLONIAL METHODS OF FARMING

1. Labour shortage. During precolonial time, the population was low thus labour became a
challenge.
2. They only depended on the family labour.
3. It was hard for Africans to expand cultivation since it was not mechanized.
4. 2. Lack of proper storage facilities.
5. Crops like maize for example were stored in grainaries or Nkhokwe.
6. Using granaries, the produces were prone to thieves and , pests and fire.
7. They could also make Nsanja or food roughters which were constructed within the house.
8. This was small to store all crops.
9. 3. Re-occuring of wars.
10. People dominated after becoming worriors in war.
11. They fought over the other.
12. The inter-tribal wars and slave trade threatened the farmers hence they feared to go far away
for agriculture.
13. 4. Famine.
14. 1860 and 1890 made Malawians food insecurity. In 1949 and 2001, there were also a serious
famine.

THE VIEWS OF EUROPEANS AND AFRICANS OVER THE CAUSES OF FAMINE


The Africans said that the Europeans took better lands and pushed the local people to infertile
lands where cultivation was difficult.
Africans also said the the coming of Europeans led to deforestation as they opened the stations
and plantations which led to shortage of rainfall.
However, the Europeans condemned Africans that they were doing primitive or old ways of
agriculture.
For example, shiefting farming led to deforestation and degradation of land hence famine.

INDIGINOUS INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES


There were a number of economic sectors used by the local Africans before the coming of
Europeans.
[a] Agriculture. People specialized the type of crop which could suit the environment.
They chose what type of farming suiting their environment.
[b] There were also other indigenous technologies that did not connected to agriculture.
These were

-Iron working
-salt making
-clothes making
-Potery making
We new much through the archaeological remains which dug out by the archaeologists.
The dug out areas that have possible sites for local innhabitat
These areas are called sites.
These remains are called artfacts and fosills.
Artifacts are materials that were made and used by human beings.
For example copper onaments, gold onaments etc.
Fosils are remaining materials that are naturally in nature.
Examples are bones of animals, grindstones etc.
Historians also knew about indigenous technologies through oral traditions.

Local people were able to recall the materials used during their old lives.

Historians were able to explain why remain materials found in different areas are similar.

The materials were same in similarirties, but different in times of discovery.

This was happening through migrations, intermarriages, trade, etc.

EXAMPLES OF INDIGINOUS TECHNOLOGIES THAT WERE MADE

1. Iron working
2. Discovery and use of iron brought about important change in Africa.
3. When a man discovered how to use iron, it increased the ability to exploit the environment.
4. Aperiod when a man started using iron is called “iron age period”.
5. In Malawi, it dates back to 300 AD.
6. It replaced the stone age period.
7. Iron working was very important to other branches of production like farming, hunting and
fishing.
8. Tools that were made through iron working were:
9. Iron axes, iron holes, iron sicles,

HOW IRON IMPREMENTS WERE MADE

In Malawi, there were a lot of iron ore deposits which widely distributed in plateaus.

IRON SMELTING PROCESS

They cleaned iron ore, constructing a furnace like an uven and put fire inside it.

Then they put the iron ore inside where unwanted materials were removed and semi-liquid form of iron
remained.

This was easy to make any shape of materials they wanted.

To ensure that the process went smoothly, they conducted ritual ceremonies for ancenstral spirits.

They were also observing some taboos.


The location where the ancient people inhabited determines what activities they could be associated
with.

Iron technology helped the ancient people to:

-do farming smoothly

-be able to make bricks

-Making boats

IRON DEPOSIT SITES

[A] Namitembo whole

[B] Likangala area.

SALT MAKING

The places include Henga valley in the North, Damphwi area in Kasungu river, along the lake Chirwa
shores in the south.

How were the salt made

It involved getting a salt clay kind of soil, add water to dissolve the content.

Remove the water from the sedimented soil and then pour the water in some clean containers and the
filtrate were to be boiled until the salty clystals are obtained through everporation and it thus turned
into a real salt.

In this way, salt trade was controlled by the political authorities, Mwase of Kasungu, for instance
controlled this trade itam since it was an extensively nateworked area, especially to the Eastern part of
Zambia, Chipata area.

Chief Kawomba in Kasungu also controlled this salt trade.

These chiefs derived considerable revenues.

In the South, along the Lake Chirwa, salt making would begin after the lake had retreated from the
banks,[after the flods], whereby it could be to its normal leaving the floded area.

It would be soon after the rainy season.

Salt making would continue after the rainy season to another rainy season.

Salt making here was basically done by by the elderly women and grownup children as the men were
involved in extensive fishing.
They would be then exchanged with iron hooks, iron axes, iron holes,goats and pieces of clothes.

THE INTRODUCTION AND SPREAD OF ISLAM IN MALAWI

It was spread through long distance trade participation in iron, particularly involving the Yao and Swahili
Arabs.

FACTORS FOR THE SPREADING

-Arabs wanted to spread their Sultants, [Their own communities with their own leaderships].

One of the figures who helped in bringing islam was Salim Bin Abdull.

He came to Nkhotakota in 1840.

He was conducting ivory and slave trade at Malimba, he spread islam.

Salim encouraged local chiefs to send their sons In Zanzbar to train Islam.

As a result, most people had converted into Islam.

An other one was Bin Kazbazema commonly known as Mulozi.

He set a trade market for slaves at Mpata near Karonga in 1880, and decleared Sultan in 1887.

This place is believed to be a basis of islam in Karonga.

However, Mulozi was disturbed by the Europeans who upon coming to Malawi launched a campaign
against slave trading activities.

2.Influence by YaoThe yao were interested in Arabic scripts to know more about the language mainly
for trade communication purpose.

Since the Arabs were Muslims, the Yaos wanted their partnership by adopting religion they had
similarities in initiaon ceremonies, and circumcision.

Aperiod between 1880 and 1930 so expansion of islam in Malawi.

37. Introduction of the British rule


38. This acted as a driving force for Yaos to turn fully in islam so as to regain their power in religion.
39. 4.Peace established by the British .
40. The British people pacified all fighting tribes thus this helped in spreading of islam peacefully.
41. In this time, shekhs spread in different places, including Abdull Bin Haj Wakuda, [1860-1930s],
Thabit Bin Mhamad Ngaunje, [1880-1889], Abdull Kuhali Kapalasa, [1899-1940].
5. Introduction of Islamic Brotherhoolds
6. In this way, different sects of religion formed EG. Shadriayya and Quadriyya which mainly
helped in converting people to islam.
7. 7. Coming in of Asian traders
8. Migration Of Yaos to the tcs.
9. This was through working together with as well as marriages.

IMPACT OF ISLAM IN MALAWI

-Islamic right of passage became common

-New designings EG. Mosques, Arabic dressing became common.

-Polygamy type of marriage was encouraged and became a practices amongst the locals.

-The brought about prohibition of some foods, EG. Pork.

THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY IN MALAWI

It was introduced as a result of DR. David livingston’s influence.

DR. Livingston came through the influence of of his father-in-law, Robert Moffat.

Livingston was sent to Africa by the London Missionary Society in 1841.

Joining Moffat, he opened his own mission station at Mabotsa.

He also moved to Colobeng, a place around Zambezi Valley where he saw Lake Ngambi

In the same year.

He was by then sponsored by The Royal Geographical society.

As he was travelling, he could report any observation to the London missionary Society.

Through his expedition, he came across the slave trading conducts in the Shire valley, more
especially in the Kololo area.

He followed Zambezi river up to its source.

He finally wrote a book, “Missionary Travells And Researches In Southern Africa.”As he followed, he
riched Lake Chirwa and he also saw Lake Malawi in 1859 where it was given the name, Lake Nyasa.

Because of slave trade with the Kololos, DR. David Livingston made a plea to missionaries in Britain
to come to Malawi and help ending the act.

He felt that they could do so by introducing the three Cs, [Christianity, Civilization and Comerce].

He had noted that slave trade was ivil as it involved the selling of fellow human beings, hence
made this plea.

He thought that if Christianity would come, the brotherhoold would unite the people.

It would help people to understand the brothery.


Furthermore, the introduction of commerce would also help to bring the slave trade to an end by
coming up with a legitimate trading itams for their earn living rather than slave trade.

They included new agricultural practices to ensure food security as well as good commerce.

They also introduced intreprenure skills.

On the civilization, they thought of introducing formal education since they felt it could make a
person usefull due to the human capital attained.

They could also become imployable.

1 . The first missionary to respond was the Universities Missionary Of Central Africa, [U.MC.A.].

Led by Bishop Mackenzie, they riched Malawi in 1861.

Through the advice of DR. David Livingston, they settled at Magomero in Chiradzulu.

Here, Mackenzie died of malaria in 1862.

However, challenges experienced there included spread of malaria as well as attacks by the slave
raiders since the place was a slave trade route.

This, therefor forced the missionary to move from this area to Zanzibar in 1863, a development
which did not impress DR. Livingston.

In 1867, Livingston riched Lake Tanganyika Ujiji, and Uwaraba river in 1869.

He died earlier on the 1st May, 1873 at the age of 60.

Through the help of Henry Morton Stanley who was sent by the Newyork Herald newspaper to find
out more about Livingston, The body of DR. Livingston was sent back to England.

He was buried at Westminster Ape on 18th Aprail, 1874.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF DR. DAVID LIVINGSTON

-He drew a map of Central Africa which became known in Europe.

-He led to the end of slave trade in Central Africa, and introduced the other legitimate trading
activities.

-Led to the establishment of mission stations at Mabotsa and Kolobeng.

However, he failed to find the source of the River Nile.

Bishop Tozer took the U.MC.A. to ZanzibarThe place was huge of slave trade and the missionary
helped in ending the trade in 1873.

The U.MC.A. later came back to Malawi, and now under William Percival and now at Likoma Irland
on the Lake Malawi.
The area was a slave trading rought where ships could carry the slaves with an exchange of
different itams.

The leader by then was Chancy Maposi.

There, they were basically being raided by the Nyanja people and the Gwangwara Ngoni of
Mozambique on both sides of the lake.

They however were determined to stay and fought against the adversaries hence the area became
a refugee centre.

However, the area was also experiencing a malaria problem.

The Likoma became the first centre of the Anglican Diosis in Malawi.

2. THE LIVINGSTONIA MISSION

It came to replace the U.M.C.A. which left for Zanzibar.

It was formed in 1874 by the influence of DR. Steward.

The group was named in co-memorration of DR. David Livingston.

When coming to Malawi, The mission was led by Edward Young and Robert Laws and arrived in
1875.

They avoided establishing a mission at Magomero and instead went to Cape Maclear.

Whilst at Cape Maclear, the missionary did three things:

-Fought against slave trade

-Translated the new testament into vernacular language.

-Opened the first formal school in 1876.

In 1881, Robert Laws moved the missionary to Bandawe where Edward Young died.

Here, the Tongas accepted them as they wanted to be protected from the Ngoni Raiders.

In the process, the Tongas gained Western education and technical skilles which impowered them
to do commerce.

THE Ngoni MISSION

Robert laws visited Mbelwa twice: 1876-81, aimly to persuad Ngoni to live peacefully with their
neighbours, especially the Tongas.

In 1882, William Coyy, a Zulu evangelist was sent to work amongst the Ngonis, [for
communication].
Robert saw it as a way to convince them.

Through law, they formed a missionary at Njuyu accepted by the Mbelwa in 1882.

They accepted because by then, the Ngoni had become militarily weak, hence looking for support.

The mission extended to Ekwendeni in 1899, and Hora in 1893..

In 1894, the missionary moved to Khondowe in Rumphi.

Bandawe being close to the lake was hugely affected by malaria.

Khondowe became a a centre for education and health services.

Robert Laws was an instrumental for the formation of the Central African Praysbeterian, [c.c.a.p.].

THE BLANTYRE MISSION

Sent by the Church of Scortland, it was established in Malawi in 1876 under Henry Henderson.

Henderson came together with the Livingstonia mission and chose to stay at Kapeni in Blantyre for
three reasons:

i. Kapeni had a good climate


ii. Ii. It had a good population
iii. Ii.The place had good communication networks, [for transportation purposes].
iv. Slave trading however was the main problem in this area.
v. The area was occupied by the Amangochi Yao who welcomed the missionaries to get
support from the Amachinga yao who were always raiding them as slaves.
vi. However the missionaries faced some challenges.
vii. They wanted to be involved in local politics and to create a colony.
viii. They could flog or whipping those who had commited a crime.
ix. They, however tried to introduce the three Cs where they created sedentary villages for
agriculture, opened missionary schools where technical skills were being taught.
x. Women were introduced to domestic education.
xi. The missionary established churches.
xii. Other missionaries who came later were David clement Scort and alexander Hetherwack.

THE ROMAN CATHORIC MISSION

They first attempted come to entry through Zambezi in around 16th century.

They tried through the Mashonaland.

They came through their order, [politics.

The first was the Jeswits and the white fathers.They arrived in Malawi in 1829 with their first mission
at Mponda.

The mission was knon as San Luis Mponda.


They even opened the the school at Mponda.

The problems at mponda included:

-Their teachings were Somalia and English hence created a communication barrier.

-The area had a high degree of slave trade.

-The mission was affected by the Jonston’s troops in 1889.

In the years later, the mission came back to Malawi under Montfort fathers.

They now riched at Nzama in Ntchewu.

Other stations were opened included Kachebele, Nguludi, Mua, and Mtakataka in Dedza.

They were assisted with the sisterhoold and brotherhoold.

THE DUTCH REFORMED CHURCH MISSION , [DRCM]

This was opened in Malawi in around 1889 under Charls Andrew Murry.

He was assisted by Dr. Emslie of Livingstonia mission.

It opened its first stationat Mvera, among the Ngoni of Chiwere Ndlovu.

Chiwere accepted the DRC mission for pristage purpose.

He was also thinking that Murry possessed a supernatural powers to cause rain.

Murry was later joined by Rev. Vlok from 1890, they started opening schools at Mvera

From 1896, the mission extended to to chief Mazengera as murry wanted the protection of mission
from Ngoni and Yao raiders.

By 1909, DRCM. Had 10 missionaries in Malawi with centres at Mvera, Kombwe and Nkhoma.

They had 14 schools with 48 teachers.

Problems encountered included:

-threats by the Ngonis

-Attacks by malaria.

COMMON PROBLEMS FACED BY THE EARLY CHURCH MISSIONARIES IN MALAWI

1. Malaria problems lead to deaths of many mission leaders, fore example, Charls Fredrick
Mackenzie of u.mc.a.
2. 2. Communication barriers interms of transport and language.
3. Intolerable African customs such as polygamy, beer drinking and and hunting.
4. Lack of adequate preparations when coming to Malawi.
5. 3. Hostility of some tribes to the missionaries.
6. 4. Severe attacks by the slave raiders and slave trading activities.
7. 5. Unfavourable tropical climate leading to diseases
8. 6. Inadiquate fundings.
9. 7. Lack of civic authority to regulate the conducts of local people.

IMPACT OF THE CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES IN MALAWI

[A] Alot of people were converted to Christianity

[ B] They introduced Western education which started up mission schools.

[C] Helped in the abolishing of slave trade

[[D] They helped in the improvement of communication through translation of bibles and transport
systems improvements.

[E] Helped in eroding or ending some of the local customs that were bad such as Gule Wamkulu and
other activities.

[F] Africans reiceved industrial trainings in arts and crafts such as basket weaving.

[G] They introduced Western Medical Services[H] They introduced improved agricultural techniques.

[I] They pacified worrior tribes such as Jere Ngonis to peacefull co-exist with the other tribes.

THE EUROPEAN OCCUPATION AND ADMINSTRATION OF NYASLAND

The first Europeans to settle in Nyasaland were the missionaries with the influence of DR. David
Livingston.

They were followed by the traders such as African Lakes company.

They were later joined by planters such as Jonston.

The British government at first was not interested to formally occupy Nyasaland, but later changed on
humanitarian grounds as they wanted to protect the faillow British citizens.

The government sent Hary Halmiton Jonston, a consul in Mozambique to go to the intire Central Africa,
[Nyasaland] to protect citizens.

There, he signed a number of treaties with citizens in the country to stop slave trade.

He put up measures in order to protect British interests which mainly centred on missionaries.

THE ROLE PLAYED BY SIR HARY JONSTON


1. In February, 1890, sent to Portugal an ultimatum, [a tough condition] demanding the stop of
Serpa Pinto on the area to the lower shire Nyasland.
2. 2. He signed treaties of alliance to chiefs including Jumbe of Nkhotakota, the Tonga chiefs and
Chiwere Ndlovu.
3. 3. He forced some resisting chiefs such as Yao-Mponda, Jalasi, Makanjira, Mlozi and Ngoni to
accept his leadership.
4. He was assisted by Alfred Sharpe.Signing of treaties with local chiefs was as a key for ensuring
that they accepted leadership for the establishing of legal basis to take African land as well as
allowing to end slave trade.
5. It also gave him a chance to dig and protect minerals.
6. 4. In 1889, he assisted in signing of Anglo-German agreement, where boundaries to the North
of Nyasaland were settled.
7. 5. He devided the country, Malawi into 27 districts and assisted by the revenue collectors, he
made Zomba a capital of Malawi and Northern Rhodesia.
8. During his time, Quarels were settled by the majestrates and those involving the locals were
being delt with by the traditional chiefs.
9. Jonston also introduced some policies as follows:
10. [a] Land policy. Through this policy, land was taken by the missionaries, European traders and
settlers.
11. He allowed this because he mainly relied on economic growth of the country.
12. In this way, agriculture was mostly relied whereby an introduction of cash crops such as cotton,
tobacco, among others were grown in different places of the country as aan economic
backbone.
13. However, there were few labour to work for the Europeans and thus it led to the coming up of
the labour policy.
14. [b] Labour Policy. The Europeans did not rely much on local Africans as theywere regarding
them as unadvanced, and instead relied on on European planters.
15. These planters were given certificates of land land ownership to claim the land as theirs.
16. Inside the certificates were a “non-disturbance close” whereby they were given a chance to
claim the land with no any disturbance from the local Africans.
17. As a result, Africans would not be offered any land to expand since they were only to reside in
reserves.
18. This generally led to a starvation to the Africans.
The mainly affected area was Southern Malawi where most Europeans floked.
Not only the Europeans, but also the region was also affected by the influx of the Lomwe and
the Yaos from Mozambique.
[B] Labour Policies.
At first, Europeans imploied Africans with low wages.
They mostly needed them in wet seasons, [rany time] to work in their farms.
This made Africans to produce less food products from their own farms since they were mostly
getting concentrated on the Europeans farms, and thus they muchly depended on the
Europeans.
They later started to default, working in the Europeans.
This resulted to the introduction of Thangata system, by the Europeans, where Africans had to
work long hours, from 6 AM to 6 PM time of the day with the minimal wages.
Worse still, they could use the money from the wages to pay taxes to the very same Europeans.
Cosiquently, many Africans started to become migrant labourers, whereby some went to South
Africa and Zimbabwe to workas mines for good wages.
The Europeans, therefore went against these migrant labourers as they reduced the amount of
labour for them.
There were push and pull factors for these labour migrations.
[A] On the push factors, the Africans were running away from:

-Low wages

- - poor living conditions


- -Introduction of Thangata System
- -Introduction of taxation policies
- [b] on pull factors, They were attracted by:
- -Good payments
- -Good working conditions
- -For prestigious
3. Taxation Policies
4. They imposed high taxation policies in order to push Africans to work in their plantations.
5. However, the European missionaries for sometime could intervene in supporting the poorand
tax defaulters .
6. Due to high taxes, it forced the Africans to work for these Europeans.
7.
19.
20.

xiii. THE NGONI MISSION

He also riched Victoria falls in 18

xxiii.

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