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BIT2204 Introduction to Data Communication and Computer

Networks
Bachelors of Science in Information Technology (Mount Kenya University)

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P.O. Box 342-01000 Thika

Email: [email protected]
Web: www.mku.ac.ke

SCHOOL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: BIT 2204

COURSE TITLE: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS

Instructional manual for BBIT – Distance Learning

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COURSE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 6

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS ....................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Definition of terms .................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Network Types (classification based on point of control) ........................................................ 9
1.3 Basic Components of Network ............................................................................................... 12
Chapter Review Questions ...................................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 18
TRANSMISSION MEDIA ..................................................................................................................... 18
2.1 Introduction to Transmission Media ....................................................................................... 18
2.2 Guided Transmission Media ................................................................................................... 19
2.3 Unguided Transmission Media ............................................................................................... 23
2.4 Transmission Impairments: ..................................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 29
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES ................................................................................................................... 29
3.1 Introduction to Network topologies ........................................................................................ 29
3.2 Medium access control methods ............................................................................................. 37
Chapter Review Questions ...................................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 45
OSI LAYER AND TCP/IP LAYERS ..................................................................................................... 45
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 45
4.2 Advantages of a Layered Network Architecture ..................................................................... 46
4.3 The OSI 7 layer model ............................................................................................................ 46
4.4 The TCP/IP Model Layers ...................................................................................................... 52
Chapter Review Questions ...................................................................................................................... 55
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 56
CONECTING DEVICES........................................................................................................................ 56
1.1 Introduction to Networking devices ........................................................................................ 56
1.2 Networking Devices ................................................................................................................ 57
1.3 Internetworking Devices ......................................................................................................... 61
Chapter Review Questions ...................................................................................................................... 65

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CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................... 66

SWITCHING TECHNIQUES ................................................................................................................ 66
6.1 Introduction to Switching........................................................................................................ 66
6.2 Circuit Switching .................................................................................................................... 67
6.3 Packet Switching ..................................................................................................................... 68
6.4 Message Switching ................................................................................................................. 71
Chapter Review Questions ...................................................................................................................... 72
CHAPTER SEVEN ..................................................................................................................... 73
MULTIPLEXING ................................................................................................................................... 73
7.1 Introduction to multiplexing ................................................................................................... 73
7.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing ........................................................................................... 74
7.3 Time Division Multiplexing.................................................................................................... 76
SAMPLE EXAM QUESTIONS ................................................................................................ 79

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COURSE OUTLINE

BIT 2204: DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

Purpose of the course

To introduce the concepts of computer networking in order to provide basic skills needed in data
transmission communication and computer network..

TOPICS - DETAILS
I. Introduction to Networks
A. Definition of terms
B. Network types, LAN, MAN, WAN
C. Basic components of a Network, terminal, server etc
D. Network types; peer to peer, client server, advantages

II. Transmission medium

A. Guided Medium, twisted pair, coaxial cable, fiber optic
B. Unguided medium, satellite, microwave
C. Transmission impairments, noise, attenuation, delay distortion

III. Network topologies

A. Star, ring, bus, mesh
B. Advantages and disadvantages of the different network topologies
C. Medium Access control, CMSA CD, Token, polling

IV. OSI LAYER AND TCP/IP LAYERS

A. Advantages of a layered model
B. Seven OSI layers
C. Four TCP/IP layer

V. Connecting Devices
A. Networking Devices, switch, hub, bridge, repeater
B. Internetworking Devices, Router, gateway

VI. Switching techniques

A. Circuit switching
B. Packet switching
C. Message switching

VII. Multiplexing
A. Time division Multiplexing
B. Frequency division Multiplexing

Main course text

Tanenbaum A.S.(1996), Computer Networks, Prentice Hall India

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Reference Books

i. William Stallings (2010), Data and Computer Communication, 9th edition

ii. Behrouz A. Forouzan, (2006), Data communication and networking, 5th edition.
iii. Andrews. Tanenbaum, (2010) Computer Networks, 5th edition . Prentice-Hall PTR

Assessment: Examination - 70%: Coursework - 30%

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter the learner shall be able to;

i. Explain the meanings of different terms used in networking

ii. Explain the basic components of a network
iii. The different types of networks such as the Local area network, Metropolitan area
network and the Wide area Network.
iv. The benefits of establishing a computer network

1.1 Definition of terms

Computer network - A computer network (a network in short) is a combination of hardware
and software that achieves communication between computers. It can also be defined as a
collection of computers and devices interconnected by communications channels that facilitate
communications and allows sharing of resources and information among interconnected devices.
When put more simply, a computer network is a collection of two or more computers linked
together for the purposes of sharing information, resources, among other things.

A client is a computer that allows a user or users to log on to the network and take advantage of
the resources available on the network. A client computer will make a client operating system.
The purpose of the client is to get user onto the network; therefore, client computers don’t
usually have the processing power, the storage space, or the memory found on a server because
the client does not have to serve up resources to other computers on the network.

A server, on the other hand, is typically a much more powerful computer that runs a network
operating system. The server provides centralized administration of the network and serves up
the resources that are available on the network, such as printers and files. The administrator of

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the server decides who can and cannot log on the network and which resources the various can
access.

Data communication - electronic transmission of information that has been encoded digitally
(as for storage and processing by computers).

Data are groups of information that represent the qualitative or quantitative attributes of a
variable or set of variables. Data (plural of "datum", which is seldom used) are typically the
results of measurements and can be the basis of graphs, images, or observations of a set of
variables. Data are often viewed as the lowest level of abstraction from which information and
knowledge are derived.

Information – Processed data that is in a meaningful form.

A transmitter is an electronic device which, usually with the aid of an antenna, propagates an
electromagnetic signal such as radio, television, or other telecommunications.

Receiver, the receiving end of a communications channel

Signal a physical quantity that can carry information

Channel , the medium used to convey information from a sender to a receiver.

An electric bus is a bus powered by electricity that connect two devices

Simplex communication refers to communication that occurs in one direction only.

A half-duplex system provides for communication in both directions, but only one direction at a
time (not simultaneously). Typically, once a party begins receiving a signal, it must wait for the
transmitter to stop transmitting, before replying.

An example of a half-duplex system is a two-party system such as a "walkie-talkie" style two-

way radio, wherein one must use "Over" or another previously-designated command to indicate
the end of transmission, and ensure that only one party transmits at a time, because both parties
transmit on the same frequency.

A duplex communication system is a system composed of two connected parties or devices that
can communicate with one another in both directions.

A network is an interconnection of two or more computers in order to share data and resources.

Point to Point communication A traditional point-to-point data link is a communications

medium with exactly two endpoints and no data or packet formatting. The host computers at

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either end had to take full responsibility for formatting the data transmitted between them.
Computers in close proximity may be connected by wires directly between their interface cards.

Multi point communication - A system with at least one, and preferably at least two, end
devices

Why network computers?

There are some compelling reasons why someone with more than a couple computers would
want to connect those computers into a network. What the network will actually be used for will,
of course, vary depending on the needs of the person or organization creating the network.
Networks can be used for simple tasks, such as sharing a printer, or they can be used for more
advanced applications, such as complex point-of-sale system and worldwide video conferencing.

All networks, whether big or small, are typically created so that users on the network can share
resources and communicate. The list that follows breaks down some of the reasons for
networking computers:

 File sharing. Networking computers makes it very easy for the users on the network to
share application files

 Hardware sharing. Users can share devices such as printers, CD-ROM drives, and hard
drives.

 Program sharing. Applications such as spreadsheets and word processors can be run over
the network.

 User communication. Network allows users to take advantage of communication media

such as electronic mail, newsgroups, and video conferencing.

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Network Types (classification based on Network size)

LAN - Local Area Network - A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short
distance. A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN,
though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and
occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings.

Metropolitan Area Network - a network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but
smaller than a WAN, such as a city. A MAN is typically owned an operated by a single entity
such as a government body or large corporation.

WAN - Wide Area Network - As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance.
The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth. A WAN is a geographically-dispersed
collection of LANs. A network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN.

1.2 Network Types (classification based on point of control)

The most elementary of all networks that consist of two (or more) computers, each
connected to the other using some kind of wire or cable to permit information exchange.
The connection can be done in two basic ways: Peer-To-Peer and Server-Based.

Peer-To-Peer Network

Computer Computer

Computer

Computers of a Peer-To-Peer network can take both a client and a server role. There is no
centralized control over shared resources, such as files or printer. Any individual machine
can share its resources with any other computer on the same network, however and

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whenever its users choose to do so. The Peer-To-Peer relationship also means that all
computers have equal access and responsibility in the network.

Advantages of Peer-To-Peer Network

 Easy to install and configure.
 Individual machines do not depend on the presence of a dedicated server.
 Individual users control their own-shared resources.
 It’s inexpensive to purchase and operate.
 No additional software or hardware beyond a suitable operating system is needed.
 No dedicated administrators are needed to run the network.
 It works best for network with 10 of fewer users.
Disadvantages of Peer-To-Peer Network
 Network security applies only to a single resource at a time.
 Users may be forced to use as many passwords as there are shared resources
 Each machine must be backed up individually to protect all shared data.
 There is no centralized organizational scheme to locate or control access to data.
 Not suitable for more than 10 users
Suitability of Peer-To-Peer Network
In the following situations peer-to-peer is appropriate.
 There are fewer than ten people in your organization
 The people in your organization are sophisticated computer users
 Security is not an issue or the user can be trusted to maintain good security
 There is no one central administrator who sets network policies.
 Costly to have an additional computer just to server files
 User can be relied upon to back up their own data
 User are physically close and no plans for expansion on the network

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Server-Based Network

Computer Computer

Server

Server based networks provide centralized control over network resources, primarily by
enforcing network security and control through the server’s own configuration and setup. The
computers used for servers usually incorporate faster CPUs, more memory, larger disk drives, ad
extra peripherals (such as tape drives and CD ROM) when compare to end user machines
(clients). In most cases, servers are dedicated to handle network requests from their clients.

Advantages of Server-Based Network

 Centralized user accounts, security, and access controls to simplify network
administration.
 More powerful equipment means more efficient access to network resources.
 A single password for network login deliver access to all.
 Server-based networking makes the most sense for networks with 10 or more users or
any networks where resources are used heavily.
Disadvantages of Server-Based Network
 At worst, server failure leads to whole network failure.
 Complex, special-purpose server software requires allocation of expert staff, which
increases expanses.
 Dedicated hardware (server) and special software (NOS) add to the cost.
Suitability of Server-Based Network
In the following situations server-based is appropriate.

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 There are more than ten people in your organization.

 Many of the people are not sophisticated computer users.
 Your organisation maintains information that must be centrally controlled.
 A central administrator will be Assigned for network setup and maintenance

1.3 Basic Components of Network

The most common components of a network are:
 Terminal
 Workstation
 Server
 Network interface card
 Communication media
 Network operating system
 Peripheral devices

Terminal

Terminal
Over the years, the data terminal market has increased substantially and there are now
literally hundreds of manufactures and many different kinds if terminal. However, the
fact is that all of these terminals have been designed primarily to input and display
information in some form or another. Therefore, even though specific characteristics such
as screen size and keyboard layout may differ, they can generally be categorized into
three simple groups.
1. Dumb Terminals

Dumb terminals are those which have limited functions and are driven with
information from a host computer. Normally, they consist of a Cathode Ray Tube
(CRT) display screen with a full alphanumeric keyboard and can be connected

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directly to a computer system (host computer) through some sort of communications

interface. In most cases, data is transmitted directly through the communication
interface as it is typed on the keyboard.

2. Intelligent Terminals

The category of intelligent or programmable terminals is probably the largest and

widest ranging group. Unlike dumb terminals, intelligent terminals are equipped with
a processor that can support an instruction set to direct the basic functions of the
terminal. Like any other type of computer that has a processor, these terminals
normally have additional memory and storage devices such as disc drives.

Intelligent terminal are, therefore, capable of stand-alone processing and can support
a variety of software applications which, in turn, enable them to support a variety of
communications interfaces through the use of emulation program. This is also means
that, unlike dumb terminals, intelligent terminals are able to use addresses and
sophisticated access method to transmit and receive messages.

3. Graphic Terminals

Graphic terminals are display devices that provide a means not only for displaying
data in graphical form, but also for manipulating and modifying the data presented.
Generally, graphic terminal keyboards have a number of specific or programmable
function keys in addition to the full alphanumeric keys of a normal keyboard and the
resolution of the display screen is normally a lot higher to enable more detailed
displays

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Workstation

Workstation

A workstation is a client. More specifically, it is a standalone computer equipped with it’s

own processor, system and application software. It can perform its functions independent
of the network. To expand its resources and knowledge, it may get connected to a
network.

Server

Network plays one of two basic roles at any given moment, the computer is either acting
s a client or as a server. A server is a computer that shares its

Resources across the network, and a client are one that accesses shared resources.
Depending on the size and requirements of the network, servers can be classified as
below:

1. File Server

A file server allows user to share files. It several LAN users need access to an
application such as word processing, only one copy of the application software needs
to reside on a file server. This copy can be shared among all the users. When a user
requests to start an application, that application is downloaded into the users
workstation.

Consider the saving in disk space in a company having 100 users for application
package that requires 10 MB of disk storage. Storage on the file server requires only
10 MB of disk space for all users. Storing the same application on 100 users’ local
disk drives will require 1,000 MB of disk space. This is only an example of one
application. Same logic can be applied when hundreds of different application
programs needed.

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2. Database Server

The database server was developed to solve the problem of passing an entire file over
the medium. The most common example of a database server is the SQL server.
Structured Query Language (SQL) is standard database definition, access, and update
language for relational database. An SQL server accepts a database request, accesses
all necessary records locally, and then sends only the result back to the requester (not
the whole database).

3. Print Server

Print server allows anyone on the network to have access to a printing service.

4. Disk Server

It is server with large storage. A portion of storage is given to each user to store their
files/data. It is very useful in university where each student is given a user account
with password and some storage space in disk server. Once the student completes the
education the same space can be assigned to new student.

5. Dedicated Vs Non-Dedicated Server

Many networks will let their user run standard programs while their computer is
simultaneously functioning as a server to others. A computer that both runs standard
programs and lets other user see its data at the same time is said to be “non-dedicated
server”. Non-dedicated servers can be clever way of setting up a small LAN without
having to buy any extra system. Dedicated server are specially assigned for network
management and provided no general-purpose services.

Network Interface Card

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NIC

Attaching a computer to a network requires a physical interface between computer and

the networking medium. For PCs, this interface resides in a special network interface
card (NIC), also known as network adapter or a network card that plugs into an adapter
slot inside the computer’s case. Laptops and other computers may include built-in
interface or use special modular interface such as PC card interface, to accommodate a
network adapter of some kind.

For any computer, a NIC performs following crucial tasks:

1. It establishes and manages the computer’s network connection.

2. it translates digital data( of source computer) into signals (appropriate for the
networking medium) for outgoing messages, and translates from signals into digital
computer data for incoming messages.

3. Converts serial incoming data via cable into parallel data to for CPU, and vice versa.

4. It has some memory, which acts as a holding tank or buffer. It buffers the data to
control the data flow.

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Chapter Review Questions

1. Mount Kenya University has a network at the main campus. Which type of network do they
have?
2. Mount Kenya University has started a centre in Kisumu with about 30 computers. Between
a Peer-to-peer and client server network, which network type is the most appropriate and for
what reasons?
3. Why would an organization choose to set-up a network?
4. Why is the client server network more common than the Peer-to-peer network in our current
world?

Books for further reading

i. William Stallings (2010), Data and Computer Communication, 9th edition
ii. Behrouz A. Forouzan, (2006), Data communication and networking, 5th edition.
iii. Andrews. Tanenbaum, (2010) Computer Networks, 5th edition . Prentice-Hall PTR

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CHAPTER TWO

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter the learner shall be able to;

i. Explain the different guided transmission medium such as the twisted pair, coaxial
cable and fiber optic
ii. Explain different unguided transmission medium such as the satellite and microwave
iii. Explain the transmission impairments such as noise and attenuation

2.1 Introduction to Transmission Media

Communication is the activity or process of exchanging information in mutual understanding
form. A computer system can be vast resource of information. Once this system is connected to a
network, this information can be shared among all other users. A communication media is
required to connect different computer systems to facilitate the information exchange. Following

Transmission
media

Guided Unguided

Twisted-Pair Coaxial Fiber-optic Terrestrial

Satellite Infrared
cable cable cable microwave

Figure 2.1 Types of transmission media

diagram will give a clear picture of different type of transmission media.

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2.2 Guided Transmission Media

Guided/physical/non-wireless/bounded media have a physical link between sender and receiver.
Mainly there are three categories of guided media: twisted-Pair, coaxial, and fiber-optic.

Twisted-Pair Cable

A twisted consist of two conductors (usually copper), each with its own colored plastic
insulation. In the past, two parallel wires were used for communication. However,
electromagnetic interference from devices such as a motor can create over noise those wires. If
the two wires are parallel, the wire closest to the source of the noise gets more interference than
the wire further away. Which results in an uneven load and a damaged signal.

If, however, the two wires are twisted around each other at regular intervals (between 2 to 12
twist per foot), each wire is the closer to the noise source for half the time and the further away
the other half. With the twisting interference can be equalized for both wires. Twisting does not
always eliminate the impact of noise, but does significantly reduce it

Twisted cable comes in two forms: unshielded and shielded.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable

UTP consists of a number of twisted pairs with simple plastic casing. UTP is commonly used in

telephone system.
The Electrical Industry Association (EIA) divides UTP into different categories by quality grade.
The rating for each category refers to conductor size, electrical characteristics, and twists per
foot.

Category 1: Applies to transmit traditional UTP telephones cabling, which is designed to carry
voice but not data.

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Category 2: Certifies UTP cabling for bandwidth up to 4 Mbps and consists of four pair of
wires. Since 4 Mbps is slower than most networking technologies in the use today. Category 2 is
rarely encountered in networking environment.

Category 3: Certifies UTP cabling for bandwidth up to 10Mbps. This includes most
conventional networking technologies, such as 10BaseT Ethernet and 4Mbps token ring etc.
Category 3 consists of four pairs, each having minimum 3 twist per foot.

Category 4: Certifies UTP cabling for bandwidth up to 10Mbps. This includes primarily
10BaseT Ethernet and 16Mbps token ring. Category 4 consists of four pairs.

Category5: Used for data transmission up to 100Mbps Category 5 also consists of four pairs.

UTP is particularly prone to cross talk, and the shielding included with STP is designed
specifically to reduce this problem.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable

STP includes shielding to reduce cross talk as well as to limit the effects of external interference.
For most STP cables, this means that the wiring includes a wire braid inside the cladding or
sheath material as well as a foil wrap around each individual wire. This shield improves the
cable's transmission and interference characteristics, which, in tern, support higher bandwidth
over longer distance than UTP.

Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable, commonly called coax, has two conductors that share the same
axis. A solid copper wire runs down the center of the cable, and this wire is surrounded by plastic
foam insulation. The foam is surrounded by a second conductor, wire mesh tube, metallic foil, or

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both. The wire mesh protects the wire from EMI. It is often called the shield. A tough plastic
jacket forms the cover of the cable, providing protection and insulation.

Where Ethernet is concerned, there are two types of coaxial cable, called this Ethernet (also
known as thinnet or thinwire,) and thick Ethernet (also known as thinnet or thickwire). The
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) designates these cable types as 10Base2
and 10Base5, respectively, where these notations indicates:

Total bandwidth for the technology: in this case, 10 means 10Mbps

Base: indicates that the network uses baseband signaling and this applies to both types of cable.

2 or 5: a rough indicator of maximum segment length, measured in hundreds of meters; thinwire

support a maximum segment length of 185 meters, which rounds up to 200; thickwire supports a
maximum segment length of 500 meter

Fiber Optic Cable: fiber optic cable transmits light signals rather than electrical signals. It is
enormously more efficient than the other network transmission media. As soon as it comes
down in price (both in terms of the cable and installation cost), fiber optic will be the choice for
network cabling.

A light pulse can be used to signal a ‘1’ bit; the absence of a pulse signals a ‘0’ bit. Visible light
has a frequency of about 108 MHz, so the bandwidth of an optical transmission system is
potentially enormous.

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An optical transmission system has three components: the transmission medium, the light source
and the detector. The transmission medium is an ultra-thin fiber of glass or fused silica. The light
source is either a LED (Light Emit Diode) or a laser diode, both of which emits light pulses
when a electrical current is applied. The detector is a photo diode, which generates an electrical
pulse when light falls on it.

Silica tube

Led Photo Diode

A cable may contain a single fiber, but often fibers are bundled together in the center of the
cable. Optical fiber are smaller and lighter than copper wire. One optical fiber is approximately
the same diameter as a human hair.

Advantages of Fiber Optic

 Noise resistance: it is immune to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
 Less signal attenuation: signal can run for miles without requiring regeneration
 Higher bandwidth: fiber optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths (and hence
data rate) than all other cables. Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization over fiber-
optic cable are limited not by the medium but by the signal generation and reception
technology available. A typical bandwidth for fiber optic is 100Mbps to 1Gbps.

Disadvantages of Fiber Optic

 Cost : most expensive among all the cables
 Installation / maintenance: is high
 Fragility : glass fiber is more easily broken than wire
Summary Table of the Characteristic of All Cable Type

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Factor UTP STP Coaxial Fiber Optic

Cost Lowest Moderate Moderate Highest

Installation Easy Fairly easy Fairly easy Difficult

Bandwidth 10 Mbps 16 Mbps 10 Mbps 100 Mbps –

Capacity 1 Gbps

Node 2 2 30 2
Capacity (10Base2)
Per Segment 100
(10Base5)

Attenuation High High Lower Lowest

EMI Most Less Less No effect by

vulnerable vulnerable vulnerable EMI
to EMI than UTP than UTP

2.3 Unguided Transmission Media

Unguided/non-physical/wireless/unbounded media have no physical link between sender and
receiver.

There has been increasing need for mobile users to connect to a network. The answer for their
needs is wireless. In wireless communications, space (air) is the medium for the signals.

Wireless networking has some advantages over wired networking:

 No wires needed. Running wires can be difficult in some cases; such as wiring an
existing building, wiring between buildings, wiring across mountains, etc.
 Staying connected is important for mobile users. Wireless networks allow users stay
connected more hours each day. Users with laptops may roam their work space without
losing network connection and without logging into another machine. This increases the
productivity of workers.
 Wireless networks can grow without much difficulty compared with wired networks.
Making a wired network larger often involves wiring and usually costly.
 Wireless networks are not confined to an area. There is no long term commitment as in
the wired networks.

Bandwidth for wireless transmission

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The principle of wireless communication is to send and receive electromagnetic wave

using antenna. Several frequency bands are used for wireless communications.

 Radio—Frequencies between 30 MHz to 1 GHz

 Microwave—Frequencies between 1 GHz to 40 GHz
 Infrared—Frequencies between 3 x 1011 to 2 x 1014 Hz

The Electromagnetic spectrum used in communications (From Tanenbaum Figure 2.11)

As you noticed from the above figure, there are some overlap between the bandwidths for wired
media and wireless. The only difference is whether they have solid wires carrying signals or not.

 Radio transmission: These are systems for AM or FM radio. They are one form of
communications and not used for computer networks.
 Microwave transmission: We can classify them into three categories; Terrestrial
microwave, Satellite

Terrestrial Microwave

Microwaves do not follow the curvature of the earth therefore require line of sight transmission
and reception equipment. The distance coverable by line of sight signals depends to a large
extend on the height of the antenna: the taller the antenna, the longer the sight distance. Height
allows the signals to travel farther without being stopped by the curvature of the earth and raises

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the signals above many surface obstacles, such as low hills and tall buildings that would
otherwise block transmission.

Microwave signals propagate in one direction at a time, which means that two frequencies are
necessary for two ways communication such as telephone communication. One frequency is
reserved for transmission in one direction and other for transmission in other. Each frequency
requires its own transmitter and receiver. Today, both pieces of equipment usually are combined
in a single piece of equipment called transceiver, which allows a single antenna to serve both
frequencies and functions.

River

Building A Building B

Terrestrial microwave systems are typically used when using cabling is very costly and difficult
to set.

Satellite Communication
Satellite transmission is much like line of sight microwave transmission in which one of the
stations is a satellite orbiting the earth. The principle is the same as terrestrial microwave, with a
satellite acting as a super-tall antenna and repeater. Although in satellite transmission signals

Satellite

Mother Earth

Satellite dish

Satellite dish

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must still travel in straight lines, the limitations imposed on distance by the curvature of the earth
are reduced. In this way, satellite relays allow microwave signals to span continents and ocean
with a single bounce.

Satellite microwave can provide transmission capability to and from any location on earth, no
mater how remote. This advantage makes high quality communication available to undeveloped
parts of the world without requiring a huge investment in ground based infrastructure. Satellite
themselves are extremely expensive, of course, but leasing time or frequencies on one can be
relatively cheap.

Infrared Transmission

Infrared media uses infrared light to transmit signals. LEDs transmit the signals, and photodiodes
receive the signals. The remote control we use for television, VCR and CD player use infrared
technology to send and receive signals.

Because infrared signals are in high frequency range, they have good throughput. Infrared
signals do have a downside; the signals cannot penetrate walls or other objects, and they are
diluted by strong light sources.

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2.4 Transmission Impairments:

With any communication system, there is a high possibility that the signal that is received
will differ from the signal that is transmitted as a result of various transmission
impairments. For analog signals, these impairments introduce various random
modifications that degrade the signal quality. For digital signals, bit errors are introduced:
A binary 1 is transformed into a binary 0, and vice versa.

The most significant impairments are the following:

 Attenuation

 Noise

a) Attenuation

When an electromagnetic signal is transmitted along any medium, it gradually

become weaker at greater distances, this is referred to as attenuation. To solve this
problem amplifier is used. The amplifier boosts the signals and extends the
transmission distance.

b) Noise

Random electrical signals that can be picked up by the transmission medium and
result in degradation of the data.

c) Delay Distortion

This is a common phenomenon with guided transmission media. The distortion is

caused by the fact that the velocity of propagation of a signal through a guided
medium varies with frequency. For a band limited signal, the velocity tends to be
highest near the centre frequency and fall off toward the two edges of the band. Thus
various frequency components of a signal will arrive at the receiver at different times.
This effect is called delay distortion.

d) Jitters

Jitter is a variation or dislocation in the pulses of a digital transmission; it may be

thought of, in a way, as irregular pulses. Jitter can manifest through variations in

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amplitude, signal strength, and other elements of such waves. The usual causes
include connection timeouts, connection time lags, data traffic congestion, and
interference. Simply put, this jitter is an undesirable output of system flaws and
interruptions.

Chapter Review Questions

1. Why do most organizations use guided media such as the twisted pair for their networks?
2. When is unguided media more appropriate to use than the guided media?
3. Explain the different transmission impairments.

Books for further reading

i. William Stallings (2010), Data and Computer Communication, 9th edition
ii. Behrouz A. Forouzan, (2006), Data communication and networking, 5th edition.
iii. Andrews. Tanenbaum, (2010) Computer Networks, 5th edition . Prentice-Hall PTR

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CHAPTER THREE

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter the learner shall be able to;

A. Explain the different network topologies and their operation in communication

B. Explain the advantages and the disadvantages of the different network topologies
C. Explain the different methods of medium access control such as CMSA/CD, token
passing etc.

3.1 Introduction to Network topologies

The way in which the connections are made among all the computers is called the topology of
the network. Network topology specifically refers to the physical layout of the network, specially
the location of the computers and how the cable is run between them. Each topology has its own
strengths and weaknesses.

The most common topologies are the bus, the star, the ring and the mesh.

Bus Topology

The bus topology is the simplest and most common method for connecting computers. It is often
used when a network installation is small, simple, or temporary. It is important to note that the
bus topology is a Passive topology. This means that computers on the bus only listen for data
being sent, they are not responsible for moving the data from one computer to the next. If one
computer fails it has no effect on the rest of the network. In an active topology network, the
computers regenerate signals and are responsible for moving the data through the network.

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Computer Computer Computer

Computer Computer Computer

Figure 3.1 Bus Network

How a Bus Network Works

On a typical bus network, the entire computers are connected to a single cable. When one
computer sends a signals using the cable, all the computers on the network receive the
information, but only one (the one with the address that matches the one encoded in the message)
accepts the information. The rest disregard the message.

Only one computer at a time can send a message; therefore, the number of computers attached to
a bus network can significantly affect the speed of the network. A computer must wait until the
bus is free before it can transmit.

Another important issue in bus network is termination. Without termination, when the signal
reaches the end of the wire, it bounces back and travel back up the wire. When a signal echoes
back and forth along the unterminated bus, it is called ringing. To stop the signals from ringing,
terminators are attached at either end of the cable. The terminator absorbs the signals and stops
the ringing.

Advantages of Bus

1. The bus is simple, reliable in very small network, and easy to use.

2. The bus requires the least amount of cable to connect the computers together and is therefore
less expensive than other cabling arrangements.

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3. It is easy to extend a bus. Two cables can be joined into one longer cable with a BNC barrel
connector, making a longer cable and allowing more computers to jinn the network.

Disadvantages of Bus

1. Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably.

2. A break in the cable or lake of proper termination can bring the network down.

3. It is difficult to troubleshoot a bus.

Bus topology is appropriate in following situation:

 The network is small

 The network will not be frequently reconfigured.

 The least expensive solution is required.

 The network is not expected to grow much

Star Topology

In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point to point link only to central controller,
usually called a hub.

How a Star Network Works

Each computer on a star network communicates with a central hub that resends the message
either to all the computers (in a broadcast star network) or only to the destination computer (in a
switched star network). The hub can be active or passive.

Star topology

Computer

Server
HUB

Computer
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Computer Computer

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An active hub regenerates the electrical signal and sends it to all the computers connected to it.
This type of hub is often called a multiport repeater. Active hub requires electrical power to run.
A passive hub, such as wiring panels, merely acts as a connection point and does not amplify or
regenerate the signal. Passive hubs do not require electrical power to run.

Using a hybrid hub, several types of cable can be used to implement a star network. Hybrid hub
is used to connect different types of cables. It is used to maximise the network’s efficiency and
utilise the benefits different cables.

Advantages of the Star

1. It is easy to modify and add new computers to a star network without disturbing the rest of
the network. You simply run a new line from the computer to the central location and plug it
into the hub. When the capacity of the central hub is exceeded, it can be replaced with one
that has a larger number of ports to plug lines into (or multiple hubs can be connected
together to extend the number of ports)

2. The centre of a star network is a good place to diagnose network faults. Intelligent hubs
(hubs with microprocessors that implement features in addition to repeating network signals)
also provide for centralised monitoring and management of the network.

3. Single computer failure does not necessarily bring down the whole star network.

4. Several types of cable can be used in the same network with a hybrid hub.

Disadvantages of Star
1. If the central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate.
2. It cost more to cable a star network.

Star topology is appropriate in following situation:

1. It must be easy to add or remove client computer.
2. It must be easy to troubleshoot.
3. The network is large.
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4. The network is expected to grow in the future.

Ring Topology

In a ring topology, each computer is connected directly to the next computer in line, forming a
circle of cable. It uses token to pass the information from one computer to another.

How a Ring Network Works

Every computer is connected to the next computer in the ring, and each retransmit what it
receives from the previous computer. The message flow around the ring in one direction. Since
each computer retransmits what it receives, a ring is an active network and is not subject to the
signal loss problem a bus experience. There is no termination because there is no end to the ring

Computer

Computer
Computer

Computer Computer

Token passing a method of sending data in a ring. A small packet called the token passed around
the ring to each computer in turn. If a computer has information to send, it modifies the token,
adds address information and the data and sends it down the ring. The information travels around
the ring until it either reaches its destination or returns to the sender. When the intended
destination computer receives the packet, it returns a message to the sender including its arrival.

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A new token is then created by the sender and sent down the ring, allowing another station to
capture the token and begin transmission.

A token can circle a ring 200 meters in diameter at about 10,000 times a second.

Advantages of Ring
1. All the computers have equal access to the network.
2. Even with many users, network performance is even
3. Allows error checking, and acknowledgement.

Disadvantages of Ring
1. Failure of one computer can affect the whole network.
2. It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring network.
3. Adding or removing computers disturbs the network.
Ring Topology is Appropriate in Following Situation:
 The network must operate reasonably under a heavy load
 A higher-speed network is required.
 The network will not be frequently reconfigured.

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point to point link to every other device. The
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. A
fully connected mesh network therefore has n (n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices. To
accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n-1 input/output ports.

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Computer

Computer Computer

Computer
Computer

Most mesh topology network are not true mesh networks. Rather, they are hybrid mesh
networks, which contain some redundant links but not all.

Advantages of Mesh
1. Because of the dedicated link, no traffic between computers.
2. Failures of one node computer not affect rest of the network.
3. Because of the dedicated link privacy and security are guaranteed
4. Point to point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
Disadvantages of Mesh
1. Due to the amount of cabling and number of input output ports, it is expensive.
2. Large space is required to run the cables.
3. Installation and reconfiguration are difficult.

When a Mesh Appropriates to Use

1. Direct transmission is required for privacy reason

2. Need to have dedicated lint for fast transmission.

Variations of the Major Topologies

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Hybrid Star
A star network can be extended by placing another star hub where a computer might otherwise
go, allowing several more computers or hubs to be connected to that hub.

Star Bus

Hub Hub Hub

Computer Computer
Computer
Computer
Computer Computer
Computer

Computer

Computer Computer

Star Bus Topology

The star bus topology combines the bus and the star, linking several star hubs together with bus
trunks. If one computer fails, the hub can detect the fault and isolate the computer. If a hub fails,
computers connected to it will not be able to communicate, and the bus network will be broken
into two segments that can not reach each other.

Hybrid Topologies

Often a network combines several topologies, as subnetworks linked together are a large
topology. For instance one department of business may have decided to use a bus topology while
another department has a ring. The two can be connected to each other a central controller in a
star topology.

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3.2 Medium access control methods

A network of computers based on multi-access medium requires a protocol for effective sharing
of the media. As only one node can send or transmit signal at a time using the broadcast mode,
the main problem here is how different nodes get control of the medium to send data, that is
“who goes next?”. The protocols used for this purpose are known as Medium Access Control
(MAC) techniques. The key issues involved here are - Where and How the control is exercised.
‘Where’ refers to whether the control is exercised in a centralised or distributed manner. In a
centralised system a master node grants access of the medium to other nodes. A centralized
scheme has a number of advantages as mentioned below:
 Greater control to provide features like priority, overrides, and guaranteed
bandwidth.
 Simpler logic at each node.
 Easy coordination.

Although this approach is easier to implement, it is vulnerable to the failure of the master node
and reduces efficiency. On the other hand, in a distributed approach all the nodes collectively
perform a medium access control function and dynamically decide which node to be granted
access. This approach is more reliable than the former one.
‘How’ refers to in what manner the control is exercised. It is constrained by the topology and
trade off between cost-performance and complexity.

Medium Access Control techniques are designed with the following goals in mind.
 Initialisation: The technique enables network stations, upon power-up, to enter the state
required for operation.
 Fairness: The technique should treat each station fairly in terms of the time it is made to
wait until it gains entry to the network, access time and the time it is allowed to spend for
transmission.
 Priority: In managing access and communications time, the technique should be able to
give priority to some stations over other stations to facilitate different type of services
needed.

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 Limitations to one station: The techniques should allow transmission by one station at a
time.
 Receipt: The technique should ensure that message packets are actually received (no lost
packets) and delivered only once (no duplicate packets), and are received in the proper
order.
 Error Limitation: The method should be capable of encompassing an appropriate error
detection scheme.
 Recovery: If two packets collide (are present on the network at the same time), or if
notice of a collision appears, the method should be able to recover, i.e. be able to halt all
the transmissions and select one station to retransmit.
 Reconfigurability: The technique should enable a network to accommodate the addition
or deletion of a station with no more than a noise transient from which the network
station can recover.
 Compatibility: The technique should accommodate equipment from all vendors who
build to its specification.
 Reliability: The technique should enable a network to confine operating inspite of a
failure of one or several stations.

For a successful data transmission, following access methods can be used in a network.

Contention

In contention based network, computers sent data whenever they had data to send. This might
work well in a small environment when little data is being sent along the cable. But as more
computers send data, the messages collide more frequently, must be resent, and then collide
again. Soon there will be a communication breakdown.

Figure 6.4 Collision in Contention Method

packe

Computer Computer Computer

packe
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To organize contention based network, two carrier access method were created:
1. Carrier Sense multiple Access with Collision detection (CSMA/CD): is one of the most
popular ways to regulate network traffic. Used by Ethernet, this access method prevents
collision by listening to the channel to see if another computer is sending data. If the
computer does not sense data on the line, it sends its message. If another computer is using
the channel, the computer waits a random amount of time and then checks again. This
process is continued until the channel is free and the computer can send the data.

Advantages:

a) Inexpensive to implement.

b) Fast in a small network with low traffic.

Disadvantages:

a) Slow in a large network with high traffic.

b) Does not support priority. A single computer can block all other computer if it has very
long message to send.

2. Carrier senses multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA): It uses collision
avoidance, rather than detection, to prevent collision. With CSMA/CA, once the computer
senses that no other computer is using the network, it signals its intent to transmit data. Any
other computer with data to sensed wait when they receive the “intent-to-transmit” signal and
send their intent-to-transmit signals when they see that channel is free. Although this method
is more reliable than CSMA/CD in avoiding collision, the additional overhead created by the
“intent-to-transmit” packets significantly reduces the speed of any network using this
method.

Network Architecture

 Ethernet (CSMA/CD)

 LocalTalk (CSMA/CA)

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Token Passing

Using this channel access method, a special packet called the “token” is passed from one
computer to the next sequentially. Only the computer holding token can send data. A computer
can keep token only a specific amount of time. If the computer with the token has no data to
send, it passes the token to the next computer.

Computer

Token
Computer
Computer

Computer

Figure 6.5 Token Ring

Advantages:

a) Because only the computer with the token can transfer data, collisions are avoided with
this method.

b) All the computers have equal access to the channel. Because of this equality, token
passing network is best suited for time-sensitive environment. For example banking
transaction and database queries.

Disadvantages:

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a) Even if only one computer on the network has data to send, it must wait until it receives
the token. If its data is large enough it will more than one turns of token to finish the
transmission, means further delay.

b) The process of creating and passing the token is complicated and requires more
expensive equipment than contention based network.

Network Architecture

 Token ring

 ARCNet

Demand Priority

Demand priority is a recent channel access method and relies on following method.

Hub Figure
Hub 6.6 Demand Priority Hub
Hub Hub Hub

Computer
Computer Computer
Computer Computer Computer
Computer

Computer Computer
Computer

Intelligent hubs are used to control access to the network. The hub searches all connections in a
round robin fashion. When an end node (computer) has data to send, it transmits a “demand
signal” to the hub. The hub then sends and acknowledgement that the node can start transmitting
its data.

Unlike other channel access methods, demand priority allows for certain computers to be
assigned a higher priority than other. If multiple computers make simultaneous demands, the
computer with highest priority is allowed to transmit first. Demand priority makes the most
efficient use of the available network media. Rather than wasting time addressing computers that
do not have data to send, hubs using demand priority cannel access respond only when
computers signal the hub for service. Also packets are not broadcast in demand priority network
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as they are in CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA network but, instead, are sent from the computer to the
hub and from the hub directly to the destination. This eliminates traffic on the network.

Advantages:

a) Very fast in high and low traffic environments

b) No collision

c) Provide priority

Disadvantages:

a) Expensive because special equipment is required.

b) Lower priority may starve for service

Network architecture:

 100VG-AnyLAN

Polling

Polling is one of the oldest ways of controlling access to the network. a central controller, often
referred to as the “primary device”, ask each computer (the secondary device) on the network if
it has data to send. If so, the computer is allowed to send data, up to a certain amount of time;
then it is the next computer’s turn.

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Computer Computer Computer

Primary Device

Computer Computer

Figure 6.7 Polling

Advantages:

a) Like token passing, it allows all computers equal access to the channel, and no single
computer can monopolize the media.

b) The central controller allows for centralized management, and certain computers can receive
priority over other computers; they can be polled more often or be allowed to send data for
longer period of time than the remaining computers.

Disadvantages:

a) Does not make efficient use of the media.

b) If the primary device fails, the whole network fails.

c) Increased expenses because of the primary device.

Network Architecture

 IBM’s SNA

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Chapter Review Questions

1. Mount Kenya University main campus has about 400 computers. Recommend a network
topology for the university giving reasons for your choice.
2. Give reasons why the bus and ring topologies are inappropriate for today’s networks.
3. Explain the concept of the token and how a computer gains access to the network.

Books for further reading

1. William Stallings (2010), Data and Computer Communication, 9th edition
2. Behrouz A. Forouzan, (2006), Data communication and networking, 5th edition.
3. Andrews. Tanenbaum, (2010) Computer Networks, 5th edition . Prentice-Hall PTR

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CHAPTER FOUR

OSI LAYER AND TCP/IP LAYERS

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter the learner shall be able to;

A. Explain the advantages of a layered model

B. Explain the seven layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) and it’s importance
in networking
C. Explain the four TCP/IP layers

4.1 Introduction

OSI Reference Model

OSI (Open System Interconnection) is the most widely accepted model for understanding the
network communication. It is developed by ISO (International Standards Organization) in 1977.
ISO is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. It
covers all aspects of network communications in OSI reference model. An open system is a set
of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of the underlying
architecture. Vendor-specific protocol close off communication between unrelated systems.

The purpose of OSI model is to open communication between different system without requiring
changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software. The OSI is not a protocol; it is
model for understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust and open
for communication with other systems.

Layered Architecture of OSI

The OSI model has seven layers. Number of layers in any model is derived on following
principles.

1. A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed.

2. Each layer should perform a well define function.

3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye towards defining internationally
standardized protocol

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4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interface.

5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct function need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity, and small enough that the architecture does not
become unwieldy

4.2 Advantages of a Layered Network Architecture

Advantages of Layered Network Architecture
 Provide modular approach for any network architecture
 A new layer can be introduced any time (if required) without interfering other layers.
 A layer can be removed easily if it’s functions become obsolete.
 Modification to a particular layer can be done without interfering other layers.
Disadvantages of Layered Network Architecture
 Increases the address overhead in data packet as it travels from bottom layer to the
top layer.

4.3 The OSI 7 layer model

The 7 layers of the OSI model can be split into 2 halves, those which provides interconnection
services and those which provide internetworking services. Each layer within the model provides
a set of services to the layer above and enhances the service provided by the layer below.

7 Application Layer

6 Presentation Layer

5 Session Layer

4 Transport Layer

3 Network Layer

2 Data Link Layer

1 Physical Layer

a) The Interconnection Layers

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Interconnection group of standards makes up the bottom 4 layers of the OSI model, which
are known as the physical, data link, network and transport layers.

 The physical layer defines the functional, procedural and physical interfaces of
communication links between equipment. For example, plug specifications, and pin
allocations.

 The data link layer adds error-checking information and formats data for physical
transmission.

 The network layer provides routing and multiplexing services.

 The transport layer includes error detection and correction as well as multiplexing. Its
basic function is to enhance the quality provided by the network layer below, if this is
necessary.

b) The Internetworking Layers

The internetworking group includes the top 3 layers of the OSI model and basically provides
the support services for the user applications. They are known as the session, presentation,
and application layers.

 The session layer provides the organization, synchronization and timing of the exchange
of the data between end systems.

 The presentation layer is concerned with now the information to be exchanged. This
includes resolving character set differences, such as ASCII to EBCDIC, providing text
compression and encryption/decryption services.

 The application layer provides support for the user applications, which wish to exchange
information. (i.e. file transfer)

Functions Each Layer

1. Physical Layer

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The physical layer co-ordinates the functions required to transmit a bit streams over a
physical medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the primary
connections, such as cables and connectors.

It also handles:

 Line configuration: how can two or more devices be linked physically? Are
transmission lines to be shared or limited to use between two devices?

 Data transmission mode: Is the transmission mode simplex or duplex?

 Topology: How are the networking devices arranged?

 Bit synchronization: deals with synchronization between sender and receiver

2. Data Link Layer

The main purpose of the data link layer is to deliver data units (group of bits) from one
station to the next station (node-to-node) without error. It accepts packets from the network
layer and packages the information into data units called frames to be presented to the
physical layer for transmission. The data link layer adds header (contains sender’s and
receiver’s address) and trailer (contains control information, such as routing, segmentation,
CRC etc) to the data being sent.

Data link layer is responsible for following:

 Node to node delivery: the data link layer is responsible for node to node delivery.

 Addressing: Adds header and trailer to the data packet.

 Flow control: It regulates the amount of data that can be transmitted at one time.

 Error handling: Data link layer protocols provide for data recovery, usually by having
the entire frame retransmitted.

3. Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for the source to destination delivery of packet across
multiple network links. Whereas the data link layer oversees station to station (node to node)
delivery. The network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its

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destination successfully and efficiently. For this purpose the network layer provides two
reliable services switching and routing.

Switching refers to temporary connection between physical links, resulting in longer links for
network transmission; i.e. long distance telephone services.

Routing means selecting the best path for sending a packet from one point to another when
more than one path is available. In this case, each packet may take a different route to the
destination. Where the packets are collected and resembled into their original order.

Network layer is responsible for following:

 Source to destination delivery: moving the packet from its point of origin to its intended
destination across multiple network links.

 Routing: Deciding which of the multiple paths a packet should take. Routing
considerations include speed and cost.

 Multiplexing: using a single physical line to carry data between many devices at the
same time.

4. Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for source to destination (end to end) delivery of the entire
message. Whereas the network layer oversees end to end delivery of individual packets, it
does not recognize any relationship between those packets.

Transport layer is responsible for following:

 End to end message delivery: conforms the transmission and arrival of all packets of a
message at the destination point.

 Segmentation and reassembling: The transport layer Header contains sequence, or

segmentation number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the
message correctly at the destination and to identify and replace packet lost in
transmission.

5. Session Layer

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The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes
the link between communicating devices. It also ensures that each session close appropriately
rather than shutting down abruptly and leaving the user hanging.

Session layer is responsible for following:

 Session management: Dividing a session into subsessions by the introduction of

checkpoint ad separating long messages into shorter units, called dialog units appropriate
for transmission.

 Synchronization: Deciding in what order to pass the dialog units to the transport layer,
and where in the transmission to require conformation from the receiver.

 Dialog control: Deciding who sends, and when.

 Graceful close: Ensuring that the exchange has been completed appropriately before the
session close.

6. Presentation Layer

The presentation layer ensures interoperability among communicating devices. It is

responsible for code conversion (e.g. from ASCII to EBCDIC and vice versa), if required.

The presentation layer is also responsible for the encryption and decryption of data for
security purposes. It also handles the compression and expansion of data when necessary for
transmission efficiency.

Presentation layer is responsible for following:

 Translation: changing the format of message (e.g. from ASCII to EBCDIC and vice
versa).

 Encryption/Decryption: handles encryption and decryption of data for security

purposes.

 Compression: It also handles the compression and expansion of data when necessary for
transmission efficiency.

 Security: validates passwords and log-in codes.

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7. Application Layer

The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It
provides user interface and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access
and transfer.

Presentation layer is responsible for following:

 Mail services: provides the basis for electronic mail forwarding and storage.

 Directory services: Provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various object and services.

 File access, transfer, and management: Allows a user at a remote computer to access
files in another host (to make changes or read data); to retrieve files from a remote
computer for use in the local computer.

Assuming two hosts follow OSI model, example of files transferring from host A to
host B.
Host A:
1. User will issue a file transfer command to the Application Layer. (initiates or accepts
a request)
2. The Application Layer then passes the file to the Presentation Layer, which may
reformat the data. (handles protocol conversion, data encryption or decryption, text
compression)
3. The data is then passed to the Session Layer, which requests that a connection be
provided to the destination host and passes the data to Transport Layer.(handles
session setup and Session close)
4. Transport Layer breaks the file into manageable chunks of data for transmission and
passes them to network layer. (Handles flow control, error recovery).
5. Network Layer selects the data’s route and then passes the data to the data link layer.
(handles addressing, route discovery and route selection, error control)
6. Data link Layer adds extra information to the data so that it can be checked for errors
at the receiving end. And passes the data to the physical layer. (handles CRC cyclic
redundancy check).
7. Physical Layer takes the resulting data stream and transmit it across the physical link
to the Host B (handles mechanical and electrical characteristic to provide and
maintain physical connection)
Host B
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1. Host B’s physical layer receives the bits and passes them on to the
2. Data link layer.
3. Data link layer verifies that no errors occurred, and then passes the data onto the
network layer.
4. Network Layer ensures that the selected route is proving reliable, and then passes the
data onto the transport layer.
5. Transport Layer reassembles the small chunks of data into the file being transferred,
and then passes it onto the session layer.
6. Session Layer determines if the transfer is complete, and if so, may break down the
session, in effect ending the communication. It passes the data onto presentation
layer.
7. Presentation Layer may reformat the data, performing any necessary conversion, data
are passed on to application layer.
8. Host B’s user can then access the transferred information through the Application
Layer.

4.4 The TCP/IP Model Layers

The TCP/IP model uses four layers that logically span the equivalent of the top six layers of the
OSI reference model; this is shown below. (The physical layer is not covered by the TCP/IP
model because the data link layer is considered the point at which the interface occurs between
the TCP/IP stack and the underlying networking hardware.) The following are the TCP/IP model
layers, starting from the bottom.

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Figure 20: OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Model Layers

The TCP/IP architectural model has four layers that approximately match six of the seven layers in
the OSI Reference Model. The TCP/IP model does not address the physical layer, which is where
hardware devices reside. The next three layers—network interface, internet and (host-to-host)
transport—correspond to layers 2, 3 and 4 of the OSI model. The TCP/IP application layer
conceptually “blurs” the top three OSI layers. It’s also worth noting that some people consider
certain aspects of the OSI session layer to be arguably part of the TCP/IP host-to-host transport
layer.

Network Interface Layer / Host- to-network

As its name suggests, this layer represents the place where the actual TCP/IP protocols running
at higher layers interface to the local network. It is equivalent to the data link layer (layer two) in
the OSI Reference Model and is also sometimes called the link layer. You may also see the name
network access layer.

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Internet Layer

This layer corresponds to the network layer in the OSI Reference Model (and for that reason is
sometimes called the network layer even in TCP/IP model discussions). It is responsible for
typical layer three jobs, such as logical device addressing, data packaging, manipulation and
delivery, and last but not least, routing. At this layer we find the Internet Protocol (IP), arguably
the heart of TCP/IP, as well as support protocols such as ICMP and the routing protocols (RIP,
OSFP, BGP, etc.) The new version of IP, called IP version 6, will be used for the Internet of the
future and is of course also at this layer.

(Host-to-Host) Transport Layer

This primary job of this layer is to facilitate end-to-end communication over an internetwork. It
is in charge of allowing logical connections to be made between devices to allow data to be sent
either unreliably (with no guarantee that it gets there) or reliably (where the protocol keeps track
of the data sent and received to make sure it arrives, and re-sends it if necessary). It is also here
that identification of the specific source and destination application process is accomplished

The formal name of this layer is often shortened to just the transport layer; the key TCP/IP
protocols at this layer are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol
(UDP). The TCP/IP transport layer corresponds to the layer of the same name in the OSI model
(layer four) but includes certain elements that are arguably part of the OSI session layer. For
example, TCP establishes a connection that can persist for a long period of time, which some
people say makes a TCP connection more like a session.

Application Layer

This is the highest layer in the TCP/IP model. It is a rather broad layer, encompassing layers five
through seven in the OSI model. While this seems to represent a loss of detail compared to the
OSI model, I think this is probably a good thing! The TCP/IP model better reflects the “blurry”
nature of the divisions between the functions of the higher layers in the OSI model, which in
practical terms often seem rather arbitrary. It really is hard to separate some protocols in terms of
which of layers five, six or seven they encompass. (I didn't even bother to try in this Guide which
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is why the higher-level protocols are all in the same chapter, while layers one through four have
their protocols listed separately.)

Numerous protocols reside at the application layer. These include application protocols such as
HTTP, FTP and SMTP for providing end-user services, as well as administrative protocols like
SNMP, DHCP and DNS.

Chapter Review Questions

1. Explain the functions of the seven layers of the OSI model?
2. What are the advantages of a layered model
3. Compare and contrast the OSI model and the TCP/IP model

Books for further reading

i. William Stallings (2010), Data and Computer Communication, 9th edition

ii. Behrouz A. Forouzan, (2006), Data communication and networking, 5th edition.
iii. Andrews. Tanenbaum, (2010) Computer Networks, 5th edition . Prentice-Hall PTR

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CHAPTER FIVE

CONECTING DEVICES

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter the learner shall be able to;

i. Explain the different devices used in constructing a computer network

ii. Explain the different networking devices such as the Hub, switch etc.
iii. Explain the different internetworking devices such as the Router, Bridge etc.

1.1 Introduction to Networking devices

Networking means connecting two or more devices for the purpose of sharing data and
resources. Setting a small network is fairly simple task but once the network start to grow and
become a local area network it may need to cover more distance than its media can handle
effectively. Or the number of station may be too great for efficient communication or
management of the network, and the network may need to e subdivided.

When two or more separate networks are connected for exchanging data or resources, they
become an internetwork (or internet). The devices required to link number of LANs into an
Internet are known as internetworking devices.

There is several ways that you can expand network capability such as:

 Physically expending to support additional computers

 Segmenting to filter network traffic

 Extending to connect separate LANs

 Connecting two separate computing environments

There are many devices available to accomplish these tasks. Following diagram will help to
understand different types of connective devices.

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Figure 4.1 Networking & Internetworking Devices

Connecting Devices

Networking Devices Internetworking Devices

Hub Bridge Switch Router Gateway

Repeater

1.2 Networking Devices

Expansion within a single network, called network connectivity. And to expand a single network
the following networking devices can be used.

 Hub

 Switch

 Repeaters

 Bridges

Hub

A hub is a device for connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together
and making them act as a single network segment. Hubs work at the physical layer (layer 1) of
the OSI model. The device is a form of multiport repeater.

A hub is a fairly unsophisticated broadcast device. Hubs do not manage any of the traffic that
comes through them, and any packet entering any port is regenerated and broadcast out on all
other ports. Since every packet is being sent out through all other ports, packet collisions result—
which greatly impedes the smooth flow of traffic.

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Switch

In a telecommunications network, a switch is a device that channels incoming data from any of
multiple input ports to the specific output port that will take the data toward its intended
destination. In the traditional circuit-switched telephone network, one or more switches are used
to set up a dedicated though temporary connection or circuit for an exchange between two or
more parties. On an Ethernet local area network (LAN), a switch determines from the physical
device (Media Access Control or MAC) address in each incoming message frame which output
port to forward it to and out of. In a wide area packet-switched network such as the Internet, a
switch determines from the IP address in each packet which output port to use for the next part of
its trip to the intended destination.

In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communications model, a switch performs the Layer
2 or Data-link layer function. That is, it simply looks at each packet or data unit and determines
from a physical address (the "MAC address") which device a data unit is intended for and
switches it out toward that device.

Repeater

Because of the electrical and mechanical limitations of any wiring system a network has physical
limitations. Such as :

Attenuation: Loss of signal strength as the signal travels along a medium.

Segment length: longest successful data transmission through a continuous single cable.

Node capacity per segment: number of nodes can be connected on a media

Signal that carry information within a network can travel a fixed distance before attenuation or
other interference from noise endangers the integrity of the data. A repeater installed on a link
receive the signal before it becomes too week or corrupted, regenerates the original bit pattern,
and puts the refreshed signals back onto the link. A repeater allows is to extend only physical
length of the network.

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Repeaters operate at the physical layers of the OSI model and have no concern for the type of
data being transmitted, the packet address, or the protocol being used. They are unintelligent
electronic device unable to perform any filtering or translation on the actual data.

Repeater

Incoming weak signals Regenerated signals

Repeaters retransmit the data at the same speed as the network. However there is a slight delay as
the repeater regenerate the signal. If there are a number of repeaters in a row, a significant
propagation delay can be crated. Therefore, many network architectures limits the number of
repeaters on the network.

The location of a repeater on a link is vital. A repeater must be placed so that a signal reaches it
before any noise changes the meaning of any of its bits. A little noise can alter the precision of a
bit’s voltage without destroying its identity. If the corrupted bit travels much farther, however,
accumulated noise can change its meaning completely. At that point the original voltage become
unrecoverable and the error can be corrected only by retransmission.

Strengths and Limitations of Repeaters

 Strength:

 Allows easy expansion of the network over large distance.

 Has very little impact on the speed of the network.
 Allows connection between different media.

 Limitations:

 Provide no addressing information.

 Can not connect two different architectures.
 Does not help ease congestion problem.
 The number of repeaters in a network is limited.
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Bridge
Bridges operate in both the physical and data link layer of OSI model. Like repeaters, bridges
also can be used to connect two network segments and can connect dissimilar physical media.
However, bridges can also limit the traffic on each segment and eliminate bottlenecks.

How Does Bridge Works?

A bridge’s primary function is to filter traffic between network segments. As a packet is received
from a network segment, the bridge looks at the physical destination address of the packet before
forwarding the packet on to other segments. If the packet’s destination is on another network
segment, the bridge retransmits the packet. However, if the destination is on the same network
segment, on which the packet was received, the bridge assumes the packet has already reached
its destination and the packet is discarded. As a result, network traffic is greatly reduced.

Bridges work at the data link layer of the OSI model. At this layer the hardware address, both
source and destination, is added to the packet. Because bridges function at this layer, they have
access to this address information. Each computer in the network is given a unique address.
Bridges analyze these address to determine whether or not to forward a packet.

A C
C to K

C to K

LAN1 Bridge

C to K C to K

LAN2

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In above figure, the packet generated by computer C is intended for computer K. The bridge
allows the packet to cross and relay it to the entire lower segment where it is received by
computer K. IF a packet is destined on a same segment (for example from computer A to
computer F) the bridge will block the packet from crossing into lower segment to reduce the
traffic.

Strengths and Limitations of Bridges

 Strength:
 Easy to extend network distances
 Can filter traffic to ease congestion
 Can connect network with different media
 Translation bridges can connect different network architectures
 Limitation:
 Slower than repeaters
 More expensive than repeaters
 Cannot handle multiple paths

1.3 Internetworking Devices

Expansion that involves and joins two separate networks called internetworking connectivity.
Following devices can be used for internetworking.

 Routers
 Brouters
 Gateways
 Switches
Router

Routers are combination of hardware and software and used to connect separate networks to
form an internetwork. Router can be used like bridges to connect multiple network segments and
filter traffic. Also, unlike bridges, routers can be used to connect two or more independent
networks.

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Routers can connect complex networks with multiple paths between network segments. Each
network segment, also called a subnetwork, is assigned a network address. Each node on a subset
is assigned an address as well. Using a combination of the network and node address, the router
can route a packet from the source to a destination address somewhere else on the network.

Router has access to first three layers(physical, data link, and network) but works in the network
layer. To successfully route a packet through the internetwork, a router must determine packet’s
path. When the router receives a packet, it analyzes the packet’s destination network address and
look up that address in its routing table. The router than repackages the data ad sends it to the
next router in the path.

Because operate at the higher layers of the OSI model than bridges do, routers can easily send
information over different network architectures. For example, a packet received from a token
ring network can be sent over an Ethernet network. The router removes the token ring frame,
examines the packet to determine the network address, repackages the data into Ethernet frames,
and sends the data out onto the Ethernet networks.

With this kind of translation, however, network speed is affected. As an example, Ethernet
frames have a maximum data frame size of approximately 1,500 bytes, whereas token ring
frames range in size from 4,000 to 18,000 bytes. So, for a single token ring frame of maximum
size (18,000 bytes), 12 Ethernet frames must be created. Although routers are very fast, this type
of translation does affect the network’s speed.

Unlike bridges routers have ability to select the best path that is faster and economical. When a
router receives a packet whose destination address is unknown, it simply discards the packet but
if the same packet received by a bridge the bridge will forward it to all connected network
segments

Routing Table

Routing has a routing table that contains network addresses and the address of the routers that
handle those networks. Following table shows a sample routing table for router A. it includes the
next hop (i.e., where transmission will go next) and cost (i.e., number of hops the packet must
take).

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1. Static Routing

If router uses static routing, the routing table must be updated manually by the administrator.
Each individual route must be added manually. The router will always use the same path to a
destination, even if it is not necessarily the shortest or most efficient route.

2. Dynamic Routing

Dynamic routers communicate with each other and are constantly receiving and are
constantly receiving updated routing tables from other routers. If multiple routes are
available to a particular network, the router will decide which route is best and enter that
route into its routing table.

Strengths and Limitations of Routers

 Strength:
 Can connect networks of different physical media and network architectures
 Can choose the best path for a packet through an internetwork
 reduces network traffic by not forwarding corrupt packets
 Limitation:
 More expensive a more complex than bridges or repeaters.
 Slower than bridge because they perform more complex calculations on the
packet
 Only work with routable protocols (TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, DECnet, OSI, XNS).

Brouters

Brouters combines the best of both bridges and routers. When brouters receive packets that are
routable, they will operate as a router by choosing the best path for the packet and forwarding it
to its destination. However, when a nonroutable packet is received, the brouter functions as a
bridge, forwarding the packet based on hardware address. To do this brouters maintain both
bridging table, which contains hardware address, and a routing table, which contains network
address.

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Gateway

Gateways operate in all seven layers of OSI model. A gateway is a protocol converter. A router
itself transfers, accepts, and relays packets only across network using similar protocols. A
gateway on the other hand, can accept a packet formatted for one protocol (e.g. AppleTalk) and
convert it to a packet formatted for another protocol (e.g. TCP/IP) before forwarding it.

Netware SNA
Gateway
Network Network

A gateway is generally software installed within a router. The gateway understands the protocol
used by each network linked into the router and is therefore able to translate from one to another.

Strengths and limitations of Gateway

 Strength:
 Can connect completely different systems.
 Dedicated to one task and perform that task well.
 Limitation:
 More expensive than other devices.
 More difficult to install and configure.
 Greater processing requirements men they are slower than other devices.

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Chapter Review Questions

1. You have been asked to construct a Local area network for Mount Kenya University. What
networking devices would you use to construct the network?
2. Why is the hub becoming obsolete in modern networks?
3. Why is a router very common in the current world’s networks?

Books for further reading

i. William Stallings (2010), Data and Computer Communication, 9th edition
ii. Behrouz A. Forouzan, (2006), Data communication and networking, 5th edition.
iii. Andrews. Tanenbaum, (2010) Computer Networks, 5th edition . Prentice-Hall PTR

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CHAPTER SIX

SWITCHING TECHNIQUES

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter the learner shall be able to;

i. Explain Circuit switching as applied in networking

ii. Explain packet switching as applied in networking
iii. Explain message switching as applied in networking

6.1 Introduction to Switching

The main objective of networking is to connect all the devices so that resources and information
can be shared efficiently. Whenever we have multiple devices, we have problem of connecting
them to make one-to-one connection possible. One solution is to install a point to point link
between each pair of devices such as in mesh topology or between a central device and every
other device as in star topology. These methods, however, are impractical and wasteful when
applied to very large network. The number and length of the links require too many
infrastructures to be cost efficient; and majority of those links would be idle most of the time.

A better solution is to uses switching. A switch network consists of a series of inter-linked nodes,
called switches. Switched are hardware and/or software capable of creating temporary
connection between two or more devices linked to switch but not to each other.

Traditionally, three methods of switching have been important:

 Circuit switching

 Packet switching and

 Message switching

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6.2 Circuit Switching

Communication via circuit switching implies that there is a dedicated communication
path between two stations. The path is a connected sequence of links between network
nodes. On each physical link, a channel is dedicated to the connection. A common
example of circuit switching is the telephone network..

Communication via circuit switching involves three phases:

B 2
1 D
3

A 6 E
4

7
F

Network Station

Node

Dedicated Connection

Non Dedicated
Connection

Figure 6.1 Circuit Switching Network

1. Circuit Establishment

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Before any signals can be transmitted, an end-to-end (station to station) circuit must
be established. For example, station A wants to communicate with station E. station A
sends a request to node 4 requesting a connection to station E. typically, the link from
A to 4 is a dedicated line, so that part of connection already exists. On the basis of
routing information and measures availability and perhaps cost, lets assume that node
4,5, and 6 are used to complete the connection. In completing the connection, a test is
made to determine if station E is busy or is prepared to accept the connection.

2. Information Transfer

Information now can transmit from A through the network to E the transmission may
be analog voice, or binary data. Generally the connection is full duplex, and signals
may be transmitted in both direction simultaneously.

3. Circuit Disconnection

One the transmission is completed, the connection is terminated, usually by the action
of one of the two station. Signals must be propagated to the nodes 4,5, and 6 to
deallocate the dedicated resources.

Circuit switching can be rather inefficient. Channel capacity is dedicated for the
duration of a connection, even if no data are being transferred. The connection
provides for transmission at a constant data rate. Thus, each of the devices that are
connected must transmit and receive at the same data rate as the other.

6.3 Packet Switching

In a packet switching data are transmitted in short packets. A typical packet length is
1000 byte. If a source has longer message to send, the message is broken up into a series
of packets. Each packet contains a portion (or the entire short message) of the user’s data
plus some control information. These packets are routed to the destination via different
available nodes.

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A B C
A B
A B
B 2
1 D
3

C A
5
B C A B

A C 6 E
4 C

7
F

Network Station

Node

Dedicated Connection

Non Dedicated
Connection
Figure 6.2 Packet Switching Networks
Above figure illustrate the basic operation. A transmitting computer or other device sends
a message as a sequence of packets. Each packet includes control information including
the destination station. The packets are initially sent to the node to which the sending
station attaches. As each packet arrives at these nodes, the node stores the packet briefly,
and determines the next available link. When the link is available, the packet is
transmitted to the next node. The entire packet eventually delivered to the intended node.

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There are two popular approaches to packet switching: datagram and virtual circuit.

a) Datagram Approach

In the datagram approach to packet switching, each packet is treated independently

from all others and each packet can be sent via any available path, with no reference
to packet that have gone before. In the datagram approach packets, with the same
destination address, do not all follow the same route, and they may arrive out of

A B C

B 2
1 D
3

A 5
A B C

A B 6 E
4 C

7
F
Network Station

Node

Dedicated Connection

Non Dedicated
Connection

sequence at the exit point.

Figure 6.3 Virtual Switching Network

b) Virtual Circuit

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In this approach, a preplanned route is established before any packets are sent. Once
the route is established, all the packets between a pair of communicating parties
follow this same route through the network. Each packet now contains a virtual
circuit identifier as well as the data. Each node on the pre-established route knows
where to direct such packet. No routing decisions are required. At any time, each
station can have more than one virtual circuit to any other station and can have virtual
circuits to more than one station.

6.4 Message Switching

The descriptive term store and forward best know message switching. In this mechanism,
a anode (usually a special computer with number of disks) receives a message, stores it
until the appropriate route is free, then send it along. Note that in message switching the
messages are stored and relayed from the secondary storage (disk), while in packet
switching the packets are stored and forward from primary storage (RAM).

The primary uses of message switching have been to provide high-level network service
(e.g. delayed delivery, broadcast) for unintelligent devices. Since such devices have been
replaced, message switching has virtually disappeared. Also delays inherent in the
process, as well as the requirement for large capacity storage media at each node, make it
unpopular for direct communication.

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Chapter Review Questions

1. Explain the stages involved in establish a circuit connection.
2. Explain the reasons why packet switching is commonly used in data networks..
3. What are the application areas of message switching?

Books for further reading

i. William Stallings (2010), Data and Computer Communication, 9th edition
ii. Behrouz A. Forouzan, (2006), Data communication and networking, 5th edition.
iii. Andrews. Tanenbaum, (2010) Computer Networks, 5th edition . Prentice-Hall PTR

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CHAPTER SEVEN

MULTIPLEXING

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter the learner shall be able to;

i. Explain the concept of multiplexing

ii. Explain the concept of Time division multiplexing
\ iii. Explain the concept of Frequency division multiplexing

7.1 Introduction to multiplexing

Multiplexing is the process of combining separate signal channels into one composite
stream. It is carried out to increase the utilization of transmission channel. In a
multiplexed system, n devices share the capacity of one link. In the following figure, four
devices on the left direct their transmission stream to a multiplexer (MUX) which
combines them into a single stream (many to one). At the receiving end, the stream is fed
into a demultiplexer (DEMX), which separates the stream back into its component

Computer D Computer

1 path
M E

Computer Computer
Three
U Input Line M

Computer Computer

transmissions (one to many) and directs them to their receiving devices.

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7.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDM is an analogue technique that works by dividing slicing the total bandwidth of a media into
a number of narrow bandwidth units known as channels.

Channel 1

Total Bandwidth Guard Band

Of Media Channel 2

Guard Band

Channel 3

Time

Figure 6.9 Frequency Division of Media Bandwidth

These channels are separated by further narrower slices, known as guard bands, to prevent inter-
channel interface. This actual waste of bandwidth is offset by the lower costs of the filter
(frequency selection device). The closer the channels are together (the narrower the guard bands
(the more critical and expensive the channel filter become.

Bellow figure gives a conceptual view of FDM. In this illustration, the transmission path is
divided into three parts (based on different frequencies), each representing a channel to carry one

Computer Computer
Channel 2
M Channel 3 E

Computer
U M Computer

Computer Computer

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transmission.

Figure 6.10 Frequency Division Multiplexing

As an analogy, imagine a point where three separate narrow roads merge to form a three-lane
highway. Each of the three roads corresponds to a lane of the highway. Each car merging into the
highway from one of the road still has its own lane and can travel without interfering with cars in
other lane.

Example: Cable Television

A familiar application of FDM is cable television. The coaxial cable used in a cable television
system has a bandwidth of approximately 500 MHz. An individual television channel requires
about 6 MHz of bandwidth for transmission. The coaxial cable, therefore, can carry many
multiplexed channels (theoretically 83 channels, but actually fewer to allow for guard band). A
demultiplexer at your television allows you to select which of those channels you wish to
receive.

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7.3 Time Division Multiplexing

Synchronous TDM

AAAA
Computer

M C A C A C B A
B
Computer

CCCCC
Computer

Figure 6.12 Synchronous TDM

In this method, multiplexer allocates the same time slot to each device at all time, whether or not
a device has anything to transmit. IF there are n input line than there must be n time slots in the
frame (time slots are grouped into frames). Time slot (lets say T), for example, is assigned to
device (lets say D) alone and can not be used by any other device. Each time its allocated time
slot comes in (in a round robin fashion), Device D has the opportunity to send a portion of its
data for time slot T. If the device D is unable to transmit or does not have data to send, its time
slot remains empty and no other device can use it, another words it is wasted.

Asynchronous TDM(Statistical TDM)

Asynchronous TDM provide better utilization of media. Like synchronous TDM, asynchronous
TDM allows a number of lower speed input lines to be multiplexed to a single higher speed line.
Unlike synchronous TDM, however, in asynchronous TDM the total speed of input line can be
greater than the capacity of the media. In asynchronous TDM the number of slots in the frame
are less than numbers of input lines. Slots are not preassigned, each slot is available to any of the
attached input lines that has data to send. The multiplexer scans the input line, accepts the
portion of data until a frame is filed, and then sends the frame across the link.

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Computer

M A C A C B A 1

Computer

Computer

Figure 6.13 Asynchronous TDM

Since the slots are not pre-assigned for each input line, line address must be added along with the
data to send.

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Chapter Review Questions

1. Explain the term multiplexing.
2. Explain the concept of time division multiplexing.
3. Which is the most appropriate multiplexing method for today’s networks? Give reasons for
your answer.

Books for further reading

i. William Stallings (2010), Data and Computer Communication, 9th edition

ii. Behrouz A. Forouzan, (2006), Data communication and networking, 5th edition.
iii. Andrews. Tanenbaum, (2010) Computer Networks, 5th edition . Prentice-Hall PTR

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SAMPLE EXAM QUESTIONS

Mt Kenya University
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 2010/2011

SCHOOL OF APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF I.T

END OF SEMESTER EXAMINATION FOR THE BACHELOR OF BUSINESS

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEGREE

BIT 2204 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS

DATE: April 2011 Time: 2 HRS

QUESTION 1
Mount Kenya University requires a Network that will cater for their administrative and students needs.
The users range from lecturers, administrative assistants and students. All types of users need to access
the internet through the network. The university management also requires the network to support WIFI
access. The university members of staff need to access the university management information system,
which should not be accessed by the students. The total number of expected users is 500 at any given
time.
(a) Which is the most appropriate network topology for this network. Give the reasons for your
answer (2 marks)
(b) What network devices will be used while designing the network? Briefly explain their use
(8 Marks)
(c) What transmission impairments is the network likely to experience? (8 marks)
(d) What transmission medium will be used to connect the network? Give reasons for your answer
(2 marks)
(e) Briefly explain how the user computers will be configured to access the network (4 marks)
(f) How will this network be secured from intruders and students who might attempt to access
confidential information such as examinations? (4 marks)
(g) What switching technique might be appropriate for the network. Give reasons for your answer
(2 marks)

QUESTION 2
There are several different network topologies:
(a) Bus
(b) Ring
(c)Mesh
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(d) Modern Star

From the above four of the above topologies:
(i) Draw a clearly labelled diagram;
(ii) Briefly describe its layout;
(iii) Discuss its advantages and disadvantages. (5 marks each)
(Total 20 marks)

QUESTION 3
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) 7 layer model, sometimes called the International Standards
Organisation (ISO) 7 layer model, is a critical model for modern computer networking.
(a) In the correct sequence from either end, identify the seven layers of the ISO/OSI
7 layer model. (4 marks)

(b) Briefly explain the function of each layer. (2 marks each - 14 marks)

(c) What are the advantages of the OSI model? (2 marks)

Question 4

(a) With the aid of diagrams, describe the main features of modulation and demodulationwhen used for
transmitting data across the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
(8 marks)

(b) With the aid of diagrams, explain what is meant by each of the terms: amplitude modulation,
frequency modulation and phase modulation. (12 marks)

(Total 20 marks)

Question 5

(a) Local Area Networks (LANs) require an 'access method' which determines how computers share a
common transmission medium. Write down the two main approaches for controlling this sharing in wired
networks. Briefly explain how each approach operates.
(8 marks)

(b) Compare four transmission media used in LANs and WANs in terms of maximum data rates and
other limitations. (12 marks)

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Mt Kenya University
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION 2010

SCHOOL OF APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

BACHELOR OF BUSINESS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

END OF SEMESTER EXAMINATION

COURSE CODE: BBIT 2204

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER

NETWORKS.

TIME: 2HRS

Instructions: Question ONE is COMPULSORY and any other TWO from section B.

SECTION A.

QUESTION ONE.

(a) You have the task of designing a network for a medium-sized company.

Identify the ways in which the following factors might influence the design decisions you make:

i) The geographical area to be covered by the network.

ii) The number of users.

iii) The types of application used within the company.

iv) The type of business of the company.

v) The extent to which E-Commerce is used between the company and its (external) trading partners.

vi) The size of the budget available.

vii) The expected growth rate of the company. (14 marks)

(b) Compare and contrast Half and Full Duplex communication (4 marks)

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(c) Discuss the main differences between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission, emphasising
signal timing issues. (4 marks)

(d) Describe the main elements of the Local Area Network model. (6 marks)

(e) Briefly explain the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network reference model by emphasising the
importance of layers for functional communication requirements.
(2 marks)

Question 2

Describe the seven layers of the OSI model by focusing on the responsibilities and interface of each layer.
(20 marks)

Question 3

(a) Briefly describe circuit switching. (4 marks)

(b) Explain how a packet-switched network works. (4 marks)

(c) Briefly discuss the main differences between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol). (8 marks)

(d) Which of these services in (b) is most suitable for developing a ‘real time’ application? Briefly explain
your reasoning. (4 marks)

Question 4.

a) Video conferencing was expected to eliminate much of the need for

business travel but has not been as widely adopted as was hoped.

i) Give THREE limitations of video conferencing. ( 6 marks)

ii) Video Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP) may be more likely to be

widely adopted.

A) What equipment other than a PC, monitor and broadband

connection is required for video VOIP? (2 marks)

B) Explain how you would find, download and install the software

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needed to run video VOIP. (4 marks)

b) Many homes and small offices now have a wireless local area network

(WLAN).

i) What should the owner do to protect his WLAN from eavesdroppers? (4 marks)

ii) Give TWO advantages of using a WLAN rather than a cabled network. (4 marks)

(Total 20 marks)

Question 5

(a) Local Area Networks (LANs) require an 'access method' which determines how computers share a
common transmission medium. Write down the two main approaches for controlling this sharing in wired
networks. Briefly explain how each approach operates.
(8 marks)

(b) Three physical topologies associated with LANs are: the bus, ring and star topologies. Describe each
one, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses from a reliability point of view.
(12 marks)

(Total 20 marks)

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