MANDAUE CHRISTIAN SCHOOL, INC.

P. Burgos St. Alang-Alang Mandaue City 6014

School ID 404573

THIRD QUARTER

SCIENCE
GRADE 10

Prepared by:
Mayjay T. De La Cruz
3rd Quarter

Topic: Magnifying Glass and Microscope

Learn About It
Characteristics of a Magnifying Glass
A magnifying glass is a hand-held tool used to view smaller objects. It is one of the simplest optical instruments
and consists of just a single converging (convex) lens.

To understand how a magnifying glass works, it is important to understand how we see through our eyes. The
size of the image formed on the retina of your eye depends on the angle covered by the object in one’s field of
vision. As the object moves closer to the eye, the angle increases and as a result, a larger image is observed.
However, the eye cannot focus on an object closer than 25 cm. This is referred to as the near point.

To increase the apparent size of the object being observed, a converging lens can be placed in front of the eye
while the object is positioned at the focal length of the lens as seen in Fig. 2. In this set-up, the virtual image is
at infinity, making the muscle of the eye more relaxed and the image more comfortable to view. The image
formed by the magnifying glass is always virtual, upright in position, and enlarged.

Characteristics of a Microscope
The higher magnification that cannot be provided by a simple magnifier can be achieved using a combination of
two lenses in a device called a microscope, sometimes also called a compound microscope.

A compound microscope consists mainly of two lenses: an objective lens and an ocular lens. The objective lens
is used to focus the object under the microscope. It comes in a wide range of magnifications and a very short
focal length which is usually less than one centimeter. The ocular lens, also called the eyepiece, is used to
 observe the object or specimen being studied. It usually has a magnification of 10 to 15 times and a focal length
of a few centimeters.

The image formed by the first lens, which is the objective lens, becomes the object for the second lens, which is
the ocular. In Fig. 4, the object is placed just outside the focal length of the objective which forms a real,
inverted image that is at or just inside the focal point of the eyepiece. Note that this image is enlarged
compared to the original object.

The eyepiece which acts as a simple magnifier uses the image produced by the objective lens as its “object.” As
a result, it produces a second image which is considered as the “final image”. This second image that we
observe is virtual, inverted, and very much enlarged compared to the original object.

Microscopes have enabled us to see incredibly minuscule objects. However, optical microscopes cannot be
used to observe atoms especially if only visible light is being used as a source of illumination. An atom is many
times smaller than the wavelength of visible light, so its structure can only be seen using other techniques. To
be more specific, the wavelength of visible light is about 10^-6 m while the size of a typical atom is 10^-10 m.
That is 10 000 times smaller than the wavelength of light! This means that an atom is so small that it changes
the way light is reflected.

Keypoints

● A magnifying glass, also called a simple magnifier, is a hand-held tool used to view smaller objects. It is one of
the simplest optical instruments which consists of just a single converging lens.
● The image formed by the magnifying glass is always virtual, upright in position, and enlarged.
● A microscope is a device that produces higher magnification by using a combination of two lenses, sometimes
also called a compound microscope.
● The objective lens is used to focus the object under the microscope. It comes in a wide range of
magnifications and a very short focal length which is usually less than one centimeter.
● The ocular lens, also called the eyepiece, is used to observe the object or specimen being studied. It usually
has a magnification of 10 to 15 times and a focal length of a few centimeters.
● The image formed by a microscope is always virtual, inverted, and enlarged.
 Topic: Telescope and Camera

Learn About It
Telescope
A telescope is an optical system that is used to view distant objects. Though it follows the same basic principle
as that of a compound microscope, the purpose of its use is different. For both instruments, the image formed
by the objective lens is seen through an eyepiece. The main difference is that telescopes are used to view large
objects at huge distances, while microscopes are used to view small objects close at hand. Another essential
difference is that several telescopes use a curved mirror as an objective instead of a lens.

There are two types of telescopes: the refracting telescope and the reflecting telescope.

Refracting Telescopes
A refracting telescope uses a combination of two lenses to form an image. Similar to a compound microscope,
the image formed by the objective lens is the object used by the eyepiece lens. The objective lens forms a real
and inverted image of a distant object either near or at the exact focal point of the eyepiece. Image formation
happens in this position because the object is at infinity. Furthermore, the second or final image seen in the
eyepiece is an enlarged, virtual, and inverted image of the actual object.

Refracting telescopes are useful in viewing relatively nearer objects such as the sun, the moon, or the planets.
This is because in viewing these nearby objects, angular magnification is still necessary. Very distant objects such
as stars will always appear as minuscule points of light no matter how angular magnification is increased.
Nevertheless, this problem can be solved by another type of telescope.

Reflecting Telescopes
A reflecting telescope uses a combination of a curved mirror and a lens to form an image. This type of
telescope is commonly used when viewing very far objects such as stars. Refracting telescopes need to be very
large to magnify objects as large as possible. But lenses with huge diameters are expensive to manufacture. In
addition, enlarging a lens would result in noticeable aberration. That is why the use of a reflecting telescope is
preferred over a refracting telescope. However, reflecting telescopes require large diameters to gather as much
light as possible.

To overcome these problems, the objective lens is replaced with a reflecting, concave mirror. This mirror is
usually parabolic in shape to avoid spherical aberration. Spherical aberration refers to a defect of any optical
device (e.g., lens, mirror) preventing the mirror or lens from focusing all the incident light rays to a precise
point resulting in a blurry effect.
Incoming light rays pass through the whole length of the telescope and are
reflected by a parabolic mirror located at the base. These rays meet at a
single point where an image would be formed. But before this image is
formed, a small flat mirror is positioned so that it reflects the light towards
an opening that passes into the eyepiece. This design is also called a
Newtonian telescope, named after Sir Isaac Newton, who invented it.

Note that this is not the only known design for a reflecting telescope. In large modern telescopes, the eyepiece
is replaced with a camera or other instruments.

Binoculars
Binoculars are simply a pair of small telescopes attached side by
side. It is used to view images of greater depth. Binoculars have a
pair of prisms or large wedges of glass that reflect the light several
times along the path from the objective to the eyepiece. Thus, the
image formed using this optical device is upright. This reduces the
length of the instrument but effectively makes the path of light
longer. Also, these prisms flip the image both horizontally and
vertically, resulting in an upright image.

They are usually described by two numbers separated by a

multiplication sign (e.g., 7 x 60). The first number is the angular
magnification, while the second number refers to the diameter
of the objective lenses in millimeters. The diameter of the
objective lens defines its light-gathering capacity, which refers
to the brightness of the image.

Camera
A camera is an optical device used for recording images either electronically or on film. Its working principle is
similar in many ways to the structure and function of the human eye.
Parts of a Camera
A camera has a shutter that works similarly to the eyelid of the human
eye. This shutter allows the light to enter when opened and blocks the
light when closed. The speed at which this part opens can be adjusted in
cameras and is called shutter speed. The shutter speed refers to the
length of time the shutter is open. The hole behind the camera is called
aperture, similar to the eye’s pupil. It serves as the pathway of light to
the camera.

Another part of a camera is the diaphragm. It functions similarly to the iris. It regulates the amount of light
entering the aperture that affects the lighting in a photograph.
 Lastly, a camera has a converging lens used to focus the light to
produce bright and clear images. The lens forms an inverted and
real image on the recording medium. The recording medium is
similar to the eye’s retina. Since the shape of the lens is fixed, it
may result in distorted images. To avoid this, several lenses with
different shapes are joined together.

Image Formation in a Camera

When a camera is in focus, the position of the recording medium is at the same position as that of the image
formed by the lens. Thus, it results in a sharp image. Remember that in a converging lens, the image distance
increases as the object distance decreases. To focus the image in a camera, the lens should be closer to the film
for distant objects and farther for nearby objects.

Another important factor being considered in a camera is the focal

length. Generally speaking, capturing an image of a distant object
requires a lens of longer focal length. This is commonly called a zoom
lens. In addition, it also increases the size of the image. On the other
hand, a lens of a shorter focal length produces a smaller image but a
larger field of view. These are commonly known as “wide-angle
lenses” or “fisheye” lenses. This means that the longer the focal
length, the narrower the angle of view.

For a film or screen to record an image properly, the “exposure”

must fall at a proper limit. Exposure refers to the total light energy
per unit area that reaches the film. Too much light entering the
lens will result in excessive brightness in a photograph. On the
other hand, if the amount of light is too low, the resulting image
will be too dark.

This amount of light entering the lens is controlled by the camera’s shutter and its lens aperture. The shutter
regulates the time interval by which light is allowed to enter the lens. This factor can be adjusted in a camera to
factors of about 2, usually from 1s to 1/1000 s. Photographers refer to this light-gathering capability as the f-
number of the lens. In general, larger f-numbers represent smaller apertures.

The depth of field increases with the f-number. This means that a low f-number value will produce an image
with objects at one distance in focus, and the rest of the image is out of focus. A higher f-number value means
that objects at a wide range of distances from the lens form reasonably sharp images on the film or screen.
 Keypoints

● A telescope is an optical system that is used to view

distant objects.
● A refracting telescope uses a combination of two
lenses, the eyepiece, and objective lenses, to form an
image.
● A reflecting telescope uses a combination of a curved
mirror and a lens to form an image.
● Binoculars are simply a pair of small telescopes
attached side by side, which are mostly used to view images of greater depth.
● A camera is an optical device used for recording images either electronically or on film. It has several parts:
shutter, aperture, diaphragm, and lens.
○ Shutter allows the light to enter when opened and blocks the light when closed.
○ Aperture is the hole behind the camera that serves as the pathway of light to the camera.
○ The diaphragm regulates the amount of light entering the aperture that affects the lighting in a
photograph.
○ A converging lens is used to focus the light to produce bright and clear images. The lens forms an
inverted and real image on the recording medium.
● Photographers refer to the light-gathering capability of the camera as the f-number of the lens.

Topic: Electric Generator

Learn About It
How Do Generators Induce Electric Current?
Voltage, which causes current, can be induced in a coil of wire in two ways: (1) by moving a magnet into and
out of a stationary coil of wire, or (2) by moving the coil of wire near a stationary magnet. These two methods
ultimately aim to produce a fluctuating magnetic field in the loop.

Inducing Current by Moving a Magnet Through a Coil of Wire

As the magnet is introduced, the magnetic field strength inside the coil increases, and the induced current in
the coil moves in one direction. As the magnet is pulled out, the magnetic field strength falls, and the current is
induced in the opposite direction.

As the magnet is continuously pushed in and

pulled out, the strength of the voltage continues
to change. During this process, voltage
alternately drops and rises, creating an
alternating voltage. The more frequent the
magnet is moved in and out of the coil, the
stronger the alternating voltage produced.
 Inducing Current through Rotating a Coil of Wire in a Stationary Magnet
The second method of inducing current in a coil of wire is placing a stationary magnet near a rotating loop. It is
easier to move the coil instead of moving the magnet. This is done by rotating a coil in a stationary magnetic
field. This basic concept is the working principle behind electric generators.

As the loop rotates, it interacts with varying magnetic

field lines, similar to what it would experience if a
magnet is introduced and pulled out of it.

Types of Generators
There are two types of generators: the
alternating current (AC) generator and the
direct current (DC) generator. Both
generators depend on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.

Fleming’s left-hand rule is used to identify the direction of movement of the current-carrying wire when placed
in a magnetic field. This is used in electric motors, which were discussed in Lesson 2 of this unit. For generators,
Fleming’s right-hand rule is used to identify the direction of the current. To make the left-hand rules, just point
your thumb in the direction of the movement. The index finger shows the direction of the magnetic field. The
middle finger will then show you the direction of the current.

AC Generator
The parts of an AC generator are almost similar to the electric motor. The only difference is in electric motors,
the electrical energy from the battery is converted to mechanical energy (rotating of the coil); while for
generators, the mechanical energy exerted to rotate the coil generates electrical energy that can power a load
such as a light bulb (not shown in the figure).
The rectangular coil ABCD shown in Fig. 6 needs to be rotated in a magnetic field. It is connected to two slip
rings r1 and r2. These two rings are connected to an axle. The two slip rings are also connected to two separate
conducting brushes b1 and b2. The galvanometer is attached to detect the presence of induced current. Notice
that the arm AB is connected to r1, which is then connected to b1; while the arm CD is connected to r2, which
is then connected to b2.
 When the rectangular coil rotates such that arm AB will be moved
upwards and CD downwards, the whole rectangular coil will move
clockwise. By applying Fleming’s right-hand rule, you can identify the
direction of the induced current.

Since the movement of arm AB is upward, position your right hand such that the thumb points upward. Then,
position your index finger and middle
finger perpendicular to each other. As you
can see, the index finger points from north
to south. This means that the magnetic
field is in that direction. The middle finger,
on the hand, shows the direction of the
induced current, which is downwards.

The opposite is true for arm CD. Since the

movement of the arm CD is downward, position your right hand such that the thumb points downward. The
index finger shows that the magnetic field is still in the same direction (north to south). The middle finger, in
this case, is pointing up, which means that the induced current on this side is upwards.

Therefore, the flow of current exits at b1 then goes to b2 → arm CD → arm AB. As shown in Fig. 7, the
rectangular coil is in the reverse direction after a half rotation. By applying Fleming’s rule, the current from the
arm CD will move downwards. Since the arm CD is connected to b2, the current will now exit at b2 then goes to
b1 → arm AB → arm CD.

As a whole, this kind of generator is called an AC

generator because the current changes direction
(alternating current).
When the coil of wire is exactly positioned
perpendicular to the magnetic field lines similar to
Fig.7a, the number of field lines enclosed by the
loop is at its maximum. As the coil of wire rotates as
shown in Fig. 7b, the loop encloses a fewer number
of field lines. When the plane of the coil of wire is
exactly parallel to the magnetic field lines as shown in Fig. 7c, it does not enclose any field lines. It is during this
period that the induced current reaches its greatest value since the rate of change of field lines is at its
greatest. This rotation of the coil of wire in a stationary magnet changes the number of field lines passing
through the coil and usually results in the production of alternating current within the loop.

The value of the voltage depends on the magnetic field strength and the speed of rotation of the coil of wire. In
an AC generator, the ends of the coil of wire are designed in such a way that one side of the loop always
touches just one side of the terminals connected to a circuit. This is achieved by connecting the ends of the
loop to a metallic ring (slip ring), which
also rotates along with the loop. It is then connected to an external circuit through the use of fixed brushes.
The standard AC in the Philippines changes in magnitude and direction at a rate of 60 complete cycles per
second—60 hertz.
 DC Generator
A direct current (DC) generator is simply a transformed AC generator since both are composed of the same
basic elements. The only difference is that DC generators maintain a single direction of electric current instead
of alternating.

To control the flow of an electric current in a single direction, a DC generator uses a metal ring divided into two
halves, also called a split ring or commutator, which also
rotates with the coil of wire. This split ring is connected to
the external circuit by two carbon brushes. In this setup,
even if the current direction is reversed on one side of the
wire, the split ring ensures that the connection in the coil
also reverses, resulting in a constant polarity and
unidirectional current. Both generators internally produce an
alternating current, but DC

generators use commutators to provide a DC output.

Nowadays, different materials that eliminate the use of
commutators and also allow better voltage regulation are
available.

The arrangement of the parts of the DC generator is the same as the arrangement in a DC motor. However,
instead of passing current from a battery to the coil, the DC generator produces electricity by rotating the coil.
As shown in Fig. 9, the rectangular coil ABCD is placed between the two poles of a permanent magnet. The
rectangular coil is attached to the split rings P and Q, which touches the conducting brushes X and Y. Arm AB is
attached to the split ring P while the arm CD is attached to split ring Q.

As shown in Fig. 10, the arrangement of the

rectangular coil is reversed after half rotation. Also,
the split ring Q now touches the brush X while the
split ring P touches the brush Y. Notice that at all
times, only one brush touches the arm moving up,
and the other brush only touches the arm moving
down. Therefore, a unidirectional current is
produced. This is the reason why it is called a DC
generator.

History and Development of Generators

Michael Faraday
Michael Faraday was the first person to
create a generator in 1831 using
electromagnetic induction by using an
induction ring. His experiments about how
electric current works led to the
understanding of electrical transformers and
motors. The generator he built is called the
Faraday disk. It is a direct current (DC)
electrical generator. The voltage produced by
this kind of generator is very low. It works by
rotating a conducting ring surrounded by a
magnetic field.
 Hippolyte Pixii
The first practical electric generators were called
dynamos. One of the first dynamos was built by
Hippolyte Pixii in 1832. Dynamos were the first
electrical generators capable of delivering power for the
industry. The earliest electrical generator used in an
industrial process is the Woolrich Electrical Generator
used in 1844. It is now located in the Thinktank
Birmingham Science Museum.

Sir Charles Wheatstone, Werner Von Siemens and

Samuel Alfred Varley

Modern dynamos were developed independently by Sir

Charles Wheatstone, Werner Von Siemens, and Samuel
Alfred Varley. These dynamos use self-powering
electromagnetic coils to create electromagnetic fields.
Usage of field coils increased the power output of a
dynamo and enabled high power generation.

Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti

“Alternators” or alternating current generators were later developed in the 1880s. Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti
invented the Ferranti-Thompson Alternator with the help of Lord Kelvin in 1882. He was later able to design a
power station in 1891 that would supply high-voltage AC power and was stepped down for consumer use. This
same system is still used today all around the world.

Keypoints
● Voltage, which causes current, can be induced in a coil of wire in two ways: (1) by moving a magnet into and
out of a stationary coil of wire or; (2) by moving the coil of wire near a stationary magnet.
● There are two types of generators: the alternating current (AC) generator and the direct current (DC)
generator. Both generators depend on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
● Fleming’s right-hand rule is used to identify the direction of the current. To do this, just point your thumb in
the direction of the movement. The index finger shows the direction of the magnetic field. The middle finger will
then show you the direction of the current.
● Michael Faraday, Hippolyte Pixii, Sir Charles Wheatstone, Werner Von Siemens, Samuel Alfred Varley, and
Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti are the scientists that contributed to the development of generators.

Topic: Electric Motor

Learn About It

Current-Carrying Wire and Galvanometer

The production of a magnetic field by a current-carrying wire is essential to understand how an electric motor
functions. This idea was first noted by Hans Christian Oersted in 1820 during one of his lectures.

Oersted placed a compass near a wireconnected to a battery. When the switch

is turned on, the compass needle deflects as the current flows through the wire.
This shows that the electric current generates a magnetic field. One convenient
rule in remembering the direction of magnetic field in a current carrying wire is
Maxwell’s right-hand rule. As shown in Fig. 2, when you point your right thumb
in the direction of the current, the direction of the magnetic field is the
direction of the curl of the remaining four fingers.
Galvanometer
A galvanometer is a current-detecting device that uses a stationary magnet
mounted with a moving coil attached to a needle. The greater the current present in the wire, the larger the
deflection of the needle.
The coil of the galvanometer rotates as current passes through it. A pointer attached to it also moves whenever
the coil rotates. If there is no current flow, the coil and pointer are kept at zero position by a tiny spring.
Electric Motor
A slightly modified galvanometer is called an electric motor. It converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. The major difference between a galvanometer and a motor is that current in an electric motor reverses
direction each time the coil turns half-way.
As shown in Fig. 4, the rectangular coil ABCD which is made
of insulated copper wire is placed between two poles of the
magnet. This arrangement is made so that the arms AB and
CD are perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
Notice that both ends of the coil are connected to a split
ring PQ or commutator which also rotates along with the
coil. The rotating split-ring is connected to the power source
through stationary loose connectors made up of graphite
referred to as conducting brushes XY. These components
ensure that when electric current flows through the circuit,
the coil will continually rotate in one direction. The inner
sides of these split ring are insulated and connected to an
axle such that the half rings can spin freely around the axle.
Therefore, the flow of the current is from the battery → conducting brush X → split ring P → arm AB → arm CD
→ conducting brush Y → split ring Q.

Fleming’s left-hand rule is used to identify the direction of movement of the current-carrying wire if placed in a
magnetic field. To do this, just put your middle finger in the direction of the current. Then, stretch your index
finger and thumb. The index finger will then indicate the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb will
indicate the direction of the force.

As shown in Fig. 5, the thumb shows the direction

of the movement, first finger (index finger) points
to the direction of the magnetic field, and second
finger (middle finger) points to the direction of the
current. A helpful mnemonic would be
remembering the letter “M” in the word thumb. It
signifies motion. The letter “F” in the word first
finger signifies magnetic field (“F” for field). Lastly,
the letter “C” in the second finger signifies current.

As shown in Fig. 6, the index finger shows the direction of the magnetic field which is from north to south. The
middle finger, on the other hand, points to the direction of the current which is from A to B. Therefore, the force
acting on AB pushes it downwards since the thumb, which indicates the direction of force, is pointing
downwards.

On the opposite side of the rectangular coil, the index finger shows that the magnetic field direction is from
north to south. Since the direction of the current is from C to D, the middle finger points from arm C to D.
Therefore, the thumb will point upwards which means that the arm CD will move upwards. Combining the
information from the movement of arm AB and CD, the direction of the rotation of the rectangular coil is
counterclockwise.

Fig. 7 shows the location of the parts of the

electric motor after half rotation of the coil.
Notice that the location of arm AB and CD is
reversed. Also, the split ring Q now touches the
brush X and the split ring P now touches the
brush Y. This means that the flow of the
current will be reversed after the half rotation.
The current flow will be from D → C → B → A.
In effect, the reverse current flow will also
reverse the force acting on the arms AB and
CD. Thus, after the half rotation, the arm AB
which was previously pushed downwards will
now be pushed upwards and the arm CD which
was previously pushed upwards will now be pushed downwards. Therefore, the reversing of the current occurs
every half rotation which creates a continuous rotating motion of an electric motor.

Types of Electric Motor

There are two types of motors: direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) motors.

DC motors are powered by direct current sources like batteries. In this type of motor, the coil of wire rotates
while the magnetic field (produced by magnets or electromagnets) stays in one direction. They are constructed
with carbon brushes and a commutator. These limit the speed and usually reduce the lifespan of DC motors. You
can increase the speed of a DC motor by increasing the windings inside it. DC motors are commonly used in
applications where motors need to be externally controlled.

AC motors do not use brushes and commutators. Unlike a DC motor, an AC motor has a rotating magnetic field
and a stationary armature. It also has a longer lifespan and is utilized when there is a need for extra power for a
period of time. By varying the frequency in the change of magnetic field inside it, its speed can be adjusted.

History and Development of Electric Motors

Peter Barlow
Peter Barlow invented the very first rotating device
in 1822 known as Barlow’s Wheel. It is a freely rotating
spiked wheel connected to a power source
surrounded by a magnetic field from a
horseshoe magnet.

Anyos Jedlik
Some assume that Anyos Jedlik is the first one to invent the
commutated rotary machine with magnets in 1828.

Joseph Henry
Joseph Henry was able to build an oscillating
electromagnetic motor in 1831 that he regarded as a
“philosophical toy”. The simple device consisted of a
moving part which is a straight electromagnet rocking on a
horizontal axis. Its polarity would be reversed automatically
by its motion as two pairs of wires projecting from its end
made connections alternately with two electrochemical
cells. Two vertical permanent magnets alternately attracted
and repelled the ends of the electromagnet, making it rock
back and forth at 75 vibrations per minute. This device is
important because it was the first demonstration of continuous motion produced by magnetic attraction and
repulsion.

Moritz Hermann Jacobi

The first “real” motor was built by
Moritz Hermann Jacobi in 1834
although the first patent was
received by Thomas Davenport.
Jacobi’s electric motor consisted of
horseshoe electromagnets and
used commutators and brushes to
deliver current to the whole
device.
Frank Julian Sprague
The first practical motor was invented by
Frank Julian Sprague in 1886. It was a non-
sparking motor that maintained relatively
constant speed under variable loads.

Nikola Tesla
Nikola Tesla developed a three-phase system
in which instead of only a single magnetic
field acting on a coil of wire is present, three
rotating magnetic fields will act on coils of
wire causing it to produce mechanical
energy. As the magnetic fields rotate, they
attract and repulse the coils producing
torque. He is thus known to be a big
contributor to the design of the modern AC
and electricity supply system.

Keypoints
● A galvanometer is a current-detecting device that uses a stationary magnet mounted with a moving coil
attached to a needle.
● Electric motors convert electrical energy to mechanical energy.
● Maxwell’s right-hand rule shows the direction of current and magnetic field. When you point your right
thumb in the direction of the current, the direction of the magnetic field is the direction of the curl of the
remaining four fingers.
● Fleming’s left-hand rule is used to identify the direction of movement of the current-carrying wire if placed in
a magnetic field.
● There are two types of motors: direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) motors.
○ DC motors are commonly used in applications where motors need to be externally controlled.
○ AC motors are usually utilized when there is a need for power for an extended period of time.
● Peter Barlow, Anyos Jedlik, Joseph Henry, Moritz Hermann Jacobi, Frank Julian Sprague, and Nikola Tesla are
the scientists that contributed to the development of motors.

Topic: Female Reproductive System

Learn About It
The Internal Reproductive System of Females
The female reproductive system consists of internal and external organs. The internal reproductive system is
composed of the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries.

Vagina
The vagina is an elastic, muscular canal that connects
the external reproductive system to the cervix. The
organ comprises three types of tissues, namely
connective, fibrous, and epithelial tissues. The primary
function of the vagina is to receive the penis and
sperm during sexual intercourse and to serve as a
passageway of blood
during menstruation. It is also the passageway of the
baby during delivery. Hence, it is also called the birth
canal.

The pH of the vagina is acidic. It keeps the vagina protected from pathogens like bacteria or fungi. The vagina’s
acidity is due to the pH alteration by certain bacteria, such as Lactobacillus acidophilus, which are somewhat
mutualistic with humans.

Cervix
The cervix is at the lower portion of the uterus, a muscle that holds the fetus during pregnancy. The cervix
expands once the baby is ready to be born. The cervix also contains cervical mucus that facilitates the transport
and nourishment of sperm aiding in fertilization. It also plays a role in hormonal signaling, and it can be used as
an indicator of a woman’s fertility. This is shown in Fig. 3 below.
Uterus
The uterus is a hollow muscular organ that lies between the urinary bladder and the rectum. It has a very soft
lining that holds the fertilized egg and nurtures it until it becomes a fetus.

The lining of the uterus thickens and sheds during the

different parts of the menstrual cycle of females. It is the
lining of the uterus that is shed off and removed from
the body during menstruation.

The uterine wall has three distinct layers: perimetrium,

myometrium, and endometrium. These three layers
have their functions and characteristics. The
perimetrium is the outermost layer of the uterus, and it
provides support to the entire organ. Meanwhile, the
myometrium is the middle layer and the thickest one. It contains smooth muscles and is responsible for uterine
contractions. The endometrium is the innermost layer. It maintains the structural integrity of the uterus and is
the part that usually sheds off during the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle.

Fallopian Tubes
The fallopian tubes connect the ovaries to the uterus.
These are narrow ten-centimeter-long tubes from
which the eggs travel from the ovaries to the uterus
during ovulation. Their primary function is to transport
the egg cell properly to the uterus. The fallopian tubes
contain ciliated and non-ciliated columnar cells. The
ciliated cells of the fallopian tubes propel the egg cells
to the uterus during ovulation. The non-ciliated cells,
on the other hand, produce secretions to aid the
ciliated cells with propulsion. When an egg cell is
ovulating, the fallopian tubes undergo the same wave-
like motions as the digestive system, known as
peristalsis.

Ovaries
The ovary is the female gonad that contains the egg cells. It produces female sex hormones, estrogen, and
progesterone. At birth, a female baby has around 70,000 immature egg cells in each ovary. During puberty, the
egg becomes mature and is released. The hormones estrogen and progesterone control the menstrual cycle
and maintain the secondary sexual characteristics of females. These hormones are also responsible for some
of the changes that happen during pregnancy. Estrogen is the primary female hormone.

The External Reproductive System

All the structures of the female reproductive system outside of the vagina are considered structures of the
external reproductive system. The main female outer reproductive parts include the labia majora, labia
 minora, and clitoris. The mons pubis, also known as the mons, is a layer of fat that covers part of the pubic
bones. This structure contains glands that are capable of secreting pheromones.

Labia Majora
The labia majora encloses and protects all the
external reproductive organs. It contains sweat
glands and oil-secreting glands. One of the
structures covered by the labia majora is the
vaginal orifice, which is the outer opening of the
vagina. This structure contains the hymen, a thin
layer of membrane that protects the vagina.

Labia Minora
The labia minora surrounds the openings of the
vagina and urethra. The labia minora serves to
protect the vaginal and urethral openings. The
urethral orifice found between the clitoris and vagina serves as the opening for the urethra, which is a part of
the excretory system as the exit point for urine.

Clitoris
The clitoris is a small, sensitive protrusion at which the two labia minora meet. The clitoris itself, however, does
not have any significant reproductive function.

Functions of the Female Reproductive System

The human female reproductive system has several functions: egg cell production, fertilization, and the
development of the zygote into a new organism.

Egg Cell Production

The female reproductive system is responsible for the nourishment and development of the female gametes.
Gametogenesis, which involves the production, nourishment, and development of gametes, occurs here. The
type of gametogenesis in female organisms is known as oogenesis. The egg cells are stored in the ovaries until
they are released in a process known as ovulation.

Fertilization
In humans, fertilization occurs internally. The female reproductive system is responsible for maintaining the
necessary conditions for fertilization to occur. After the egg is fertilized, the female reproductive system
prepares the body for pregnancy.

Hormone Production
There are cells in the organs of the female reproductive system that serve to produce hormones to be
delivered to the different parts of the body. These hormones have many functions, including signaling the body
to prepare for puberty or triggering the changes in preparation for pregnancy.

Pregnancy
The organs of the female reproductive system work together to allow the body to accommodate pregnancy.
Many changes happen to a woman’s body during this time, and many of these changes are triggered by the
female reproductive system’s release of signals.

Keypoints

● The female reproductive system consists of organs that can be found internally or externally.
● The internal reproductive system comprises the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. All structures
outside the vagina are part of the external genitalia.
● The human female reproductive system has several functions: egg cell production, fertilization, and the
development of the zygote into a new organism.
● The type of gametogenesis in female organisms is known as oogenesis.
● The egg cells are stored in the ovaries until they are released in a process known as ovulation.

Topic: Male Reproductive System

Learn About It

Components of the Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system has organs that fulfill the functions that were mentioned above. It is composed
of the testes, scrotum, prostate gland, urethra, penis, and sperm ducts.

Testes
Recall that the gonads of the male reproductive system are the testes (sing. testis). The male reproductive
system has two testes. Their function is to produce male sex cells, the sperm cells. They also produce male sex
hormones, such as testosterone.

The sperm cells develop inside the testes in a series

of tubes known as the seminiferous tubules. The
seminiferous tubules are structures that are coiled
inside the testes and where sperm is produced and
mature.
Immature sperm cells are commonly found near the
border of the seminiferous tubules. As these cells
mature, they move farther inside the tubules, closer
to the lumen, which refers to the space in the
middle of a tube. Fully mature sperm cells, those
that are motile and have developed flagella, are
found within the lumen.

Other cells, such as the Sertoli cells, Leydig cells, and

myoid cells, can also be found in the testes. The
Sertoli cells release a variety of hormones that aid in
the development of sperm cells, and the Leydig cells primarily release testosterone. The myoid cells are for the
contraction of the seminiferous tubules for moving cells and substances. There are also blood vessels in the
testes for the delivery of oxygen and nutrients.

Scrotum
The scrotum is a bag of skin that contains the testes. It is a reproductive structure that is located under the
penis. The scrotum is about 2°C to 3°C, which is lower than the normal body temperature. This is the
temperature that is favorable for sperm cell production and development. Within the scrotum are muscles
known as the dartos and cremaster muscles. These play important roles in maintaining the temperature of the
scrotum. When the environmental temperature is significantly low, the dartos contract, decreasing the surface
area of the scrotum in contact with the outside environment. This condition prevents further heat loss. The
cremaster, on the other hand, brings the testes closer to the body to conserve heat.

Epididymis
Mature sperm cells are later on stored in a tube beside the testes known as the epididymis. The sperm cells are
stored until they are released from the body through a process known as ejaculation. Ejaculation forcefully
expels sperm cells and semen from the male body into the female’s vagina during sexual intercourse. This
forceful expulsion of fluid is made possible by muscles, such as the pubococcygeus and the bulbospongiosus
muscles.

Once the sperm cells are within the female reproductive tract, they can survive as long as five days. This
increases the chances of successfully fertilizing an egg. If the sperm cells remain within the male reproductive
system for too long, they become phagocytosed and are reabsorbed back by the system. This is to ensure that
the sperm cells that can potentially fertilize an egg are not at an advanced age.

The epididymis contains proteins known as defensins. There are many kinds of defensins, and all of them are
found in different areas of the body and perform different functions. The defensins in the epididymis support
the reproductive tract of male, protect against bacterial infections, and regulate recovery after a bacterial
infection.

Vas Deferens
During ejaculation, sperm cells move from the epididymis into a tube called the vas deferens, into another
tube known as the urethra, and out of the body.

Vasectomy is a method of birth control that involves cutting or blocking the tubes of the vas deferens. This
prevents the sperm cells from being transported out of the body and results in future sexual intercourse by the
affected male to carry no risk of fertilization.

Prostate Gland
The prostate gland secretes the prostate fluid, which neutralizes the acidic conditions of the vagina. The
mixture of sperm and prostate fluid is called semen. The muscles of the prostate gland help propel the semen
through the urethra and into the female reproductive organ during ejaculation.

Urethra
The urethra is the tube that transports and discharges urine and semen outside the body. It is connected to
both the urinary bladder and the sperm duct. This is the reason why the urethra serves as an exit point for both
urinary and reproductive products.

Penis
The penis is the external part of the male reproductive system. It is a tube-shaped organ that contains the
urethra, allowing the urine and semen to pass through and leave the body. The glans penis, also known as the
head of the penis, is a sensitive structure at the end of the organ. It contains the opening for the urethra. The
glans penis is covered by an excess skin known as the prepuce, which protects the glans.

Within the penis is a structure known as the corpus cavernosum (plural: corpora cavernosa). This structure is
the erectile tissue in men, which leads to the penis becoming erect when the corpora cavernosa is filled with
blood. This is in preparation for sexual intercourse.

Many cultures practice a medical process known as circumcision. This process involves the partial or complete
removal of the prepuce to expose the glans penis. Studies show that circumcision has many medical benefits,
which include decreased risk of some diseases and infections.

Sperm Ducts
Sperm ducts are composed of the vas deferens and seminal vesicles. Recall that the vas deferens is a tube
through which the sperm cells pass before entering the urethra. On the other hand, seminal vesicles secrete a
fluid that makes the sperm cells more mobile, increasing the chances of fertilization.

The spermatic cord is a structure associated with the vas deferens. Its primary function is to hold and support
structure, such as blood vessels and the vas deferens.

Accessory Glands
The male reproductive system also has accessory glands, which secrete substances that aid in the nourishment
of the sperm cells and contribute to higher chances of fertilization. The seminal vesicles are considered as
accessory glands.

Other accessory glands include the bulbourethral gland and the prostate. The bulbourethral gland has
secretions that neutralize the acidity of the vagina, whereas the prostate gland releases substances that
increase the motility of the sperm cells. In terms of the composition of human semen, it consists of 5%
secretions from bulbourethral glands, 30% from prostate glands, and 65% from the seminal vesicle.

General Functions of the Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system is specialized for the production of sperm cells and their deposition into the
female reproductive tract. It has a series of structures that performs these functions efficiently.
 Production of Sperm Cells
As mentioned, the sperm cells are produced by the male reproductive system. It also allows for the
development and maturation of these cells. Recall that this process is known as gametogenesis, and the type of
gametogenesis that occurs in male organisms is known as spermatogenesis.

Production of Hormones
The primary male sex hormone is testosterone, and it is produced by the testes. Testosterone is responsible for
the changes that occur during puberty, as well as the signaling that is necessary to trigger spermatogenesis.

Deposition of Sperm Cells

Another function of the male reproductive system is to safely and properly deposit the sperm cells into the
female reproductive tract. The male reproductive system has a number of secretions to ensure that the sperm
cells are properly nourished and protected for them to be safely deposited into the female reproductive tract.
As mentioned, the penis does the deposition. Any organ that is used for depositing sperm cells into a female is
known as an intromittent organ. This is the penis in humans.

Keypoints

● The male reproductive system is specialized for the production of sperm cells and their deposition into the
female reproductive tract.
● The production, development, and maturation of sperm cells happen within the male reproductive system.
● The type of gametogenesis that occurs in male organisms is known as spermatogenesis.
● The male reproductive system is composed of the testes, scrotum, urethra, penis, sperm ducts, and
accessory glands.
● The gonads of the male reproductive system are the testes. The male reproductive system consists of two
testes.

Topic: Puberty

Learn About It

Puberty
Puberty typically starts at ages 8–13 for females, and about 9–14 for males. However, it may vary from
individual to individual.

Puberty is initiated by various hormonal signals from the brain to the reproductive organs or gonads. In
response to the signals, the gonads produce hormones that promote the growth and maturation of different
parts of the body, such as muscles, skin, hair, and breasts. The changes between males and females vary, but the
common denominator between both sexes is the preparation of the body for reproductive maturity. The
primary glands that are involved in puberty include the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus.

Sex Characteristics
Primary Sex Characteristics
Primary sex characteristics refer to organs specifically needed for reproduction. These organs are the vagina,
uterus, and the ovaries in females and the penis and testes in males. The ovaries and vagina are considered the
female primary sex characteristics because these are directly involved in reproduction. The ovaries are for
producing egg cells, whereas the uterus is where the fetus develops after fertilization. Vagina primarily serves as
the birth canal The male primary sex characteristics include the testes that produce sperm cells and the penis
that delivers the sperm cells. All these structures become more developed during puberty.
Humans cannot reproduce without the primary sex organs. However, this is not to say that the other organs of
the reproductive system are less important. These also serve the supporting functions that allow proper
reproduction or conception to occur.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

The physical characteristics that develop during puberty are called secondary sex characteristics. Examples of
secondary sex characteristics are the growth of facial hair in males, the development of breasts in females, or
the growth of armpit hair for both sexes.

The primary hormones that affect the development of secondary sex characteristics are testosterone for males
and estrogen for females. These hormones are produced by the gonads (i.e., testes for males and ovaries for
females), and production is increased during puberty. This leads to the development of secondary sex
characteristics during and after the age of puberty.

Many characteristics are different for males and females, although some of them are shared by both. Many of
these are not directly involved in reproduction. However, some of these secondary sex characteristics may aid
in reproduction or pregnancy. An example of a secondary sex characteristic that aids in pregnancy is the
development of wider hips for females. This allows for more space for the fetus and aids in childbirth.

Gonadarche
Gonadarche refers to the development of the reproductive organs, or gonads, during puberty. The gonads in
males are the testes and the ovaries in females. When the brain releases pituitary gonadotropins, the gonads
grow and mature. This also causes an increase in the production of sex hormones by the gonads.
Precocious puberty refers to puberty that starts earlier than the average, whereas delayed puberty starts later
than the average.
The major sign of puberty in males is the first ejaculation, which occurs, on average, at age 13. The major sign of
puberty for females is the first menstruation, which occurs, on average, between ages 12 and 13.

Hormones and Puberty

The changes in puberty are largely influenced by hormonal activity. Hormones play an organizational role and an
activational role during puberty. The organizational role of hormones is to prime the body to behave in a certain
way once puberty begins. The activational role of hormones is to trigger certain behavioral and physical
changes. The hormones that influence puberty are secreted by the endocrine glands: the hypothalamus, the
pituitary gland, and the gonads.
 Keypoints
● Puberty happens in preparation for sexual maturity. Various hormonal signals initiate it from the brain to the
reproductive organs or gonads.
● Primary sex characteristics refer to organs specifically needed for reproduction.
● The primary sex organs of males are the penis and testes. The ovaries, uterus, and vagina are for females.
● Gonadarche refers to the development of the reproductive organs, or gonads, during puberty.
● The hormones that influence puberty are secreted by the endocrine glands: the hypothalamus, the pituitary
gland, and gonads.

Topic: Hormones Controlling the Male Reproductive System

Learn About It

Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the specific type of gametogenesis that occurs in males. Gametogenesis, as you can recall,
involves the production and development of gametes or sex cells. Thus,
gametogenesis in males involves the maturation of sperm cells from
spermatogonia (or diploid precursor cells) into adult sperm cells (haploid
gametes). Adult sperm cells are capable of motility and, thus, capable of
fertilizing an egg cell. The process of spermatogenesis is triggered when
the Sertoli cells of the testes receive follicle-stimulating hormone released
by the anterior pituitary gland.
Hormonal Control in Males
Puberty in males is controlled by two hormones: follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). These two hormones are
released in response to another hormone known as the gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (GnRH).
Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone
At the onset of puberty, the hypothalamus starts secreting high pulses of
GnRH. In response, the anterior pituitary gland, a pea-sized organ
attached to the base of the brain, secretes FSH and LH.
Follicle Stimulating HormoneFSH goes into the testes and stimulates the Sertoli cells. Sertoli cells are cells
around which spermatids develop

in the tubules of the

testes. Hence, FSH initiates sperm cell production or spermatogenesis.

Luteinizing Hormone
LH enters the testes and stimulates the interstitial cells. The interstitial cells, also called Leydig cells, produce
and release testosterone into the testes and the bloodstream.

Testosterone
Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone. It is responsible for the secondary sex characteristics that
develop among males during their adolescence. This hormone is also essential in spermatogenesis. Testosterone
is produced in the Leydig cells of the testes. This happens when the pituitary gland releases LH. The chemical
structure of testosterone is shown in Figure 3.
Process of Regulation
In summary, this cascade of processes are initiated when GnRH stimulates the production of FSH and LH to
begin the production of functional sperm cells. Recall that there are feedback mechanisms in place in the body
to make sure that proper signals are initiated to control certain processes that do not just involve the
reproductive organs.

Negative feedback occurs when a change sensed by the body occurs. What the body does in response is to
produce a signal, usually in the form of hormones, in order to reverse or counteract this change. For example,
as is seen in the illustration above, the production of testosterone will have a negative feedback effect on the
pituitary gland in order to inhibit the release of hormones like FSH, LH, and GnRH.

There are negative feedback mechanisms involved in males. Some of these include:
● When the testosterone levels increase beyond the normal range, a negative feedback system occurs
to inhibit the pituitary’s production of FSH, LH, and GnRH.
● The Sertoli cells produce inhibin, a protein that is released into the blood when the sperm count is
high. The secretion of inhibin inhibits the release of GnRH and FSH, which causes spermatogenesis to slow
down. When the sperm count reaches 20 million/mL, the Sertoli cells temporarily stop the production and
release of inhibin, allowing an increase in sperm count.

Positive feedback occurs when a stimulus causes a response leading to a cascade of repeating events until a
change is achieved. An example of a positive feedback loop in males involves the FSH and the Sertoli cells. As
mentioned earlier, FSH targets the Sertoli cells to promote spermatogenesis. In this case, FSH acts as a
stimulating hormone. A positive feedback loop occurs when the Sertoli cells produce the protein activin that is
responsible for the stimulation of the production of more FSH.

Keypoints
● Puberty in males is controlled by two hormones: the follicle-stimulating- hormone (FSH) and the luteinizing
hormone (LH).
● Spermatogenesis is the specific type of gametogenesis that occurs in males. It is primarily controlled and
initiated by the hormone testosterone.
● Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone. It is responsible for the secondary sex characteristics that
develop among males during adolescence.
● Negative feedback occurs when a change sensed by the body occurs. What the body does in response is to
produce a signal, usually in the form of hormones, in order to reverse this change.
● Positive feedback occurs when a stimulus causes a response, which leads to a cascade of repeating events
until a change is achieved.

Topic: Hormones Controlling the Female Reproductive System

 Learn About It

Oogenesis
The process of gametogenesis in females is known as oogenesis. Oogenesis involves the development of a
mature ovum or egg cell from an oogonium, a diploid precursor. The process of oogenesis occurs in the ovaries.
Initially, the developing egg is housed in an ovarian structure known as a follicle. The follicle is in charge of
protecting and nourishing the developing egg cell until it is ready to be released through ovulation.

Unlike in spermatogenesis where four adult sperm cells are produced from one spermatogonium, oogenesis
produces only one viable egg cell from one oogonium.

Hormonal Control in Females

The main hormones associated with oogenesis are gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), estrogen, and progesterone.

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone
Much like in males, the female body is also controlled by various hormones that trigger specific changes. The
release of female sex hormones are also controlled by the GnRH. GnRH causes the release of the hormones FSH
and LH from the anterior pituitary gland.

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

FSH stimulates the development
of egg cells, which develop into
egg-nourishing structures called
follicles. It also promotes the
production of the female sex
hormones estrogen and
progesterone.
Luteinizing Hormone
LH also stimulates the
development of egg cells. It also
stimulates the production of the
female sex hormones estrogen
and progesterone.
Estrogen
Estrogen is the primary female sex
hormone. It is responsible for the
development of breasts, uterus,
and vagina. It is also responsible
for the broadening of the hips,
growth of pubic and axillary or
armpit hair, and increase in
adipose tissues. It participates in the preparation of the female’s body for possible fertilization of the egg cells
resulting into pregnancy.
Progesterone
Progesterone is known as the pregnancy
maintainer. During pregnancy, high
levels of progesterone keep the
endometrium (uterus lining) intact.
Specifically, this hormone maintains the
conditions in the uterus necessary for
the nourishment and development of
the embryo. Thus, with progesterone
present, menstruation does not occur.

Regulation of Female Hormones

The control of reproductive hormones is

more complex in females than in males.
The pattern of activation and inhibition
of hormones varies between the phases
of the ovarian cycle.

The hormones usually coincide with the

specific phases that occur during the menstrual cycle. As you will learn, the hormones and physiological changes
that occur during the follicular, ovulation, and luteal phases are different. Thus, similar to that of the male
reproductive system, feedback mechanisms are also present in the regulation of female hormones.

Follicular Phase
During the follicular phase, the follicles produce low levels of estrogen that inhibit the production of GnRH, LH,
and FSH. Endometrial arteries constrict, resulting in menstruation.

Ovulation
During ovulation, the follicles produce high levels of estrogen that stimulate the production of GnRH, LH, and
FSH. The endometrium thickens. In addition, this is an example of a positive feedback mechanism wherein
GnRH, the hypothalamic hormone that eventually stimulates the production of estrogen (a form of which is
called estradiol), further increases its levels as more estrogen molecules are present in the bloodstream.
Luteal Phase
During the luteal phase, LH stimulates the growth of a corpus luteum from follicular tissues. The corpus luteum
secretes estrogen and progesterone. Secretion of GnRH, LH, and FSH is blocked. This is an example of a negative
feedback mechanism where the combination of both estrogen and progesterone in the bloodstream inhibits the
further secretion of GnRH, FSH, and LH.

Keypoints

● Estrogen is the primary female sex hormone. This is the counterpart of testosterone that is the primary sex
hormone in males.
● Progesterone is known as the pregnancy maintainer. During pregnancy, high levels of progesterone keep the
endometrium (uterine lining) intact.
● The process of gametogenesis in females is known as oogenesis. Oogenesis involves the development of a
mature ovum or egg cell from an oogonium.
● Unlike in spermatogenesis where four mature sperm cells are produced from one spermatogonium, oogenesis
produces only one viable egg cell from one oogonium.
● The pattern of activation and inhibition of female hormones varies between phases of the ovarian cycle.
Similar to male reproductive system, the regulation of the secretion of female sex hormone also involves both
positive and negative feedback mechanisms.

Reference:
Quipper Philippines