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Chapter 1
Accounting in Business
QUESTIONS
1. The purpose of accounting is to provide decision makers with relevant and reliable
information to help them make better decisions. Examples include information for
people making investments, loans, and business plans.
2. Technology reduces the time, effort, and cost of recordkeeping. There is still a
demand for people who can design accounting systems, supervise their operation,
analyze complex transactions, and interpret reports. Demand also exists for people
who can effectively use computers to prepare and analyze accounting reports.
Technology will never substitute for qualified people with abilities to prepare, use,
analyze, and interpret accounting information.
3. External users and their uses of accounting information include: (a) lenders, to
measure the risk and return of loans; (b) shareholders, to assess whether to buy,
sell, or hold their shares; (c) directors, to oversee their interests in the organization;
(d) employees and labor unions, to judge the fairness of wages and assess future
employment opportunities; and (e) regulators, to determine whether the organization
is complying with regulations. Other users are voters, legislators, government
officials, contributors to nonprofits, suppliers and customers.
4. Business owners and managers use accounting information to help answer
questions such as: What resources does an organization own? What debts are
owed? How much income is earned? Are expenses reasonable for the level of
sales? Are customers’ accounts being promptly collected?
5. Service businesses include: Standard and Poor’s, Dun & Bradstreet, Merrill Lynch,
Southwest Airlines, CitiCorp, Humana, Charles Schwab, and Prudential. Businesses
offering products include Nike, Reebok, Gap, Apple Computer, Ford Motor Co.,
Philip Morris, Coca-Cola, Best Buy, and Circuit City.
6. The internal role of accounting is to serve the organization’s internal operating
functions. It does this by providing useful information for internal users in
completing their tasks more effectively and efficiently. By providing this information,
accounting helps the organization reach its overall goals.
7. Accounting professionals offer many services including auditing, management
advice, tax planning, business valuation, and money management.
8. Marketing managers are likely interested in information such as sales volume,
advertising costs, promotion costs, salaries of sales personnel, and sales
commissions.
©McGraw-Hill Companies, 2009

Solutions Manual, Chapter 1 1
9. Accounting is described as a service activity because it serves decision makers by
providing information to help them make better business decisions.
10. Some accounting-related professions include consultant, financial analyst,
underwriter, financial planner, appraiser, FBI investigator, market researcher, and
system designer.
11. Ethics rules require that auditors avoid auditing clients in which they have a direct
investment, or if the auditor’s fee is dependent on the figures in the client’s reports.
This will prevent others from doubting the quality of the auditor’s report.
12. In addition to preparing tax returns, tax accountants help companies and individuals
plan future transactions to minimize the amount of tax to be paid. They are also
actively involved in estate planning and in helping set up organizations. Some tax
accountants work for regulatory agencies such as the IRS or the various state
departments of revenue. These tax accountants help to enforce tax laws.
13. The objectivity concept means that financial statement information is supported by
independent, unbiased evidence other than someone’s opinion or imagination. This
concept increases the reliability and verifiability of financial statement information.
14. This treatment is justified by both the cost principle and the going-concern
assumption.
15. The revenue recognition principle provides guidance for managers and auditors so
they know when to recognize revenue. If revenue is recognized too early, the
business looks more profitable than it is. On the other hand, if revenue is
recognized too late the business looks less profitable than it is. This principle
demands that revenue be recognized when it is both earned and can be measured
reliably. The amount of revenue should equal the value of the assets received or
expected to be received from the business’s operating activities covering a specific
time period.
16. Business organizations can be organized in one of three basic forms: sole
proprietorship, partnership, or corporation. These forms have implications for legal
liability, taxation, continuity, number of owners, and legal status as follows:
Proprietorship Partnership Corporation
Business entity yes yes yes
Legal entity no no yes
Limited liability no* no* yes
Unlimited life no no yes
Business taxed no no yes
One owner allowed yes no yes
*Proprietorships and partnerships that are set up as LLCs provide limited liability.
17. (a) Assets are resources owned or controlled by a company that are expected to
yield future benefits. (b) Liabilities are creditors’ claims on assets that reflect
obligations to provide assets, products or services to others. (c) Equity is the
owner’s claim on assets and is equal to assets minus liabilities. (d) Net assets refer
to equity.
18. Equity is increased by investments from the owner and by net income. It is
decreased by withdrawals by the owner and by a net loss (which is the excess of
expenses over revenues).

2 Fundamental Accounting Principles, 19th Edition
19. Accounting principles consist of (a) general and (b) specific principles. General
principles are the basic assumptions, concepts, and guidelines for preparing
financial statements. They stem from long-used accounting practices. Specific
principles are detailed rules used in reporting on business transactions and events.
They usually arise from the rulings of authoritative and regulatory groups such as
the Financial Accounting Standards Board or the Securities and Exchange
Commission.
20. Revenue (or sales) is the amount received from selling products and services.
21. Net income (also called income, profit or earnings) equals revenues minus expenses
(if revenues exceed expenses). Net income increases equity. If expenses exceed
revenues, the company has a Net Loss. Net loss decreases equity.
22. The four basic financial statements are: income statement, statement of owner’s
equity, balance sheet, and statement of cash flows.
23. An income statement reports a company’s revenues and expenses along with the
resulting net income or loss over a period of time.
24. Rent expense, utilities expense, administrative expenses, advertising and promotion
expenses, maintenance expense, and salaries and wages expenses are some
examples of business expenses.
25. The statement of owner’s equity explains the changes in equity from net income or
loss, and from any owner contributions and withdrawals over a period of time.
26. The balance sheet describes a company’s financial position (types and amounts of
assets, liabilities, and equity) at a point in time.
27. The statement of cash flows reports on the cash inflows and outflows from a
company’s operating, investing, and financing activities.
28. Return on assets, also called return on investment, is a profitability measure that is
useful in evaluating management, analyzing and forecasting profits, and planning
activities. It is computed as net income divided by the average total assets. For
example, if we have an average annual balance of $100 in a bank account and it
earns interest of $5 for the year, then our return on assets is $5 / $100 or 5%. The
return on assets is a popular measure for analysis because it allows us to compare
companies of different sizes and in different industries.
29A. Return refers to income, and risk is the uncertainty about the return we expect to
make. The lower the risk of an investment, the lower the expected return. For
example, savings accounts pay a low return because of the low risk of a bank not
returning the principal with interest. Higher risk implies higher, but riskier, expected
returns.
30B. Organizations carry out three major activities: financing, investing, and operating.
Financing provides the means used to pay for resources. Investing refers to the
acquisition and disposing of resources necessary to carry out the organization’s
plans. Operating activities are the actual carrying out of these plans. (Planning is the
glue that connects these activities, including the organization’s ideas, goals and
strategies.)

31B. An organization’s financing activities (liabilities and equity) pay for investing
activities (assets). An organization cannot have more or less assets than its
liabilities and equity combined and, similarly, it cannot have more or less liabilities
and equity than its total assets. This means: assets = liabilities + equity. This
relation is called the accounting equation (also called the balance sheet equation),
and it applies to organizations at all times.
32. The dollar amounts in Best Buy’s financial statements are rounded to the nearest
$1,000,000. Best Buy’s consolidated statement of earnings (or income statement)
covers the fiscal year (consisting of 53 weeks) ended March 3, 2007. Best Buy also
reports comparative income statements for the previous two years (consisting of 52
weeks).
33. In thousands, Circuit City’s accounting equation is:
Assets = Liabilities + Equity
$4,007,283 = $2,216,039 + $1,791,244
34. At December 31, 2006, RadioShack had (in millions) assets of $2,070.0, liabilities of
$1,416.2, and equity of $653.8.
35. The independent auditor for Apple, Inc., is KPMG LLP. The auditor expressly states
that “our responsibility is to express an opinion on these consolidated financial
statements based on our audits.” The auditor also states that “these consolidated
financial statements are the responsibility of the Company’s management.”

QUICK STUDIES
Quick Study 1-1

a. E g. E
b. E h. E
c. I i. E
d. E j. E
e. E k. I
f. I l. E
Quick Study 1-2

(a) and (b)
GAAP: Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
Importance: GAAP are the rules that specify acceptable accounting
practices.
SEC: Securities and Exchange Commission
Importance: The SEC is charged by Congress to set reporting rules for
organizations that sell ownership shares to the public. The
SEC delegates part of this responsibility to the FASB.
FASB: Financial Accounting Standards Board
Importance: FASB is an independent group of full-time members who are
responsible for setting accounting rules.
IASB: International Accounting Standards Board.
Importance: Its purpose is to issue standards that identify preferred
practices in the desire of harmonizing accounting practices
across different countries. The vast majority of countries and
financial exchanges support its activities and objectives.

Quick Study 1-3
Accounting professionals practice in at least four main areas. These four
areas, along with a listing of some work opportunities in each, are:
1. Financial accounting
 Preparation
 Analysis
 Auditing (external)
 Consulting
 Investigation
2. Managerial accounting
 Cost accounting
 Budgeting
 Auditing (internal)
 Consulting
3. Tax accounting
 Preparation
 Planning
 Regulatory
 Consulting
 Investigation
4. Accounting-related
 Lending
 Consulting
 Analyst
 Investigator
 Appraiser
Quick Study 1-4

Internal controls serve several purposes:
 They involve monitoring an organization’s activities to promote
efficiency and to prevent wrongful use of its resources.
 They help ensure the validity and credibility of accounting reports.
 They are often crucial to effective operations and reliable reporting.
More generally, the absence of internal controls can adversely affect the
effectiveness of domestic and global financial markets.
Examples of internal controls include cash registers with internal tapes or
drives, scanners at doorways to identify tagged products, overhead video
cameras, security guards, and many others.

Quick Study 1-5
a. Revenue recognition principle
b. Cost principle (also called historical cost)
c. Business entity assumption
Quick Study 1-6

The choice of an accounting method when more than one alternative
method is acceptable often has ethical implications. This is because
accounting information can have major impacts on individuals’ (and firms’)
well-being.
To illustrate, many companies base compensation of managers on the
amount of reported income. When the choice of an accounting method
affects the amount of reported income, the amount of compensation is also
affected. Similarly, if workers in a division receive bonuses based on the
division’s income, its computation has direct financial implications for
these individuals.
Quick Study 1-7

$375,000 (a) $125,000 $250,000
(b) $250,000 $ 90,000 $160,000
$185,000 $ 60,000 (c) $125,000
Quick Study 1-8

$500,000 (a) $180,000 $320,000
$900,000 (b) $450,000 (b) $450,000
Quick Study 1-9

a. For September 30, 2006, the account and its dollar amount (in millions)
for Apple are:
(1) Assets = $17,205
(2) Liabilities = $ 7,221
(3) Equity = $ 9,984

Quick Study 1-9—continued
b. Using Apple’s amounts from (a) we verify that (in millions):

$17,205 = $ 7,221 + $ 9,984
Quick Study 1-10

(a) Examples of business transactions that are measurable include:
 Selling products and services.
 Collecting funds from dues, taxes, contributions, or investments.
 Borrowing money.
 Purchasing products and services.
(b) Examples of business events that are measurable include:

 Decreases in the value of securities (assets).
 Bankruptcy of a customer owing money.
 Technological advances rendering patents (or other assets)
worthless.
 An “act of God” (casualty) that destroys assets.
Quick Study 1-11

[Code: Income statement (I), Balance sheet (B), Statement of owner’s equity (OE), or Statement
of cash flows (CF).]
a. B d. CF g. B
b. I e. I h. CF
c. B f. B i. OE (and CF*)
*The more advanced student might know that this item would also appear in CF.
Quick Study 1-12

Net income $5,761
Return on assets = Average total assets = $48,334 = 11.9%
Interpretation: Its return of 11.9% is slightly below the 12% of its competitors.
Home Depot’s performance can be rated as average.

EXERCISES
Exercise 1-1 (20 minutes)
External users and some questions they seek to answer with accounting
information include:
1. Shareholders (investors), who seek answers to questions such as:
a. Are resources owned by a business adequate to carry out plans?
b. Are the debts owed excessive in amount?
c. What is the current level of income (and its components)?
2. Creditors, who seek answers for questions such as:
a. Does the business have the ability to repay its debts?
b. Can the business take on additional debt?
c. Are resources sufficient to cover current amounts owed?
3. Employees, who seek answers to questions such as:
a. Is the business financially stable?
b. Can the business afford to pay higher salaries?
c. What are growth prospects for the organization?
Internal users and some ways they use accounting information on their
jobs include:
1. Research and development managers, who need information on
projected costs and revenues of any proposed changes in products or
services.
2. Purchasing managers, who need to know what, when, and how much to
purchase.
3. Human resource managers, who need information about employees’
payroll, benefits, performance, and compensation.
4. Production managers, who depend on information to monitor costs and
ensure quality.
5. Distribution managers, who need reports for timely, accurate, and
efficient delivery of products and services.

1. C 5. B
2. C 6. A
3. A 7. B
4. A 8. B
a. Auditing professionals with competing audit clients are likely to learn

valuable information about each client that the other clients would
benefit from knowing. In this situation the auditor must take care to
maintain the confidential nature of information about each client.
b. Accounting professionals who prepare tax returns can face situations
where clients wish to claim deductions they cannot substantiate. Also,
clients sometimes exert pressure to use methods not allowed or
questionable under the law. Issues of confidentiality also arise when
these professionals have access to clients’ personal records.
c. Managers face several situations demanding ethical decision making
in their dealings with employees. Examples include fairness in
performance evaluations, salary adjustments, and promotion
recommendations. They can also include avoiding any perceived or
real harassment of employees by the manager or any other employees.
It can also include issues of confidentiality regarding personal
information known to managers.
d. Situations involving ethical decision making in coursework include
performing independent work on examinations and individually
completing assignments/projects. It can also extend to promptly
returning reference materials so others can enjoy them, and to
properly preparing for class to efficiently use the time and question
period to not detract from others’ instructional benefits.

Code Description Principle or Assumption

E 1. Usually created by a pronouncement from an Specific accounting
authoritative body. principle
G 2. Financial statements reflect the assumption that Going-concern
the business continues operating. assumption
A 3. Derived from long-used and generally accepted General accounting
accounting practices. principle
C 4. Every business is accounted for separately from Business entity
its owner or owners. assumption
D 5. Revenue is recorded only when the earnings Revenue recognition
process is complete. principle
B 6. Information is based on actual costs incurred in Cost principle
transactions.
F 7. A company reports details behind financial Full disclosure
statements that would influence users' decisions. principle
H 8. A company records the expenses incurred to Matching principle
generate the revenue reported.

a. Sole proprietorship e. Corporation
b. Corporation f. Partnership
c. Sole proprietorship g. Sole proprietorship
d. Corporation

(a) $180,000 = $164,000 + $16,000
$ 90,000 = $ 39,000 + (b) $51,000
$201,000 = (c) $139,000 + $62,000

1. D 4. F
2. G 5. A
3. C
a. Using the accounting equation:

$137,000 = $110,000 + ?
Thus, equity = $27,000
b. Using the accounting equation at the beginning of the year:

$259,000 = ? + $194,250
Thus, beginning liabilities = $64,750
Using the accounting equation at the end of the year:

$259,000 + $80,000 = $64,750 + $52,643 + ?
$339,000 = $117,393 + ?
Thus, ending equity = $221,607
Alternative approach to solving part (b):

Assets($80,000) = Liabilities($52,643) + Equity(?)
where “” refers to “change in.”
Thus: Ending Equity = $194,250 + $27,357 = $221,607
c. Using the accounting equation at the end of the year:

$190,000 = $57,000 - $16,000 + ?
$190,000 = $41,000 + $149,000
Using the accounting equation at the beginning of the year:
$190,000 - $60,000 = $57,000 + ?
$130,000 = $57,000 + ?
Thus: Beginning Equity = $73,000

Examples of transactions that fit each case include:
a. Business purchases equipment (or some other asset) on credit.
b. Business signs a note payable to extend the due date on an account
payable.
c. Business pays an account payable (or some other liability) with cash
(or some other asset).
d. Business purchases office supplies (or some other asset) for cash (or
some other asset).
e. Business incurs an expense that is not yet paid (for example, when
employees earn wages that are not yet paid).
f. Owner(s) invest cash (or some other asset) in the business; OR, the
business earns revenue and accepts cash (or another asset).
g. Cash withdrawals (or some other asset) paid to the owner(s) of the
business; OR, the business incurs an expense paid in cash.

a. Started the business with the owner investing $20,000 cash in the
company.
b. Purchased office supplies for $3,000 by paying $2,000 cash and putting
the remaining $1,000 balance on credit.
c. Purchased office furniture by paying $8,000 cash.
d. Billed a customer $6,000 for services earned.
e. Provided services for $1,000 cash.

a. Purchased land for $4,000 cash.
b. Purchased $1,000 of office supplies on credit.
c. Billed a client $1,900 for services provided.
d. Paid the $1,000 account payable created by the credit purchase of
office supplies in transaction b.
e. Collected $1,900 cash for the billing in transaction c.
Accounts Equip- Accounts L. Diamond, L. Diamond,

Cash + Receivable + ment = Payable + Capital – Withdrawals + Revenue – Expenses
a. +$70,000 + $20,000 = + $90,000
b. – 2,000 ______ ______ – $2,000
Bal. 68,000 + + 20,000 = + 90,000 – 2,000
c. _______ + 25,000 +$25,000 ______ _____
Bal. 68,000 + + 45,000 = 25,000 + 90,000 – 2,000
d. + 3,000 ______ _______ ______ + $3,000 _____
Bal. 71,000 + + 45,000 = 25,000 + 90,000 + 3,000 – 2,000
e. _______ + $9,500 ______ _______ ______ + 9,500 _____
Bal. 71,000 + 9,500 + 45,000 = 25,000 + 90,000 + 12,500 – 2,000
f. – 5,000 ______ + 5,000 _______ ______ _____ _____
Bal. 66,000 + 9,500 + 50,000 = 25,000 + 90,000 + 12,500 – 2,000
g. – 3,500 ______ ______ _______ ______ _____ – 3,500
Bal. 62,500 + 9,500 + 50,000 = 25,000 + 90,000 + 12,500 – 5,500
h. + 6,500 - 6,500 ______ _______ ______ _____ _____
Bal. 69,000 + 3,000 + 50,000 = 25,000 + 90,000 + 12,500 – 5,500
i. – 25,000 ______ ______ – 25,000 ______ _____ _____
Bal. 44,000 + 3,000 + 50,000 = 0 + 90,000 + 12,500 – 5,500
j. – 1,500 ______ ______ _______ ______ – $1,500 ______ _____
Bal. $42,500 + $3,000 + $50,000 = $ 0 + $90,000 – $1,500 + $12,500 – $5,500

REAL ANSWERS
Income Statement
For Month Ended October 31
Revenues
Consulting fees earned ...................... $14,000
Expenses
Salaries expense ................................. $5,600
Rent expense....................................... 2,520
Telephone expense............................. 760
Miscellaneous expenses .................... 580
Total expenses .................................... 9,460
Net income .................................................. $ 4,540

REAL ANSWERS
Statement of Owner’s Equity
For Month Ended October 31
K. King, Capital, October 1 .............................. $ 0
Add: Investments by owner ............................ 84,360
Net income (from Exercise 1-13) ............. 4,540
88,900
Less: Withdrawals by owner ........................... 2,000
K. King, Capital, October 31 ............................ $86,900

REAL ANSWERS
Balance Sheet
October 31
Assets Liabilities
Cash ............................... $ 11,500 Accounts payable ................. $ 25,037
Accounts receivable .... 12,000
Office supplies .............. 24,437 Equity
Office equipment .......... 18,000
Land ............................... 46,000 K. King, Capital* .................... 86,900
Total assets ................... $111,937 Total liabilities and equity .... $111,937
* For the computation of this amount see Exercise 1-14.

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find some remedy for the evil. Brahma, after reflecting on the
matter, replied—
“One only way I find
To stay this fiend of evil mind.
He prayed me once his life to guard
From demon, God and heavenly bard,
And spirits of the earth and air,
And I consenting heard his prayer.
But the proud giant in his scorn,
Recked not of man of woman born,
None else may take his life away
But only man the fiend may slay.”
—Griffith.
On receiving this reply the gods petitioned Vishnu to divide himself
into four parts and to appear on earth, incarnate as the promised
sons of Dasahratha, and thus, in human form, to rid the world of
Ravana. Vishnu consented. He proceeded to the earth and appeared
amidst the sacrificial flames of Dasahratha’s offering, in an assumed
form “of matchless splendour, strength and size”—black, with a red
face, and shaggy hair—apparelled in crimson robes, and adorned
with celestial ornaments, holding in his hands a vase of gold,
containing heavenly nectar, which he handed to the king, with
instructions to make his three queens partake of the sacred draught,
in order that they might be blessed with sons.
Dasahratha distributed the nectar amongst his wives, though not in
equal proportions. In due time the promised sons were born, viz.,
Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata and Satrughna. Rama possessed the
larger share of the divine nature and decidedly excelled his brothers
in prowess. To him, especially, was allotted the task of destroying
Ravana. And countless hosts of monkeys and bears were begotten
by the gods, at Brahma’s[19] suggestion, to aid him in his work.
Whilst yet a mere stripling, Rama was appealed to by the sage
Vishwamitra to destroy certain demons who interrupted the religious
rites of the hermits.
The boy was only sixteen years of age, and Dasahratha, naturally
solicitous for his safety, declined to let him go to fight the dreadful
brood of demons, who had an evil reputation for cruelty and
ferocity; but the mighty ascetic waxed so wrath at this refusal of his
request, that “the entire earth began to tremble and the gods even
were inspired with awe.” Vasishta, the king’s spiritual adviser, who
had unbounded confidence in Vishwamitra’s power to protect the
prince from all harm, strongly advised compliance with the ascetic’s
request, and Dasahratha was prevailed upon to allow Rama and
Lakshmana to leave Ayodhya with Vishwamitra.
The incidents of the journey reveal a very primitive state of society.
The princes and their guide were all of them on foot, apparently
quite unattended by servants and unprovided with even the most
ordinary necessaries of life. When they reached the River Surayu,[20]
Vishwamitra communicated certain mantras or spells to Rama, by
the knowledge of which he would be protected from fatigue and
fever[21] and from the possibility of being surprised by the
Rakshasas against whom he was going to wage war.
The land through which our travellers journeyed was sparsely
inhabited. A goodly portion of it seems to have been covered with
woods, more or less pleasant, abounding in the hermitages of
ascetics, some of whom had been carrying on their austerities for
thousands of years. Beside these pleasant woods there were vast,
trackless forests, infested by ferocious beasts and grim Rakshasas,
and it was not long before the might of the semi-divine stripling,
Rama, was tried against one of these terrible creatures, Tarika by
name, an ogress of dreadful power, whom Rama undertook to
destroy “in the interests of Brahmans, kine and celestials.” When the
ascetic and the two princes arrived in the dark forest where the
dreaded Tarika ruled supreme, Rama twanged his bowstring loudly,
as a haughty challenge to this redoubtable giantess. Incensed at the
audacious sound of the bowstring, Tarika uttered terrible roars and
rushed out to attack the presumptuous prince. The ascetic raised a
defiant roar in response. That was his entire contribution to the
combat in which Rama and his adversary were immediately involved,
Lakshmana taking part in it also. This, the first conflict in which
Rama was engaged, may be taken as a type of all his subsequent
battles. Raising clouds of dust, Tarika, “by help of illusion,” poured a
shower of huge stones upon the brothers, but these ponderous
missiles were met and arrested in mid-air by a volley of arrows. The
battle raged fiercely, but the brothers succeeded with their shafts in
depriving Tarika of her hands, her nose and her ears. Thus disabled
and disfigured, Tarika changed her shape[22] and even concealed
herself from view, while still continuing the fight with unabated fury;
but Rama, guided by sound alone, assailed his invisible foe with such
effect that he eventually laid her dead at his feet, to the joy of
Vishwamitra and the relief of the denizens of the great forest over
which she had terrorized.
After this successful combat, the ascetic, Vishwamitra, conferred on
Rama a gift of strange weapons, which even the celestials were
incapable of wielding. How very different the magic weapons
received by Rama were from those familiar to the sons of men, will
be apparent from the poet’s statement that the weapons themselves
made their appearance spontaneously before Rama, “and with
clasped hands, they, well-pleased, addressed Rama thus: These, O
highly generous one, are thy servants, O Raghava. Whatever thou
wishest, good betide thee, shall by all means be accomplished by
us.”
Such wonderful and efficient weapons, endowed with a
consciousness and individuality of their own, needed, however, to be
kept under strict control, lest in their over-zeal or excitement they
might effect undesigned and irreparable mischief. The sage
accordingly communicated to Rama the various mantras or spells by
which they might, on critical occasions, be restrained and regulated
in their operations.
In their woodland wanderings amongst the hermitages the brothers
and their guide came across many sages whose laborious austerities
were constantly being hindered by wicked, flesh-eating Rakshasas.
Indeed the world, outside the cities and villages,—which it would
seem were very few and far between,—as pictured by Valmiki, is a
very strange one, mostly peopled by two sets of beings, hermits
striving after supernatural power through the practice of austerities,
and demons bent on frustrating their endeavours by unseasonable
interruptions of their rites, or impious pollution of their sacrifices.
Sometimes, as in the case of Ravana, the demons themselves would
practise austerities for the attainment of power.
Very prominent figures in the poem are the great ascetics, like
Vishwamitra himself, who, a Kshatriya by caste and a king by
lineage, had obtained, through dire austerities prolonged over
thousands of years, the exalted rank and power of Brahmanhood. A
single example of his self-inflicted hardships and the consequences
resulting therefrom may not be out of place. He once restrained his
breath for a thousand years, when vapours began to issue from his
head, “and at this the three worlds became afflicted with fear.” Like
most of his order, he was a very proud and irate personage, ready,
upon very slight provocation, to utter a terrible and not-to-be-
escaped-from curse.[23] Once, in a fit of rage against the celestials,
Vishwamitra created entire systems of stars and even threatened, in
his fury, to create another India by “the process of his self-earned
asceticism.”
The life led by the princely brothers in their pedestrian wanderings
with this mighty sage was simplicity itself. They performed their
religious rites regularly, adoring the rising sun, the blazing fire or the
flowing river, as the case might be. Their sojourn in the forests was
enlivened by pleasant communion with the hermits to whose kind
hospitality they were usually indebted for a night’s lodging, if such it
can be called, and a simple fare of milk and fruits. Vishwamitra
added interest to their journeyings by satisfying the curiosity of the
brothers in regard to the history of the several places they visited.
Here, as he informed them, the god Rudra had performed his
austerities—for even the gods were not above the necessity and
ambition of ascetic practices—and blasted the impious Kama into
nothingness with a breath. There, the great god Vishnu of mighty
asceticism, worshipped of all the deities, dwelt during hundreds of
Yugas, for the purpose of carrying on his austerities and practising
yoga.[24] At one time Vishwamitra would relate the history of the
origin of Ganga and of her descent upon the earth, as the mighty
and purifying Ganges, chief of rivers. At another time he would
himself listen complacently, along with his princely companions, to
the history of his own wonderful asceticism and marvellous
performances, as the wise Satananda related it for the special
edification of Rama.
So passed away the time in the forests, not altogether peacefully,
however, for the object of the journey would not have been fulfilled
without sundry fierce and entirely successful encounters with the
Rakshasas, those fiendish interrupters of sacrifice and persistent
enemies of the anchorites. Eventually the wanderers came to the
kingdom of Mithila, whose king, Janaka,[25] had a lovely daughter to
bestow upon the worthy and fortunate man who should bend a
certain formidable bow which had belonged to Siva and which he
had once threatened to use in the destruction of the gods.
Janaka’s daughter, the famous Sita, whose matrimonial future was
thus connected with Siva’s bow, was of superhuman origin, having
sprung from the earth in a mysterious manner; for, while Janaka was
ploughing the ground in the course of a child-conferring sacrifice,
the lovely maiden had, by the favour of the gods, come to him out
of the furrow.
Allured by the fame of Sita’s beauty, suitor after suitor had come to
Mithila and tried that tough bow of Siva’s, but without success; and
Rama’s curiosity was awakened about both the mighty weapon and
the maiden fair.
Having been introduced by Vishwamitra to the King of Mithila, Rama
was allowed to essay his strength against the huge bow, and huge it
was indeed, for it had to be carried on an eight-wheeled cart which
“was with difficulty drawn along by five thousand stalwart persons of
well-developed frames.” To Rama, however, the bending of this
gigantic bow was an easy matter, and he not only bent but broke it
too, at which event all present, overwhelmed by the noise, rolled
head over heels, with the exception of Vishwamitra, the “king and
the two Raghavas.” The lovely and much-coveted prize was Rama’s
of course. Arrangements for the wedding were carried out in grand
style. Dasahratha and his two other sons were invited to Mithila and
brides were found, in the family of Janaka, for all the four brothers.
Upon a daïs covered with a canopy, and decked with flowers, the
happy brides and bridegrooms were placed, attended by the king
and the priests of the two families. Water-pots, golden ladles,
censers, and conches, together with platters containing rice, butter,
curds and other things for the Hom sacrifice, were also arranged for
use on the platform. The sacrificial fire was lighted, the appropriate
mantras repeated, and the four bridegrooms led their brides first
round the fire, and then round the king and the priests. At this stage
of the proceedings showers of celestial flowers rained down upon
the happy couples, now united in the bonds of matrimony.[26] After
these marriages the return to Ayodhya was accomplished with
rejoicings and in great state; but Vishwamitra took his solitary way
to the Northern Mountains.
As the years went by and Rama was grown to man’s estate he was
endowed with every princely virtue; the people idolized him, and his
father, desirous of retiring from the cares of government, determined
to place him upon the throne. But, although apparently simple of
execution, this arrangement was beset with difficulties. Rama was
the son of the Rajah’s eldest and principal wife; but Bharata was the
son of his favourite wife, the slender-waisted Kaikeyi. The suffrages
of the people and Dasahratha’s own wishes were entirely in favour
of Rama, but, apparently unwilling to face the grief or opposition of
his darling Kaikeyi, the king took advantage of Bharata’s absence on
a visit to a distant court to carry out the rather sudden preparations
for Rama’s installation as Yuva-Rajah, hoping, it would seem, to keep
Kaikeyi in complete ignorance of what was being done. The whole
city, however, was in a state of bustle and excitement at the
approaching event. The streets were being washed and watered,
flag-staffs were being erected on every side, gay bunting was
floating about and garlands of flowers adorned the houses.
Musicians played in the highways and in the temples, and,
notwithstanding the seclusion of the women’s apartments, it was
impossible to conceal from the inmates of the zenana what was
going on in the great world outside. A deformed and cunning slave-
girl, named Manthara, found out and revealed the whole plot to
Bharata’s mother. At first Kaikeyi received the intelligence with
pleasure, for Rama was dear to everybody; but the slave-girl so
worked upon her feelings of envy and jealousy, by artfully picturing
to her the very inferior position she would hold in the world’s
estimation, the painful slights she would have to endure and the
humiliation she would have to suffer, once Kauçalya’s son was raised
to the throne, that in a passion of rage and grief, she threw away
her ornaments and, with dishevelled hair, flew to the “chamber of
sorrow” and flung herself down upon the floor, weeping bitterly.
Here the old king found her “like a sky enveloped in darkness with
the stars hid” and had to endure the angry reproaches of his
disconsolate favourite. Acting upon a suggestion of the deformed
slave-girl, the queen reminded her husband of a promise made by
him long previously, that he would grant her any two requests she
might make. She now demanded the fulfilment of the royal promise,
her two requests being that Rama should be sent away into
banishment in the forests for a period of fourteen years and that her
own son Bharata should be elevated to the dignity of Yuva-Rajah. On
these terms, and on these only, would the offended and ambitious
Kaikeyi be reconciled to her uxorious lord. If these conditions were
refused she was resolved to rid the king of her hated presence.
Dasahratha, poor old man, was overwhelmed by this unexpected
crisis. He fell at his wife’s feet, he explained that preparations for
Rama’s installation had already commenced, he besought her not to
expose him to ridicule and contempt, he coaxed and flattered her,
alluding to her lovely eyes and shapely hips, he extolled Rama’s
affectionate devotion to herself. He next heaped bitter reproaches
upon Kaikeyi’s unreasonable pride and finally swooned away in
despair. But she was firm in her purpose and would not be shaken
by anything, kind or unkind, that this “lord of earth” could say to her.
The royal word she knew was sacred, and had to be kept at any
cost.
As soon as it came to be known what a strange and unforeseen turn
events had taken, the female apartments were the scene of loud
lamentations, and the entire city was plunged in mourning. Rama, of
expansive and coppery eyes,[27] long-armed, dark blue like a lotus, a
mighty bowman of matchless strength, with the gait of a mad
elephant, brave, truthful, humble-minded, respectful and generous
to Brahmans, and having his passions under complete control, was
the idol of the zenana, the court, and the populace. The thought of
his unmerited banishment to the forests was intolerable to everyone.
But he himself, with exemplary filial devotion, prepared to go into
exile at once, without a murmur. The poet devotes considerable
space to a minute description of the sorrow experienced by the
prominent characters in the story on account of Rama’s banishment.
Each one indulges in a lengthy lamentation, picturing the privations
and sufferings of the ill-fated trio, and nearly everyone protests that
it will be impossible to live without Rama. With affectionate regard
for Sita’s comfort, and loving apprehension for her safety, Rama
resolved to leave her behind with his mother; but no argument, no
inducement, could prevail upon the devoted wife to be parted from
her beloved husband. What were the terrors of the forest to her,
what the discomfort of the wilderness, when shared with Rama?
Racked with sorrow at the proposed separation, Sita burst into a
flood of tears and became almost insensible with grief. At the sight
of her tribulation Rama, overcome with emotion, threw his arms
about his dear wife and agreed to take her with him, come what
may.
Lakshmana, with devoted loyalty, would also accompany his brother
into exile.
Kaikeyi, apprehensive of delays, hurried on their preparations, and
herself, unblushingly, provided them with the bark dresses worn by
ascetics. The two brothers donned their new vestments in the king’s
presence.
“But Sita, in her silks arrayed,
Threw glances, trembling and afraid,
On the bark coat she had to wear
Like a shy doe that eyes the snare.
Ashamed and weeping for distress
From the queen’s hand she took the dress.
The fair one, by her husband’s side,
Who matched heaven’s minstrel monarch, cried:
‘How bind they on their woodland dress,
Those hermits of the wilderness?’
There stood the pride of Janak’s race
Perplexed, with sad appealing face,
One coat the lady’s fingers grasped,
One round her neck she feebly clasped,
But failed again, again, confused
By the wild garb she ne’er had used.
Then quickly hastening Rama, pride
Of all who cherish virtue, tied
The rough bark mantle on her, o’er
The silken raiment that she wore.
Then the sad women when they saw
Rama the choice bark round her draw,
Rained water from each tender eye
And cried aloud with bitter cry.”[28]
—Griffith.
After giving away vast treasures to the Brahmans the ill-fated trio
took a pathetic leave of the now miserable old king, of Kauçalya who
mourned like a cow deprived of her calf, of Sumitra the mother of
Lakshmana, and of their “other three hundred and fifty mothers.”
With an exalted sense of filial duty the exiles also bid a respectful
and affectionate farewell to Kaikeyi, the cruel author of their
unmerited banishment, Rama remarking that it was not her own
heart, but “Destiny alone that had made her press for the prevention
of his installation.”
When Rama and his companions appeared in the streets of the
capital, in the dress of ascetics, the populace loudly deplored their
fate, extolling the virtues of Rama while giving vent to their feelings
of disapproval at the king’s weak compliance with his favourite’s
whim. Sita came in for her share of popular pity and admiration,
since she “whom formerly the very rangers of the sky could not see,
was to-day beheld by every passer-by.”
A royal chariot conveyed away to the inhospitable wilderness the two
brothers and faithful Sita, torn from stately Ayodhya, their luxurious
palaces and the arms of their fond parents. All they carried with
them, in the chariot, was their armour and weapons, “a basket
bound in hide and a hoe.” Crowds of people, abandoning their
homes, followed in the track of the chariot, resolved to share the
fate of the exiles. And such was the grief of the people that the dust
raised by the wheels of the car occupied by Rama and his
companions was laid by the tears of the citizens. They drove at once
to the jungles and rested there for the night. During the hours of
slumber the exiles considerately gave their followers the slip and
hurried off, in the chariot, towards the great forest of Dandhaka.
When they arrived at the banks of the sacred and delightful Ganges
the charioteer was dismissed with tender messages to the old king
from his exiled children. After the departure of the charioteer Rama
and his companions began their forest wanderings on foot. Their
hermit-life was now to commence in earnest. Before entering the
dark forests that lay before them, the brothers resolved to wear
“that ornament of ascetics, a head of matted hair,” and, accordingly,
produced the desired coiffure with the aid of the glutinous sap of the
banyan tree. Thus prepared and clothed in bark like the saints, the
brothers, with faithful Sita, entered a boat which chanced to be at
the river-side and began the passage of the Ganges. As they crossed
the river the pious Sita, with joined hands, addressed the goddess of
the sacred stream, praying for a happy return to Ayodhya, when
their days of exile should be over. Having arrived on the other bank,
the exiles entered the forest in Indian file, Lakshmana leading and
Rama bringing up the rear. Passing by Sringavara on the Ganges,
they proceeded to Prayaga at the junction of the Ganges and the
Jumna. Here they were hospitably entertained by the sage
Bharadvaja, who recommended them to seek an asylum on the
pleasant slopes of wooded Chitrakuta. On the way thither Sita, ever
mindful of her religious duties, adored the Kalindi river—which they
crossed on a raft constructed by themselves—and paid her respects
to a gigantic banyan tree, near which many ascetics had taken up
their abode. On the romantic and picturesque side of Chitrakuta the
exiles built themselves a cottage, thatched with leaves, “walled with
wood, and furnished with doors.” Game, fruits, and roots abounded
in the neighbourhood, so that they need have no anxiety about their
supplies. So much did they appreciate the quiet beauties of their
sylvan retreat, the cool shade, the perfumed flowers, the sparkling
rivulets and the noble river, that they became almost reconciled to
their separation from their friends and the lordly palaces of Ayodhya,
in which city important things were happening.
The exile of Rama had been too much for the doting old Maharajah.
[29] Weighed down by sorrow, he soon succumbed to his troubles,
and Bharata, who was still absent at Giri-braja, was hastily
summoned to take up the regal office. He, accompanied by his
brother Satrughna, hurried to the capital, and finding, on his arrival,
how matters really stood, heaped reproaches upon his wicked,
ambitious mother, indignantly refusing to benefit by her artful
machinations. In a transport of grief Bharata “fell to the earth
sighing like an enraged snake,” while Satrughna, on his part, seized
the deformed slave-girl Manthara, and literally shook the senses out
of her. In Rama’s absence, Bharata performed his father’s obsequies
with great pomp. The dead body of the late king, which had been
preserved in oil, was carried in procession to the river side and there
burnt, together with heaps of boiled rice and sacrificed animals. A
few days later the sraddha ceremonies for the welfare of the spirit of
the departed king were performed, and, as usual, costly presents,—
money, lands, houses, goats and kine, also servant-men and
servant-maids were bestowed upon the fortunate Brahmans.
When this pious duty, which occupied thirteen days, had been
fulfilled, affairs of State demanded attention. Bharata, although
pressed to do so, resolutely declined to accept the sceptre, and
resolved to set out, with a vast following, on a visit to Rama in his
retreat, hoping to persuade him to abandon his hermit-life and
undertake the government of the realm. Great preparations had to
be made for this visit to Rama, which was a sort of wholesale
exodus of the people of Ayodhya of all ranks and occupations. A
grand army was to accompany Bharata, and the court, with all the
ladies of the royal family, including the no-doubt-reluctant Kaikeyi,
were to swell the procession. A road had to be made for the
projected march of this host; streams had to be bridged, ferries
provided at the larger rivers, and able guides secured. When the
road was ready and the preparations for the journey completed,
chariots and horsemen in thousands crowded the way, mingled with
a vast multitude of citizens riding in carts. Artificers of every kind
attended the royal camp. Armourers, weavers, tailors, potters, glass-
makers, goldsmiths and gem-cutters, were there; so also were
physicians, actors and shampooers, peacock-dancers and men
whose profession it was to provide warm baths for their customers.
Of course the Brahman element was strongly represented in this
great procession from the flourishing city to the solitudes of the
forest. Bharata’s march is described at great length by the poet; but
only one incident need be mentioned here. On the way the hermit
Bharadvaja, desirous of doing Bharata honour, and probably not
unwilling to display his power, invited him and his followers, of
whom, as we have seen, there were many thousands, to a feast at
his hermitage. At the command of the saint the forest became
transformed into lovely gardens, abounding in flowers and fruit.
Palaces of matchless beauty sprang into existence. Music filled the
cool and perfumed air. Food and drink, including meat and wine,
appeared in profusion:—soups and curries are especially mentioned,
and the flesh of goats and bears, deer, peacocks and cocks; also
rice, milk and sugar. In addition to all this, a host of heavenly
nymphs from Swarga descended to indulge in soft dalliance with the
ravished warriors of Bharata’s army.
“Then beauteous women, seven or eight,
Stood ready by each man to wait.
Beside the stream his limbs they stripped,
And in the cooling water dipped,
And then the fair ones, sparkling-eyed,
With soft hands rubbed his limbs and dried,
And sitting on the lovely bank
Held up the wine-cup as he drank.”
—Griffith.
For one day and one night the intoxicating enjoyment continued;
and then, at the word of command, all the creations of the sage’s
power vanished, leaving the forest in its wonted gloom.
Having taken a respectful leave of the mighty ascetic, Bharata and
his followers threaded their way through the dense forests towards
the Mountain Chitrakuta and the River Mandakini. After a long march
they at last found the object of their desire, the high-souled Rama,
“seated in a cottage, bearing a head of matted locks, clad in black
deerskin and having tattered cloth and bark for his garment.” When
Rama heard of his father’s death he was deeply moved and fell
insensible upon the ground, “like a blooming tree that hath been
hewn by an axe.” The loving Vaidehi (Sita) and the brothers
Lakshmana and Bharata sprinkled water on the face of the prostrate
man and restored him to animation, when he at once burst into loud
and prolonged lamentations. Presently Rama pulled himself together
and duly performed the funeral rites, pouring out libations of water
and making an offering of ingudi fruits to the spirit of his departed
father. These offerings were not worthy of being presented to the
manes of so great a man as Dasahratha; but were justifiable, under
the circumstances of the case, on the accepted principle that “that
which is the fare of an individual is also the fare of his divinities.”[30]
Bharata and the rest, respectfully sitting before Rama with joined
hands, entreated him, with the greatest humility, to undertake the
reins of government; but he was not to be persuaded to do so. He
would not break the resolution he had made, nor would he be
disloyal to his dead father’s commands. Then Javali, a Brahman
atheist, insisting that there was and could be no hereafter, that
Dasahratha, once his sire, was now mere nothing, advised the prince
to yield to the reasonable wishes of the living and return with them
to rule over the kingdom of his ancestors. Rama, however, warmly
rebuked the atheist for his impiety, and all that Bharata could
accomplish was merely to induce him to put off from his feet a pair
of sandals adorned with gold, which he (Bharata) carried back with
him in great state to the deserted Ayodhya—now inhabited only by
cats and owls—as a visible symbol of his brother Rama, in whose
name he undertook to carry on the affairs of the State until the
appointed fourteen years of exile should have run their course.
The incidents connected with Rama’s exile to the forests, his life and
rambles at Chitrakuta, Bharata’s imposing march through the same
wooded country which the exiles had traversed, affords the poet of
the “Ramayana” rare opportunities of displaying his love for the
picturesque and his strong natural leaning towards the serene, if
uneventful, life of the hermit. Often in these early forest rovings, and
indeed throughout the fourteen years of exile, does Rama, or some
other one, linger to note and admire the beauties of woodland and
landscape, and to hold loving communion with the fair things of field
and forest. Though he praises the cities, and pictures their grandeur
of gold and gems, it is plain throughout that the poet’s heart is in
the woods, displaying on his part an appreciation of the charms of
nature and scenery, very remarkable, indeed, when we consider how
slowly the taste for the beauties of inanimate nature was developed
in Europe. After Bharata’s return to Ayodhya, Rama and his
companions moved further southwards, in the direction of the great
forest of Dandhaka, which extended indeed as far as the Godavari.
In their wanderings they came to the abode of a certain ascetic
whose wife, having performed severe austerities for ten thousand
years, was privileged, during ten years of drought, to create fruits
and roots for the sustenance of the people and to divert the course
of the river Jumna, so that its waters should flow by the thirsty
asylum of the hermits. This ancient dame took a great fancy to
Vaidehi, and, woman-like, gave her fair disciple a worthy gift,
consisting of fine apparel, of beautiful ornaments, a precious
cosmetic for the beautification of her person, and a rare garland of
flowers. Nor was the old lady contented until she had seen the effect
of her present on Janaka’s charming daughter, who had pleased her
much by her good sense in affirming that “the asceticism of woman
is ministering unto her husband.”
Wheresoever the exiles turned their steps, in these almost trackless
forests, they were told of the evil doings of the Rakshasas, who not
only interrupted the sacrifices, but actually carried off and devoured
the anchorites. Very curious, too, were the ways in which some of
these Rakshasas compassed the destruction of the saints. One of
them, the wily Ilwala, well acquainted with Sanskrit, would assume
the form of a Brahman and invite the hermits to a sraddha feast. His
brother, in the assumed form of a sheep, would be slaughtered and
cooked for his guests. When they had enjoyed their repast the cruel
Ilwala would command his brother Vatapi to “come forth,” which he
would do unreluctantly, and with a vengeance, bleating loudly and
rending the bodies of the unhappy guests, of whom thousands were
disposed of in this truly Rakshasa fashion. It is noteworthy that
those ascetics who had, by long and severe austerities, acquired a
goodly store of merit, might easily have made short work of the
Rakshasas; but, on the other hand, if they allowed their angry
passions to rise, even against such impious beings, they would,
while punishing their tormentors, have inevitably lost the entire
advantage of their long and painful labours. Hence many of the
hermits made a direct appeal to Rama for protection.
Entering the forest of Dandhaka the exiles encountered a huge,
terrible and misshapen monster, besmeared with fat and covered
with blood, who was roaring horribly with his widely distended
mouth, while with his single spear he held transfixed before him
quite a menagerie of lions, tigers, leopards and other wild animals.
This awful being rushed towards the trio, and, quick as thought,
snatched up the gentle Vaidehi in his arms, bellowing out “I am a
Rakshasa, Viradha by name. This forest is my fortress. Accoutred in
arms I range (here), feeding on the flesh of ascetics. This
transcendantly beauteous one shall be my wife. And in battle I shall
drink your blood, wretches that ye are.” At this juncture, Rama, as
on some other trying occasions, gave way to unseasonable
lamentations and tears; but Lakshmana, always practical, bravely
recalled him to the necessity of immediate action. The Rakshasa,
having ascertained who his opponents were, vauntingly assured
them that, having gratified Brahma by his asceticism, he had
obtained this boon from him, that no one in the world could slay him
with weapons; and he mockingly advised the princes to renounce
Sita and go their way. But Rama’s wrath was now kindled, and he
began a vigorous attack upon the monster, piercing him with many
arrows. A short, though fierce, combat ensued, the result being that
the Rakshasa seized and carried off both Rama and Lakshmana on
his ample shoulders. His victory now seemed complete, and Sita,—
who had apparently been dropped during the combat,—dreading to
be left alone in the terrible wilderness, piteously implored the
monster (whom she insinuatingly addressed as the “best of
Rakshasas”) to take her and to release the noble princes. The sound
of her dear voice acted like a charm upon the brothers, and, with a
vigorous and simultaneous effort, they broke both the monster’s
arms at once, and then attacked him with their fists. They brought
him to the ground exhausted, and Rama, planting his foot upon the
throat of his prostrate foe, directed Lakshmana to dig a deep pit for
his reception, and when it was ready, they flung him into it. The
dying monster, thus overcome, though not with weapons, explained
that he had been imprisoned in that dreadful form of his by the
curse of a famous ascetic, and was destined to be freed from it only
by the hand of Rama. With this explanation the spirit of the departed
Viradha passed into the celestial regions.
Rama, with his wife and brother, now sought the hermitage of the
sage Sarabhanga, and on approaching it, a strange, unexpected and
imposing sight presented itself to Rama’s view:—Indra, attended by
his court, in conversation with the forest sage! The god of heaven, in
clean apparel and adorned with celestial jewels, was seated in a
wondrous car drawn by green horses up in the sky. Over him was
expanded a spotless umbrella, and two lovely damsels waved gold-
handled chowrees above his head. About him were bands of
resplendent celestials hymning his praises.
At Rama’s approach the god withdrew and the sage advised the
prince to seek the guidance of another ascetic named Sutikshna,
adding, “This is thy course, thou best of men. Do thou now, my
child, for a space look at me while I leave off my limbs, even as a
serpent renounces its slough.” Then kindling a sacrificial fire, and
making oblations to it with the appropriate mantras, Sarabhanga
entered the flames himself. The fire consumed his old decrepit body,
and he was gradually transformed, in the midst of the flames, into a
splendid youth of dazzling brightness, and, mounting upwards,
ascended to the heaven of Brahma. After Sarabhanga had left the
earth in this striking manner, bands of ascetics waited on Rama,
reminded him of his duty as a king, and solicited his protection
against the Rakshasas. As Rama and his companions wandered on
through the forests another wonder soon engaged their attention.
Sweet music reached them from beneath the waters of a charming
lake covered with lotuses, and on inquiring about the strange
phenomenon, a hermit told them that a great ascetic had formed
that lake. By his fierce austerities, extending over ten thousand
years, he had acquired such a store of merit that the gods, with Agni
at their head, began to fear that he desired a position of equality
with themselves. To lure him away from such ideas they sent him
five lovely Apsaras to try the power of their charms upon him. Sage
though he was, he succumbed to their allurements, and now,
weaned from his old ambitions, he passed his time in youth and
happiness—the reward of his austerities and yoga practices—in the
company of the seductive sirens whose sweet voices, blending with
the tinklings of their instruments, came softly to the ears of the
wandering princes.
Sita, who had confidently followed her husband, like his very
shadow, through all these adventurous years in the forest, seems at
length to have been somewhat shaken by the very risky encounter
with Viradha, of which she had been an unwilling and terrified eye-
witness, in which her own person had been the object of contention,
and which had threatened, at one critical moment, to end very
tragically for her and her loved ones. Under the influence of these
recent and impressive experiences, Sita ventured, in her gentle,
womanly way, to suggest to her husband the advisability of avoiding
all semblance of hostility towards the Rakshasas. There were, she
timidly assured her husband, three sins to which desire gave rise:
untruthfulness, the coveting of other men’s wives, and the wish to
indulge in unnecessary hostilities. Of untruthfulness, and of allowing
his thoughts to stray towards other women, Sita unhesitatingly
exonerated her lord; but she artfully insinuated that, in his dealings
with the Rakshasas, he was giving way to the sin of provoking
hostilities without adequate cause, and she advised his laying aside
his arms during his wanderings in the forest; since the mere carrying
of bows and arrows was enough to kindle the wish to use them. To
give point to this contention, Vaidehi related how, in the olden time,
there lived in the woods a truthful ascetic whose incessant
austerities Indra desired, for some reason or other, to frustrate. For
the attainment of his end the king of heaven visited the hermit in
the guise of a warrior, and left his sword with him as a trust.
Scrupulously regardful of his obligation to his visitor, the ascetic
carried the sword with him wherever duty or necessity directed his
footsteps, till constant association with the weapon began to
engender fierce sentiments, leading eventually to the spiritual
downfall of the poor ascetic, whose ultimate portion was hell. Rama
received Sita’s advice in the loving spirit in which it was offered, and
thanking her for it, explained that it was his duty to protect the
saints from the oppression of the evil Rakshasas, and that Kshatriyas
carried bows in order that the word “distressed” might not be known
on this earth.
Several years of exile slipped away, not unpleasantly, in the shady
forests through which the royal brothers roamed from hermitage to
hermitage, always accompanied by the lovely and faithful Sita,
whose part throughout is one of affectionate, unfaltering and
unselfish devotion to her husband. On the banks of the Godavari,
Lakshmana, who has to do all the hard work for the party, built them
a spacious hut of clay, leaves and bamboos, propped with pillars and
furnished with a fine level floor, and there they lived happily near the
rushing river. At length the brothers got involved in a contest with a
brood of giants who roved about the woods of Dandhaka, delighting,
as usual, in the flesh of hermits and the interruption of sacred rites.
This time it was a woman who was at the bottom of their troubles.
Surpanakha, an ugly giantess and sister of Ravana, charmed with
the beauty and grace of Rama, came to him, and, madly in love,
offered to be his wife. But Rama in flattering terms put her off,
saying he was already married. In sport, apparently, he bid her try
her luck with Lakshmana. She took his advice, but Lakshmana does
not seem to have been tempted by the offer, and, while artfully
addressing her as “supremely charming and superbly beautiful lady,”
advised her to become the younger wife of Rama, to whom he
referred her again. Enraged by this double rejection, the giantess
attempted to kill Sita, as the hated obstacle to the fulfilment of her
desires. The brothers, of course, interposed, and Lakshmana, always
impetuous, punished the monster by cutting off her nose.
Surpanakha fled away to her brother Khara, and roused the giant
Rakshasas to avenge her wounds. These terrible giants possessed
the power of changing their forms at will; but their numbers and
their prowess were alike of little avail against the valour and skill of
Rama, who, alone and unaided,—for he sent Lakshmana away with
Sita into an inaccessible cave,—destroyed fourteen thousand of them
in a single day. The combat, which was witnessed by the gods and
Gandharvas, Siddhas and Charanas, is described at great length, and
the narrative is copiously interspersed with the boastful speeches of
the rival chiefs. In the bewildering conflict of that day his fourteen
thousand assailants poured upon Rama showers of arrows, rocks,
and trees. Coming to close quarters they attacked him vigorously
with clubs, darts, and nooses. Although hard pressed and sorely
wounded, the hero maintained the conflict with undaunted courage,
sending such thousands of wonderful arrows from his bow that the
sun was darkened and the missiles of his enemies warded off by
them. Finally Rama succeeded in laying dead upon that awful field of
carnage nearly the entire number of his fierce assailants. Khara, the
leader of the opposing host, a worthy adversary and possessed of
wondrous weapons, still lived. Enraged at, but undaunted by, the
wholesale destruction of his followers, Khara boldly continued the
fight. In his war-chariot, bright as the sun, he seemed to be the
Destroyer himself, as he fiercely assailed the victorious Rama. With
one arrow he severed the hero’s bow in his hand; with seven other
shafts like thunder-bolts he severed his armour joints, so that the
glittering mail fell from his body. He next wounded the prince with a
thousand darts. Not yet overcome, however, Rama strung another
bow, the mighty bow of Vishnu, and discharging shafts with golden
feathers, brought Khara’s standard to the ground. Transported with
wrath at this ill-omened event, Khara poured five arrows into Rama’s
bosom. The prince responded with six terrible bolts, some of them
crescent-headed. One struck the chief in the head, two of the others
entered his arms, and the remaining three his chest. Following these
up with thirteen of the same kind, Rama destroyed his enemy’s
chariot, killed his horses, decapitated his charioteer, and shattered
his bow in his grasp. Khara jumped to the ground armed with a
mace, ready to renew the conflict. At this juncture Rama paused a
moment to read the Rakshasa a homily on his evil doings; the latter
replied with fierce boasts, and hurled his mace at Rama, who cut it
into two fragments with his arrows as it sped through the air. Khara
now uprooted a lofty tree and hurled it at his foe; but, as before,
Rama cut it into pieces with his arrow ere it reached him, and with a
shaft resembling fire put a period to the life of the gallant Rakshasa.
At this conclusion of the conflict the celestials sounded their kettle-
drums, and showered down flowers upon the victorious son of
Dasahratha. Thus perished the Rakshasa army and its mighty leader:
“But of the host of giants one,
Akampan, from the field had run,
And sped to Lanka to relate
In Ravana’s ear the demon’s fate.”
—Griffith.
This fugitive made his way to the court of Ravana, the king of the
giants, and related to him the sad fate of his followers. Close on the
heels of Akampan came Surpanakha herself, with her cruelly
mutilated face. Transported with rage at the destruction of his
armies and at sight of the disfigured countenance of his sister, the
terrible Rakshasa chief vowed vengeance on Rama and Lakshmana.
But the necessity for great caution in dealing with such valorous foes
was apparent, and Ravana did not seem over-anxious to leave his
comfortable capital, Lanka, in order to seek out the formidable
brothers in the woods of Dandhaka. But Surpanakha, scorned and
mutilated, was thirsting for an early and bitter revenge. Reproaching
her brother for his unkingly supineness, she artfully gave him a
description of Sita’s beauty, far superior to that of any goddess,
which served to kindle unlawful desires in his heart. She referred to
Vaidehi’s golden complexion, her moon-like face, her lotus eyes, her
slender waist, her taper fingers, her swelling bosom, her ample hips
and lovely thighs, till the giant was only too willing to assent to her
suggestion, that the most effectual and agreeable revenge he could
take for the destruction of his hosts, and the cruel insults to his
sister, would be to carry off the fair Sita, by stratagem, from the
arms of her devoted husband, and thus add the lovely daughter of
Janaka to the number, not very small, of the beauties who adorned
his palace at Lanka. We shall presently see that the plot was
ingeniously contrived and too successfully carried out.
How conveniently the race of Rakshasas could assume at will the
forms in which they chose to appear, we know already. Taking
advantage of this faculty of metamorphosis, a Rakshasa named
Maricha, in obedience to Ravana’s orders, showed himself near
Rama’s hermitage, in the shape of a wonderful golden deer, spotted
with silver, having horns resembling jewels, a belly like a sapphire,
and sides like madbuka flowers. The strange creature captivated the
fancy of Sita, and she was so eager to possess it, alive or dead, that
Rama was induced to go in pursuit of it. Suspecting mischief from
this unusual appearance, Rama left his brother with Sita,
commanding him on no account to quit her side until he returned
from his pursuit of the jewelled deer. The chase led him to a
considerable distance from the hermitage. Weary of his endeavours
to secure the deer, Rama grew angry, and, with one of his flaming
arrows, pierced it in the breast. It bounded off the ground to the
height of a palm tree and, in the act of dying, began to cry, exactly
in the voice of Rama, “Ah! Sita; Ah! Lakshmana.” The words reached
the hermitage, as they were intended to do, and Sita, in an agony of
terror, implored Lakshmana to go to the aid of his brother, who
seemed to be in some dire trouble. Lakshmana, however, protested
that it was all illusion, and refused to believe that Rama could be in
any real danger; for, as he assured the trembling wife, “even the
Almighty Himself with the celestials and the three worlds cannot
defeat him” (Dutt, 609). But Vaidehi took another view of the matter,
and turning sharply upon her brother-in-law accused him roundly of
desiring the destruction of Rama in order that he might gratify an
improper wish to possess her himself. This, indeed, she said, must
have been the reason that brought him all the way from Ayodhya.
What, if any, grounds the charming lady may have had for this
accusation does not appear. They could have been known only to
herself and to Lakshmana, who, with joined hands, humbly
reproached her for her cruel words, and bending low before her
went off, with a heavy heart, in search of his brother.
In a garment (probably a saree) of yellow silk, Sita sat alone at the
door of her thatched cottage, weeping bitterly, when Ravana
presented himself before her, in the guise of a pious medicant.
Ravished by her beauty, this pious medicant began, without
ceremony, to praise the various charms of Sita’s person with the
most reprehensible license of detail. Nor did he stop there, but
telling her that she had carried away his heart, as a stream carries
away its banks, invited her to accompany him out of the gloomy
forest, tenanted by Rakshasas and wild beasts, and quite unfit for
the abode of a goddess like herself.
As her visitor was in appearance a Brahman, she dutifully attended
to him, bringing him water to wash his feet with, and food to eat,
while her eyes were straining through the forest for her absent lord.
Dreading that her Brahman guest might curse her if she did not
speak to him, Vaidehi began to relate the history of her exile,
addressing the seeming medicant in such flattering terms as “thou
best of twice born ones.” After listening to her story, Ravana
revealed himself to her, and again declaring his love, invited her to
become his wife in the great city of Lanka, where she should live in
luxury, attended by five thousand maid-servants. Sita indignantly
spurned the offer, threatening the Rakshasa with the consequences
of her husband’s anger. While indulging in boastful speeches
regarding his own prowess, Ravana assumed his natural form, with
ten heads and twenty arms. As he stood there before Vaidehi, “his
eyes were bloody,” and he appeared beautiful like unto blue clouds,
being dressed in gold-hued apparel (Dutt). Approaching the adorable
Sita, the enamoured giant caught her hair with one hand and her
legs with another and carried her off, through the air, in his golden
car drawn by asses. As she was being borne away, the fair lady cried
aloud for help, invoking the sylvan deities to tell her husband
whither, and by whom, she had been carried off. Her voice reached
the virtuous Jatayus, the king of birds, who, though sixty thousand
years old, immediately interposed to rescue her.
A furious and picturesque battle ensued, in which the huge vulture-
king, with his formidable beak, talons, and wings, made a gallant
stand against Ravana, in the cause of virtue and his friend Rama,
but eventually lost his noble life in the struggle, and left his huge
bones to mark, to this day, the scene of his terrible aërial conflict
with the demon.[31] The victorious Ravana carried Sita away through
the air in his arms. Some of her ornaments fell to the ground as the
two sped along in their journey towards Lanka, and showers of
blossoms, falling from her head, were scattered around. At this
sorrowful event the sun hid his face and all nature was oppressed
with grief. Not yet despairing of succour, the brave-hearted Sita
observed, as she passed along in mid-air, five monkey-chiefs seated
on the summit of a hill, and, unnoticed by Ravana, dropped amongst
them her gold-coloured sheet and some glittering ornaments, in the
hope that they might convey to Rama the intelligence of her
abduction by the giant. But Fate had more sorrow in store for her.
Over mountain peaks, over rivers, over the sea, Ravana conveyed
his prize without meeting with further opposition, and lodged her
safely in his magnificent palace in Lanka, where he treated her with
the greatest consideration, and wooed her like a youthful lover,
placing her tender feet upon his heads and professing himself her
obedient slave.
The Abduction of Sita.

(From an illustrated Urdu version of the “Ramayana.”)
Rama, on discovering the loss he had suffered, was in despair.

Sometimes he would indulge in excessive lamentations, wildly calling
upon the trees and streams, the deer of the forest and the birds of
the air, to tell him where his love had gone. At other times, assuming
a different tone, he would petulantly threaten to destroy “the three
worlds,” if the celestials did not restore Vaidehi to his arms. At such
moments Lakshmana would address his brother in the most abject
terms of flattery, and gently remind him of the necessity of doing his
duty and preserving his dignity.
Roaming about in search of the lost Sita, the brothers came across
Jatayus lying, in mortal agony, amidst the fragments of Ravana’s
wonderful car and his shattered umbrella. All that Rama could learn
from the dying king of the vultures was the name and rank of the
Rakshasa who had carried off his wife, and in a frenzy of grief he
rolled upon the ground, uttering vain lamentations. Presently the
brothers piously erected a funeral pile for the dead bird, and having
cremated the body, proceeded in their search for Sita, when they
encountered a horrid deformed monster, named Kabandha; thus
described by the poet:
“There stood before their wondering eyes
A fiend, broad-chested, huge of size;
A vast misshapen trunk they saw
In height surpassing nature’s law.
It stood before them dire and dread,
Without a neck, without a head,
Tall as some hill aloft in air,
Its limbs were clothed with bristling hair,
And deep below the monster’s waist
His vast misshapen mouth was placed.
His form was huge, his voice was loud
As some dark-tinted thunder-cloud.
A brilliance as of gushing flame
Beneath long lashes dark and keen
The monster’s single eye was seen.”[32]
In the battle which ensued the terrible monster had his two arms cut
off by Rama and Lakshmana respectively, and in this helpless
condition he explained that, though naturally endowed with a
surpassingly beautiful form, he used to assume this monstrous one
in order to frighten the ascetics in the forests; but one of these
saints, in a moment of anger, invoked this curse upon him, that he
should retain the disgusting form he had adopted, at least till, in
course of time, Rama should in person deliver him from its repulsive
deformity. The brothers placed the giant’s bulky body on a funeral
pyre, and from the ashes arose a beautiful being, clad in celestial
raiment, at whose suggestion Rama sought the friendship and aid of
Sugriva, King of the Vanaras, by whose assistance he hoped to find
out to what particular spot his beloved wife had been conveyed by
Ravana. Rama, in due course, found Sugriva and made the
acquaintance of his chief councillor the famous Hanuman, a son of
the god of the winds. When Rama met Sugriva, the latter was, like
himself, an exile from his native land, having been expelled from it
by his elder brother, King Bali, who had also taken unto himself
Ruma, Sugriva’s wife. The deposed monarch was wandering, with a
few faithful monkey companions, in the forest, and it was amongst
them, resting together on a mountain peak, that Sita had dropped
her yellow robe and golden ornaments. A sort of offensive and
defensive alliance was formed between the two banished princes,
who were, moreover, drawn towards one another by the fact that
each had been forcibly deprived of his consort. Rama was to help
Sugriva to overthrow Bali, secure the Vanar sceptre and recover his
wife Ruma; while Sugriva, on his part, was to assist Rama to
discover Sita’s whereabouts and to destroy her abductor. So great
was the dread Sugriva entertained of the prowess of his warlike
brother Bali, that, before committing himself to this alliance with
Rama, he desired that prince to give him some practical illustration
of what he could do as a wielder of warlike weapons; whereupon
Rama shot from his mighty bow a wondrous arrow, which, after
passing through the stems of seven palm trees, traversed a hill
which stood behind them, then flew through six subterranean realms
and finally returned to the hands of the bowman. Before this feat all
Sugriva’s doubts vanished and he was ready for action.
At Rama’s suggestion he proceeded to the great Vanar city
Kishkindha, and, in a voice of thunder, dared Bali to single combat.
The impetuous and passionate King of the Vanars accepted the
challenge at once, and an exceedingly fierce encounter took place
between the brothers outside the walls of the city. At length Sugriva
seemed to be failing, when Rama, who was standing by in ambush,
pierced Bali in the breast with one of those fatal arrows of his. As
might have been expected, Bali, with the life-blood welling from his
wounds, reproached Rama bitterly for his base, unfair, and cowardly
interposition in the battle between himself and Sugriva; but Rama
justified his action by saying that he was lord paramount of the
whole country, that Kishkindha came within the realm of Dasahratha,
and that Bali had justly forfeited his life by his misconduct in
appropriating his brother’s wife. Rama further remarked,
contemptuously, that the lives of mere Vanars or monkeys, as of
other animals, were of little account in the eyes of men; a remark
which seems strange, indeed, when we reflect that Bali was the king
of a magnificent city decorated with gold, silver and ivory, and that
Bali’s brother was Rama’s much desired ally.[33]
As Bali lay prostrate on the ground his disconsolate queen, Tara,
hastened to the fatal spot, with her little son Angad, and, in a
passion of grief, threw herself upon the body of her husband. She
gave way to the most touching sorrow and lamentation over the
dying warrior and seemed inconsolable, both then and later on when
performing the last rites for the deceased king. Had we seen no
more of Tara she would have lived as a tender and pleasant memory
in our minds; but, unfortunately, she reappears a very short time
after as Sugriva’s much loved and ardent consort, and actually
appears grateful to Rama for the benefit his deed had conferred
upon the new king and herself.
By the time Sugriva was formerly installed in the government of
Kishkindha, the rainy season came round,—a time of the year when,
in a roadless country, all military or other movements were
impossible. Rama, faithful to the conditions of his exile, would not
enter the city, and easily contented himself with a life in the
woodland, which, with its glittering fountains and laughing streams,
its stately trees, sweet-throated birds and odorous flowers, he was
never tired of admiring.
In return for the service rendered him by Rama, his ally Sugriva,
now King of the Vanars, assembled countless numbers (hundreds of
hundreds of millions!) of Vanars (monkeys and bears of different
colours—white, yellow and green) and sent them forth to search for
Sita. North, south, east and west, these Vanars traversed every land
and searched every possible retreat. From north, east and west,
were received reports of want of success; but from the south came
welcome tidings of the discovery of Sita by Hanuman, one of the
chief captains of the Vanar host, a son of the wind-god by a nymph
of paradise. The discovery of Sita’s place of captivity was made in
this way. In their active search for traces of her whereabouts, some
captains of the Vanar army of the south came across Sampati, the
huge brother of Jatayus, the king of the vultures, lying upon the top
of a high mountain. Bulky and powerful, the bird was yet quite
disabled and helpless, having had his wings scorched and destroyed
in a too adventurous flight towards the sun, which he had once
undertaken in a spirit of vanity and boastfulness. But even in this
unhappy state, dependent for his daily food upon the filial devotion
of his son, the old bird could, with his penetrating eye, see clearly to
enormous distances. He had witnessed Ravana’s hurried flight
through the air, with his beautiful prize, and had noted also that she
had been conveyed by the Rakshasa to Lanka beyond the sea. This
information he now communicated to the inquiring Vanars, and
having thereby performed a signal service to the son of Dasahratha,
his feathers sprouted again and he joyfully mounted once more into
his native element on new and lusty pinions.
Sita’s place of captivity was thus known to the Vanar; but how to
reach Lanka—separated as it was from the mainland by an arm of
the sea—became the urgent problem of the hour to the Vanar
commanders of the army of the south. If Sita was to be restored to
the arms of Rama, it was absolutely necessary that some one should
get to Lanka as a spy, in order to ascertain the facts in regard to
Sita’s captivity there, and to discover the strength of Ravana’s army
and his means of resisting an attack from without. Ships or even
boats were, in those primitive times, not to be thought of; but the
monkey could leap, and so it was proposed that some leader of the
race should essay the rather long jump across the strait which
separated Lanka from the continent. Who was so fitted for this
undertaking as the son of the wind-god, the redoubtable Hanuman?
Accordingly, after a great deal of boasting, Hanuman, assuming a
gigantic size, took the flying leap. The gods were well disposed
towards his brave venture, but there were also enemies on the path,
who endeavoured to stop him on his way. One of these was Surasa,
the mother of the Nagas, who, rushing upon him with wide-
extended jaws, mockingly told him that he must pass through her
mouth before proceeding any further on his journey. Hanuman
dilated his person till his stature attained many leagues, but the
monster’s mouth grew larger still. The cunning monkey now
suddenly contracted his dimensions to the size of a man’s thumb and
jumped airily into and out of Surasa’s gaping mouth. He had fulfilled
his enemy’s conditions and she good-naturedly acknowledged her
defeat. His next opponent, a terrific she-dragon, the fierce Sinhika,
marvellously caught his shadow as it glided over the sea, and in
some mysterious way retarded his progress thereby. With open
mouth she made a furious onslaught upon the wind-god’s son.
Hanuman, equal to the occasion, craftily contracted his dimensions,
and jumping into Sinhika’s cavern-like mouth, inflicted so much
injury upon her that she died. After this interruption he continued his
aërial journey to Lanka, probably making Sinhika’s carcass the base
of a fresh leap towards the island, though this is not expressly
mentioned by the poet.
When he had reached the island-kingdom of Ravana, the Vanar spy,
contracting his dimensions to those of an ordinary cat, found his way
by moonlight within the golden walls of the city, and, lost in
admiration, wandered about the wonderful streets of Ravana’s
capital, where tonsured priests and mail-clad warriors mingled freely
with bands of ascetics in deerskins, and fiends both foul and fair.
Eluding the guards, Hanuman crept into the palace. Here everything
was on a scale to astonish even the wind-god’s son, familiar with the
glories of Kishkindha; but most of all did he find food for admiration
in Ravana’s enchanted car, avowedly the most perfect work that had
been produced by Visvakarma, the architect of the gods.

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Fundamental Accounting Principles Volume 2 Canadian

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Quick Study 1-1

Quick Study 1-2

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Quick Study 1-4

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Quick Study 1-6

Quick Study 1-7

Quick Study 1-8

Quick Study 1-9

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b. Using Apple’s amounts from (a) we verify that (in millions):

Quick Study 1-10

(b) Examples of business events that are measurable include:

Quick Study 1-11

Quick Study 1-12

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Exercise 1-3 (20 minutes)

a. Auditing professionals with competing audit clients are likely to learn

©McGraw-Hill Companies, 2009

Code Description Principle or Assumption

Exercise 1-5 (10 minutes)

Exercise 1-6 (10 minutes)

©McGraw-Hill Companies, 2009

Exercise 1-8 (20 minutes)

a. Using the accounting equation:

b. Using the accounting equation at the beginning of the year:

Using the accounting equation at the end of the year:

Alternative approach to solving part (b):

c. Using the accounting equation at the end of the year:

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Exercise 1-10 (20 minutes)

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Exercise 1-12 (30 minutes)

Accounts Equip- Accounts L. Diamond, L. Diamond,

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Exercise 1-14 (15 minutes)

Exercise 1-15 (15 minutes)

* For the computation of this amount see Exercise 1-14.

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The Abduction of Sita.

Rama, on discovering the loss he had suffered, was in despair.

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