05.

Harmonic Motion
Oscillatory motion may repeat itself regularly, as in the case of a simple pendulum, or it may
display considerable irregularity, as in the case of ground motion during an earthquake. If the
motion is repeated after equal intervals of time, it is called periodic motion. The simplest type of
periodic motion is harmonic motion. The motion imparted to the mass m due to the Scotch yoke
mechanism shown below is an example of simple harmonic motion. In this system, a crank of
radius A rotates about the point O. The other end of the crank, P, slides in a slotted rod, which
reciprocates in the vertical guide R. When the crank rotates at an angular velocity  the end
point S of the slotted link and the mass m are in harmonic motion.

The mass m of the spring-mass system is displaced from the middle position by an amount x in
time t given by:

x  A sin   A sin t

This motion is shown by the sinusoidal curve above. The velocity of the mass m at time t is
given by:

dx
  A cos t
dt
The acceleration is:
d 2x
  2 A sin t   2 x
dt 2
It can be seen that the acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement. Such vibration,
with the acceleration proportional to the displacement and directed toward the mean position, is
known as simple harmonic motion. The motion given by x  A cos t is another example of
simple harmonic motion. The illustration above clearly shows the similarity between cyclic –
harmonic - motion and sinusoidal motion.

5.1 Vectorial Representation of Harmonic Motion


The harmonic motion can be represented conveniently by means of a vector OP of magnitude
A rotating at a constant angular velocity  . In the illustration shown below, the projection of the
 
tip of the vector X  OP on the vertical axis is given by:

y  A sin t

Harmonic motion as the projection of the end of a rotating vector

Its projection on horizontal axis is:

x  A cos t

2
5.2 Complex-Number Representation of Harmonic Motion
As seen above, the vectorial method of representing harmonic motion requires the description of
both horizontal and vertical components. It is more convenient to represent harmonic motion
using a complex-number representation. Any vector in the xy plane can be represented as a

complex number X  a  ib , where i  1 and a and b are the x and y components of

X as shown below.


The components a and b are also called the real and imaginary parts of the vector X . If A

denotes the modulus or absolute value of the vector X and

 represents the argument or the
angle between the vector and the x-axis, then X can also be expressed as:

X  A cos   iA sin  ,
A  a 2  b2 ,
b b
  arctan  tan 1
a a

Noting that i  1 , i  i , i  1 ,… cos  and i sin  can be expanded in a series as:

2 3 4

 i   i 
2 4
2 4
cos   1    ...  1    ...
2! 4! 2! 4!

 i    i   ...
3 5
 3 5 
i sin   i      ...   i 
 3! 5!  3! 5!

The above equations yield:

 i   i 
2 3

cos   i sin   1  i    ...  ei

2! 3!
 i   i 
2 3

cos   i sin   1  i    ...  e i

 2! 3!
Equation X  A cos   iA sin  can be then expressed as:

3
 
X  A cos   iA sin   Aei

5.3 Complex Algebra

Complex numbers are often represented without using a vector notation as z  a  ib , where a
and b denote the real and imaginary parts of z . The addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division of complex numbers can be achieved by using the usual rules of algebra. Let us consider
the complex numbers:

z1  a1  ib1  A1ei1
z2  a2  ib2  A2 ei2
Aj  a 2j  b 2j , j  1, 2 ,
bj bj
 j  arctan  tan 1 , j  1, 2
aj aj

The sum and difference of z1 and z2 can be found as:

z1  z2  A1ei1  A2 ei2   a1  ib1    a2  ib2    a1  a2   i  b1  b2 

z1  z2  A1ei1  A2 ei2   a1  ib1    a2  ib2    a1  a2   i  b1  b2 

5.4 Operations on Harmonic Functions


Using complex-number representation, the rotating vector X  a  ib represented above can be

written as X  Ae

it
, where  denotes the circular frequency in rad/sec of rotation of the vector

X in counter-clockwise direction. The differentiation of the harmonic motion given by X  Aeit
with respect to time gives:


  Aeit   i Aeit  i X
dX d
dt dt
d2X d 
2
  i Aeit    2 Aeit   2 X
dt dt

The displacement, velocity, and acceleration can be expressed as:

it
 Displacement: x  Re  Ae   A cos t
it  
 Velocity: v  Re i Ae    A sin t   A cos  t  2 
 
Acceleration: a  Re   Ae    A cos t   A cos t   
2 it 2 2


4
These quantities are shown as rotating vectors below. It can be seen that the acceleration vector
 
leads the velocity vector by , and the latter leads the displacement vector by .
2 2

Displacement, velocity, and accelerations as rotating vectors

Harmonic functions can be added vectorially, as shown below.

Vectorial addition of harmonic functions

 
If Re  X   A cos t and Re  X   A cos t    , then the magnitude of the resultant
1 1 2 2

 A2 sin  
 A1  A2 cos  
2
vector is given by A   A22 sin 2  and the angle   tan 1  .
 A1  A2 cos  
 
Since the original functions are given as real components, the sum X 1  X 2 is given by

 
Re X  A cos t    .

5
5.5 Definitions and Terminology
The following definitions and terminology are useful in dealing with harmonic motion and other
periodic functions.

 Cycle
The movement of a vibrating body from its undisturbed or equilibrium position to its extreme
position in one direction, then to the equilibrium position, then to its extreme position in the other
direction, and back to equilibrium position is called cycle of vibration. One revolution of the vector

OP in the second illustration of this lecture constitutes a cycle.

 Amplitude
The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from its equilibrium position is called the
amplitude of vibration. In the second illustration of this lecture the amplitude of vibration is equal
to A .

 Period of oscillation
The time taken to complete one cycle of motion is known as the period of oscillation or time

period and is denoted by  . It is equal to the time required for the vector OP mentioned above
2
to rotate through an angle 2 and hence  , where  is called the circular frequency.


 Frequency of oscillation
The number of cycles per unit time is called frequency of oscillation or simply frequency and is
1 
denoted by f . Thus f   Here  is called circular frequency to distinguish it from
 2
linear frequency defined with the same equation. The variable  denotes the angular velocity of
the cyclic motion. The frequency f is measured in cycles per second or Hertz while  is
measured in radians per second.

 Phase angle
Consider two vibratory motions denoted by:

x1  A1 sin t
x2  A2 sin t   

The two harmonic motions given above are called synchronous because they have the same
frequency or angular velocity  . Two synchronous oscillations need not have the same
amplitude, and they need not attain their maximum values at the same time. The motions given
by the above equations can be represented graphically as shown below.

6
 Phase difference between two vectors
 
In this illustration, the second vector OP2 leads the first one, OP1 , by an angle  known as the
phase angle. This means that the maximum of the second vector would occur  radians earlier
than that of the first vector. Note that instead of maxima, any other corresponding points can be
taken for finding the phase angle. The two vectors are said to have a phase difference of  .

 Natural frequency
If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own, the frequency with which it
oscillates without external forces is known as its natural frequency. As will be seen later, a
vibratory system having n degrees of freedom will have, in general, n distinct natural
frequencies of vibration.

 Beats
When two harmonic motions, with frequencies close to one another, are added, the resulting
motion exhibits a phenomenon known as beats. For example, if:

x1  t   X cos t ,
x2  t   X cos     t ,

where  is a small quantity, the addition of these motions yields:

x  t   x1  t   x2  t   X cos t  cos     t 

However:
A B A B
cos A  cos B  2 cos cos
2 2
Equation x  t   X cos t  cos     t  can be rewritten as:

t  
x  t   2 X cos cos     t
2  2

7
 t  
The plot of x  t   2 X cos cos     t is shown below.
2  2

Phenomenon of beats


It can be seen that the resulting motion x  t  represents a cosine wave with frequency 
2
t
which is approximately equal to  and with varying amplitude of 2 X cos . Whenever the
2
amplitude reaches a maximum, it is called beat. The frequency  at which the amplitude builds
up and dies down between 0 and 2 X is known as beat frequency. The phenomenon of beats is
often observed in machines, structures, and electric power houses. For example, in machines
and structures, the beating phenomenon occurs when the forcing frequency is close to the natural
frequency of the system.

 Octave
When the maximum value of a range of frequency is twice its minimum value, it is known as an
octave band. For example, each of the ranges 75 - 150 Hz, 150 - 300 Hz, and 300 - 600 Hz can
be called an octave band. In each case, the maximum and minimum values of frequency, which
have a ratio of 2:1, are said to differ by an octave.

 Decibel
The various quantities encountered in the field of vibration and sound – such as displacement,
velocity, acceleration, pressure, and power - are often represented using the notation of decibel.
A decibel dB is originally defined as a ratio of electric powers:

P
dB  10 log
P0

where P0 is some reference value of power. Since electric power is proportional to the square of
the voltage X , the decibel can also be expressed as:
2
 X  X
dB  10 log    20 log
 X0  X0

8
where X 0 is a specified reference voltage. In practice the equation
2
 X  X
dB  10 log    20 log is also used for expressing the ratios of other quantities such
 X0  X0
as displacements, velocities, accelerations, and pressures. The reference values of X 0 are
5 N 6 m
usually taken as 2 X 10 2
for pressure and 1 g  9.81X 10 for acceleration.
m s2

Summary
In this lecture we discuss harmonic motion, including:

 Vectorial Representation of Harmonic Motion

 Complex-Number Representation of Harmonic Motion
 Complex Algebra
 Operations on Harmonic Functions
 Definitions and Terminology

References
 Rao, S. – Mechanical Vibrations, 5th Edition, Prentice Hall, New York, 2011
 Gans, R.- Mechanical Systems - A Unified Approach to Vibrations and Controls,
Springer, 2015
 Thomson, W., Dahleh, M. - Theory of Vibrations with Applications, 5th Edition, Prentice
Hall, 1998