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Module I : Introduction to Physiological Psychology and Research

Methods

Defining Physiological Psychology

Physiological psychology investigates human behavior, emotion, thought, perception, learning,
memory and all other elements of psychology in terms of biological structures (different regions of the
brain and organs of the endocrine system) and physiological processes.

Relation between Physiological Psychology and Other disciplines of

Neuroscience
Physiological psychology, also known as behavioral neuroscience or biopsychology, is a subfield of
neuroscience that focuses on the relationship between behavior and the underlying physiological and
biological processes in the brain and body. Physiological psychology is closely related to other
disciplines within neuroscience, including cognitive neuroscience, neuropsychology, and
neuropharmacology.

Cognitive neuroscience is the study of the neural mechanisms underlying cognitive processes, such
as perception, attention, memory, and language. Physiological psychology and cognitive
neuroscience are closely related as they both aim to understand the brain and behavior, and the two
fields often use similar experimental techniques such as brain imaging and electrophysiological
recordings.

Neuropsychology is the study of the relationship between brain function and behavior. It focuses on
the assessment and treatment of cognitive and behavioral disorders resulting from brain damage or
dysfunction. Physiological psychology and neuropsychology are closely related as they both
investigate the neural basis of behavior, but neuropsychology primarily focuses on understanding and
treating clinical disorders.

Neuropharmacology is the study of how drugs affect the brain and behavior. It investigates the
mechanisms of action of drugs that affect the nervous system and their therapeutic uses.
Physiological psychology and neuropharmacology are related as both aim to understand the neural
basis of behavior, but neuropharmacology focuses more on the effects of drugs on behavior.

Overall, physiological psychology is a multidisciplinary field that integrates knowledge from various
disciplines within neuroscience, including cognitive neuroscience, neuropsychology, and
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neuropharmacology, to understand the relationship between behavior and the underlying

physiological and biological processes in the brain and body.

Methods and Strategies of research in Physiological Psychology

__History of Traditional Methods__
Psychophysiological methods are a subset of the very large domain of neuroscience methods. Many
neuroscience methods are invasive, such as involving lesions of neural tissue, injection of neutrally
active chemicals, or manipulation of neural activity via electrical stimulation. The present survey
emphasizes noninvasive methods widely used with human subjects.

Crucially, in examining the relationship between physiology and overt behavior or mental events,
psychophysiology does not attempt to replace the latter with the former. As an example, happiness is
a state of pleasurable contentment and is associated with various physiological measures, but one
would not say that those physiological measures are happiness. We can make inferences about
someone’s cognitive or emotional state based on his or her self-report, physiology, or overt behavior.
Sometimes our interest is primarily in inferences about internal events and sometimes primarily in the
physiology itself. Psychophysiology addresses both kinds of goals.

Case:-
In the mid-19th century, a railroad worker named
Phineas Gage was in charge of setting explosive
charges for blasting through rock in order to
prepare a path for railroad tracks. He would lay the
charge in a hole drilled into the rock, place a fuse
and sand on top of the charge, and pack it all
down using a tamping iron (a solid iron rod
approximately one yard long and a little over an
inch in diameter). On a September afternoon when
Gage was performing this task, his tamping iron
caused a spark that set off the explosive
prematurely, sending the tamping iron flying
through the air. Unfortunately for Gage, his head
was above the hole and the tamping iron entered the side of his face, passed behind his left eye, and
exited out of the top of his head, eventually landing 80 feet away. Gage lost a portion of his left frontal
lobe in the accident, but survived and lived for another 12 years. What is most interesting from a
psychological perspective is that Gage’s personality changed as a result of this accident. He became
more impulsive, he had trouble carrying out plans, and, at times, he engaged in vulgar profanity,
which was out of character. This case study leads one to believe that there are specific areas of the
brain that are associated with certain psychological phenomena.When studying psychology, the brain
is indeed an interesting source of information. Although it would be impossible to replicate the type of
damage done to Gage in the name of research, methods have developed over the years that are able
to safely measure different aspects of nervous system activity in order to help researchers better
understand psychology as well as the relationship between psychology and biology.

Recording and Stimulating Neural Activity Method

Recording and stimulating neural activity are essential techniques used in physiological psychology to
study the relationship between neural activity and behavior. There are several methods used to record
and stimulate neural activity, including:

1. Electroencephalography (EEG): This technique records the electrical activity of the brain through
electrodes placed on the scalp. EEG is commonly used to study brain rhythms and can provide
information about the timing and location of neural activity.
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2. Magnetoencephalography (MEG): This technique records the magnetic fields generated by the
electrical activity of the brain. MEG is similar to EEG but provides more precise information about the
timing and location of neural activity.

3. Positron Emission Tomography (PET): This technique measures changes in blood flow and
metabolism in the brain by injecting a radioactive tracer into the bloodstream. PET can provide
information about the location of neural activity associated with specific behaviors.

4. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): This technique uses a magnetic field and radio
waves to measure changes in blood flow and oxygenation in the brain. fMRI is commonly used to
study brain regions associated with specific behaviors.

5. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): This technique uses a magnetic field to stimulate
neurons in the brain. TMS can be used to study the causal relationship between neural activity and
behavior.

6. Optogenetics: This technique uses genetic engineering to make neurons sensitive to light. By
stimulating or inhibiting specific neurons with light, optogenetics can be used to study the relationship
between neural activity and behavior.

These methods are all important for studying the neural basis of behavior and can be used alone or in
combination with each other to provide a more comprehensive understanding of neural activity.

Neurochemical Methods
Neurochemical methods are commonly used in physiological psychology to study the role of
neurotransmitters and other molecules in the brain in relation to behavior. Here are some of the most
commonly used neurochemical methods:

1. Microdialysis: This method involves placing a small probe in the brain to collect samples of
extracellular fluid. The samples can be analyzed to determine the concentration of various
neurotransmitters and other molecules, providing insight into their roles in behavior.

2. Immunohistochemistry: This method involves labeling specific proteins or molecules in brain tissue
with antibodies that bind to them. The labeled tissue can be examined under a microscope to
determine the distribution of these molecules in the brain.

3. Receptor autoradiography: This method involves labeling specific receptors in brain tissue with
radioactive ligands. The labeled tissue can be examined under a microscope to determine the
distribution and density of these receptors in the brain.

4. In situ hybridization: This method involves using a labeled probe to detect specific RNA molecules
in brain tissue. The labeled tissue can be examined under a microscope to determine the expression
of specific genes in the brain.

5. Electrochemical methods: These methods involve measuring the release of neurotransmitters in

real-time by placing electrodes in the brain or in close proximity to it. Electrochemical methods can
provide insight into the dynamics of neurotransmitter release and reuptake in relation to behavior.

6. Pharmacological manipulations: This method involves administering drugs that affect the levels of
neurotransmitters or other molecules in the brain. By observing the effects of these drugs on behavior,
researchers can determine the roles of these molecules in specific behaviors.
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Overall, neurochemical methods are essential for studying the relationship between neurotransmitters
and other molecules in the brain and behavior. These methods can be used alone or in combination
with other techniques, such as electrophysiology and neuroimaging, to provide a more comprehensive
understanding of the neural basis of behavior.

Genetic Methods
Genetic methods have become increasingly important in physiological psychology for understanding
the relationship between genes, neural circuits, and behavior. Here are some of the most commonly
used genetic methods in physiological psychology:

1. Knockout mice: This method involves genetically engineering mice to lack a specific gene of
interest. By studying the behavioral and physiological changes in these mice, researchers can
determine the role of the gene in behavior and neural circuits.

2. Transgenic mice: This method involves introducing a foreign gene into mice to manipulate the
expression of a particular protein or molecule. This can be used to study the role of specific genes or
proteins in neural circuits and behavior.

3. CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing: This method involves using the CRISPR/Cas9 system to selectively
modify specific genes in animals. CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing has revolutionized the field of genetics
and has enabled researchers to selectively modify genes to study their function in neural circuits and
behavior.

4. Heritability studies: This method involves studying the extent to which behavioral traits are inherited
by offspring from their parents. This can be done through studies of families or twins, or through
genome-wide association studies (GWAS) that examine the genetic basis of complex traits.

5. Optogenetics: This method involves using genetic engineering to make neurons sensitive to light.
By stimulating or inhibiting specific neurons with light, optogenetics can be used to study the causal
relationship between neural activity and behavior.

6. Epigenetics: This method involves studying modifications to the DNA molecule that do not alter the
genetic code itself, but can affect gene expression. Epigenetic modifications can be inherited and can
be influenced by environmental factors, providing insight into the interplay between genes and the
environment in behavior.

Overall, genetic methods are essential for studying the genetic basis of behavior and the neural
circuits that underlie it. These methods can be used alone or in combination with other techniques,
such as neuroimaging and electrophysiology, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the
neural basis of behavior.

An Evolutionary Perspective of Human Behavior

An evolutionary perspective of human behavior suggests that many of the behaviors we exhibit today
have evolved over time due to their adaptive value in helping our ancestors survive and reproduce in
their environments. This perspective is grounded in the theory of evolution by natural selection, which
posits that organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and pass on those traits to
their offspring.

Some examples of behaviors that can be understood through an evolutionary perspective include:
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1. Mate selection: Evolutionary psychologists suggest that the characteristics that we find attractive in
potential mates (such as physical attractiveness, intelligence, and resourcefulness) may be indicative
of traits that were important for survival and reproduction in our ancestral environments.

2. Aggression: Evolutionary psychologists argue that aggression may have been adaptive in ancestral
environments where competition for resources was high and physical confrontation was necessary for
survival.

3. Altruism: Evolutionary psychologists suggest that altruistic behaviors (such as helping others) may
have evolved as a way to promote the survival of kin or other individuals who may be beneficial for
one's own survival.

4. Fear: Fear is an adaptive response that may have evolved to protect individuals from danger in
ancestral environments. For example, fear of snakes or spiders may have helped our ancestors avoid
potentially deadly encounters with venomous animals.

5. Parenting: Evolutionary psychologists argue that parenting behaviors (such as nurturing and
protecting offspring) may have evolved to ensure the survival and reproductive success of offspring,
as well as to promote the survival of genes that are shared between parents and offspring.

Overall, an evolutionary perspective of human behavior provides a framework for understanding why
we exhibit certain behaviors and why those behaviors may have been adaptive in our ancestral
environments. This perspective can be used to generate hypotheses about the function of behaviors,
and to test those hypotheses using empirical methods.

Behaviour Genetics: Predicting Individual Differences

Behavior genetics is the study of how genes and the environment interact to shape individual
differences in behavior. This field seeks to identify genetic and environmental factors that contribute to
variation in behavior, as well as to understand the mechanisms by which these factors interact.

One major goal of behavior genetics is to predict individual differences in behavior based on genetic
and environmental factors. Researchers use a variety of methods to achieve this goal, including twin
studies, adoption studies, and molecular genetics.

Twin studies involve comparing the similarity of monozygotic (identical) twins, who share 100% of
their genetic material, to the similarity of dizygotic (fraternal) twins, who share only about 50% of their
genetic material, but are raised in similar environments. By comparing these two groups, researchers
can estimate the heritability of a particular trait, which is the proportion of variation in that trait that can
be attributed to genetic factors.

Adoption studies involve comparing the behavior of adopted children to that of their biological and
adoptive parents. This allows researchers to disentangle the effects of genetic and environmental
factors on behavior.

Molecular genetics involves identifying specific genes or genetic variants that are associated with
particular behaviors. This is done using techniques such as genome-wide association studies
(GWAS), which scan the entire genome to identify genetic variants that are more common in people
with a particular trait.

By using these methods, behavior genetics researchers can predict individual differences in behavior
to some degree. For example, researchers have identified genetic variants that are associated with
risk for various psychiatric disorders, such as depression and schizophrenia. While these genetic
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variants do not determine whether someone will develop these disorders, they can increase or
decrease the likelihood of developing them.

However, it is important to note that behavior is complex and multifaceted, and is influenced by a wide
range of genetic and environmental factors. Predicting individual differences in behavior based on
genetic and environmental factors is therefore a complex task, and requires a nuanced understanding
of the interplay between these factors.

Module II : Structural and Functional Anatomy of Nervous System

Understanding Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System

____Nervous System____
Nervous system is our body’s command center. Originating from our brain, it controls our movements,
thoughts and automatic responses to the world around us. It also controls other body systems and
processes, such as digestion, breathing and sexual development (puberty).

Nervous system affects every aspect of our health, including our:

● Thoughts, memory, learning, and feelings.
● Movements, such as balance and coordination.
● Senses, including how your brain interprets what you see, hear, taste, touch and feel.
● Sleep, healing and aging.
● Heartbeat and breathing patterns.
● Response to stressful situations.
● Digestion, as well as how hungry and thirsty you feel.
● Body processes, such as puberty.

___Central Nervous System___

The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and the spinal cord. Both the brain and
the spinal cord are composed of neurons and glial cells that control the life- sustaining functions of the
body as well as all thought, emotion, and behavior. The central nervous system can be thought of as
the coordination and integration system within organisms. The CNS takes signals from the peripheral
nervous system, processes them, then creates new signals to coordinate actions of different body
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systems. For instance, long-term and short-term metabolism and homeostasis are regulated through
close interaction between the central nervous system and the endocrine system.

The CNS, especially the brain, is considered the physical seat for most higher-order mental functions.
Neuronal connections form the basis for thought and retention of memory. The brain plays an
important role in the development of speech, language, and communication. These tasks involve an
association of abstract symbols and sounds with concrete objects and emotions. Motivation, ambition,
reward, and satisfaction are also mediated through neuronal connections in the CNS.

At the same time, the limbic system of the brain also controls the most basic emotions and drives,
such as pleasure, fear, anger, hunger, thirst, sleepiness and sexual desire. In addition, involuntary
reflexes are mediated by the spinal cord,providing protection and quickly preventing injury.

THE BRAIN
The brain is the core of the nervous
system, the part that makes sense of the
information received from the senses,
makes decisions, and sends commands
out to the muscles and the rest of the
body, if needed. Many different areas of
the brain are involved in preparing us for
an appropriate response to the
information received, and the brain is
responsible for cognition and thoughts,
including learning, memory, and
language.

The Brain consists of 3 major parts.

Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain

Forebrain – Largest part of the brain

The Forebrain Controls the reproductive functions, body temperature, emotions, hunger and sleep.
It is the anterior part of the brain. The forebrain parts include:
➔ Cerebrum
➔ Hypothalamus
➔ Thalamus

Cerebrum:-
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex and other subcortical
structures. It is composed of two cerebral hemispheres that are joined together by heavy, dense
bands of fibre called the corpus callosum. The cerebrum is further divided into four sections or lobes:
● Frontal lobe: It is associated with parts of speech, planning, reasoning, problem-solving and
movements.
● Parietal lobe: Help in movements, the perception of stimuli and orientation.
● Occipital lobe: It is related to visual processing.
● Temporal lobe: This region is related to perception and recognition of memory, auditory stimuli
and speech.

The brain consists of two types of tissues: Grey matter and White matter.
➢ Grey matter mainly consists of various types of cells, which make up the bulk of the brain.
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➢ White matter is primarily composed of axons, which connect various grey matter areas of the
brain with each other.

The exterior portion of the cerebrum is called the cortex or the cerebral mantle. The cortex is
extremely convoluted, due to which, it has a large surface area. The cerebrum also includes:
➢ Sensory areas: To receive the messages.
➢ Association areas: These areas integrate the incoming sensory information. It also forms a
connection between sensory and motor areas.
➢ Motor areas: This area is responsible for the action of the voluntary muscles.

The cerebrum is responsible for thinking, intelligence, consciousness and memory. It is also
responsible for interpreting touch, hearing and vision.

Thalamus
The thalamus is a small structure, located right above the brain stem responsible for relaying sensory
information from the sense organs. It is also responsible for transmitting motor information for
movement and coordination. Thalamus is found in the limbic system within the cerebrum. This limbic
system is mainly responsible for the formation of new memories and storing past experiences.

Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a small and essential part of the brain, located precisely below the thalamus. It is
considered the primary region of the brain, as it is involved in the following functions:
● Receives impulses
● Regulates body temperature
● Controls the mood and emotions
● Controls the sense of taste and smell
● Synthesises the body’s essential hormones
● Coordinates the messages from the autonomous nervous system
● Controls appetite, peristalsis, the rate of heartbeat, and blood pressure
● Forms an axis with the pituitary gland which is the main link between the nervous and the
endocrine systems

Midbrain: Smallest and central part of the brain

The midbrain consists of:
➔ Tectum
➔ Tegmentum

Tectum
The tectum is a small portion of the brain, specifically the dorsal part of the midbrain. It serves as a
relay centre for the sensory information from the ears to the cerebrum. It also controls the reflex
movements of the head, eye and neck muscles. It provides a passage for the different neurons
moving in and out of the cerebrum.

Tegmentum
Tegmentum is a region within the brainstem. It is a complex structure with various components, which
is mainly involved in body movements, sleep, arousal, attention, and different necessary reflexes. It
forms the platform for the midbrain and connects with the thalamus, cerebral cortex and the spinal
cord.

Hindbrain: The lower part of the brain

The hindbrain is composed of:
➔ Cerebellum
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➔ Medulla
➔ Pons
Hindbrain functions: The three regions of the hindbrain coordinates all processes necessary for
survival. These induce breathing, heartbeat, sleep, wakefulness and motor learning.

Cerebellum
The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain, located in the posterior portion of the medulla
and pons. The cerebellum and cerebrum are separated by cerebellar tentorium and transverse
fissure. Cortex is the outer surface of the cerebellum, and its parallel ridges are called the folia. Apart
from this, the cerebellum has the cerebellar peduncles, cerebellar nuclei, anterior and posterior lobes.
The cerebellum consists of two hemispheres, the outer grey cortex and the inner white medulla. It is
mainly responsible for coordinating and maintaining the body balance during walking, running, riding,
swimming, and precision control of the voluntary movements. The main functions of the cerebellum
include:
● It senses equilibrium.
● Transfers information.
● Coordinates eye movement.
● It enables precision control of the voluntary body movements.
● Both anterior and posterior lobes are concerned with the skeletal movements.
● The cerebellum is also essential for making fine adjustments to motor actions.
● Coordinates and maintains body balance and posture during walking, running, riding,
swimming.

Medulla Oblongata
The medulla oblongata is a small structure present in the lowest region of the brain. It mainly controls
the body’s autonomic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and digestion. It plays a primary role in
connecting the spinal cord, pons and the cerebral cortex. Also, it helps us in maintaining our posture
and controlling our reflexes.

Pons
The pons is the primary structure of the brain stem present between the midbrain and medulla
oblongata. It serves as a relay signals between the lower cerebellum, spinal cord, the midbrain,
cerebrum and other higher parts of the brain. The main functions of the pons include:
● Controlling sleep cycles.
● Regulating the magnitude and frequency of the respiration.
● Transfers information between the cerebellum and motor cortex.
● Pons is also involved in sensations, such as the sense of taste, hearing and balance.

THE SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord is a long bundle of neurons that
serves two vital func- tions for the nervous system.
Look at the cross- section of the spinal cord in. Notice
that it seems to be divided into two areas, a lighter
outer section and a darker inner section. If it were a
real spinal cord, the outer section would appear to be
white and the inner section would seem gray. That's
because the outer sec- tion is composed mainly of
myelinated axons and nerves, which appear white,
whereas the in- ner section is mainly composed of cell
bodies of neurons, which appear gray. The purpose of
the outer section is to carry messages from the body
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up to the brain and from the brain down to the body. It is simply a message "pipeline."

The inside section, which is made up of cell bod- ies separated by glial cells, is actually a primitive
sort of "brain." This part of the spinal cord is responsible for certain reflexes-very fast, lifesaving
reflexes. To understand how the spinal cord reflexes work, it is im- portant to know there are three
basic types of neurons: afferent (sensory) neurons that carry messages from the senses to the spinal
cord, efferent (motor) neurons that carry messages from the spinal cord to the muscles and glands,
and interneurons that connect the afferent neurons to the motor neurons (and make up the inside of
the spinal cord and much of the brain itself). Touch a flame or a hot stove with your fin- ger, for
example, and an afferent neuron will send the pain message up to the spinal column where it enters
into the central area of the spinal cord. The interneuron in that central area will then receive the
message and send out a response along an effer- ent neuron, causing your finger to pull back. This
all happens very quickly. If the pain message had to go all the way up to the brain before a response
could be made, the response time would be greatly increased and more damage would be done to
your finger. So having this kind of reflex are controlled by the spinal cord alone allows for very fast
response times. (A good way to avoid mixing up the terms afferent and efferent is to remember
"afferent neurons access the spinal cord, efferent neurons exit." message does eventually get to the
brain, where other motor may be triggered, like saying "Ouch!" and putting the finger in your mouth.

___Cranial Nerves___
Your 12 cranial nerves each have a specific function. Experts categorize the cranial nerves based on
number and function:

1. Olfactory nerve: Sense of smell.

2. Optic nerve: Ability to see.
3. Oculomotor nerve: Ability to move and blink your eyes.
4. Trochlear nerve: Ability to move your eyes up and down or back and forth.
5. Trigeminal nerve: Sensations in your face and cheeks, taste and jaw movements.
6. Abducens nerve: Ability to move your eyes.
7. Facial nerve: Facial expressions and sense of taste.
8. Auditory/vestibular nerve: Sense of hearing and balance.
9. Glossopharyngeal nerve: Ability to taste and swallow.
10. Vagus nerve: Digestion and heart rate.
11. Accessory nerve (or spinal accessory nerve): Shoulder and neck muscle movement.
12. Hypoglossal nerve: Ability to move your tongue.
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____Peripheral Nervous System_____

The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves that

branch out from the brain and spinal cord. These nerves form
the communication network between the CNS and the body
parts. The peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into
the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
The somatic nervous system consists of nerves that go to the
skin and muscles and is involved in conscious activities. The
autonomic nervous system consists of nerves that connect the
CNS to the visceral organs such as the heart, stomach, and
intestines. It mediates unconscious activities.

If we consider the entire nervous system as an electric grid, the

central nervous system would represent the powerhouse,
whereas the peripheral nervous system would represent long
cables that connect the powerhouse to the outlying cities (limbs,
glands and organs) to bring them electricity and send information back about their status.

Basically, signals from the brain and spinal cord are relayed to the periphery by motor nerves, to tell
the body to move or to conduct resting functions (like breathing, salivating and digesting), for
example. The peripheral nervous system sends back the status report to the brain by relaying
information via sensory nerves (see above image).As with the central nervous system, the basic cell
units of the peripheral central nervous system are neurons. Each neuron has a long process, known
as the axon, which transmits the electrochemical signals through which neurons communicate.

Axons of the peripheral nervous system run together in bundles called fibers, and multiple fibers form
the nerve, the cable of the electric circuit. The nerves, which also contain connective tissue and blood
vessels, reach out to the muscles, glands and organs in the entire body

Nerves of the peripheral nervous system are classified based on the types of neurons they contain
-sensory, motor or mixed nerves (if they contain both sensory and motor neurons), as well as the
direction of information flow- towards or away from the brain.

The afferent nerves, from the Latin "afferre" that means "to bring towards", contain neurons that bring
information to the central nervous system. In this case, the afferent are sensory neurons, which have
the role of receiving a sensory input-hearing, vision, smell, taste and touch - and pass the signal to the
CNS to encode the appropriate sensation.

The afferent neurons also have another important subconscious function. In this case, the peripheral
nervous system brings information to the central nervous system about the inner state of the organs
(homeostasis), providing feedback on their conditions, without the need for us to be consciously
aware. For example, afferent nerves communicate to the brain the level of energy intake of various
organs.

The efferent nerves, from the Latin "efferre" that means "to bring away from", contain efferent neurons
that transmit the signals originating in the central nervous system to the organs and muscles, and put
into action the orders from the brain. For example, motor neurons (efferent neurons) contact the
skeletal muscles to execute the voluntary movement of raising your arm and wiggling your hand
about.
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The Somatic Nervous system

One of the parts of a neuron is the soma, or cell body (the

word soma means "body"). The somatic nervous system
is made up of the sensory pathway, which comprises all
the nerves carrying messages from the senses to the
central nervous sys- tem (those nerves containing
afferent neurons), and the motor pathway, which is all of
the nerves carrying messages from the central nervous
system to the voluntary, or skeletal,* muscles of the
body-muscles that allow people to move their bodies
(those nerves com- posed of efferent neurons). When people are walking, raising their hands in class,
smelling a flower, or direct-ing their gaze toward the person they are talking to or to look at a pretty
picture, they are using the somatic nervous system.

The Autonomic Nervous System

The word autonomic suggests that the functions of this system are more or less auto- matic, which is
basically correct. Whereas the somatic division of the peripheral nervous system controls the senses
and voluntary muscles, the autonomic division controls every- thing else in the body organs, glands,
and involuntary muscles. The autonomic nervous system is divided into two systems:
The Sympathetic Division and The Parasympathetic Division.

The Sympathetic Nervous System

The sympathetic division is in sympathy with one's

emotions. In fact, the sympathetic division is usually
called the "fight-or-flight system" because it allows
people and animals to deal with all kinds of stressful
events. The sympathetic division's job is to get the
body ready to deal with the stress. The pupils seem
to get bigger, perhaps to let in more light and,
therefore, more information. The heart starts
pumping faster and harder, drawing blood away from
nonessential organs such as the skin (so at first the
person may turn pale) and sometimes even away
from the brain itself (so the person might actually
faint). Blood needs lots of oxygen before it goes to
the muscles, so the lungs work overtime, too (the person may begin to breathe faster). One set of
glands in particular receives special instructions. The adrenal glands will be stimulated to release
certain stress-related chemicals (members of a class of chemicals released by glands called
hormones) into the bloodstream. These stress hormones will travel to all parts of the body, but they
will only affect certain target organs.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Parasympathetic nervous system is a network of nerves that relaxes your body after periods of stress
or danger. It also helps run life-sustaining processes, like digestion, during times when you feel safe
and relaxed. The informal descriptions for this system include the rhymes “rest and digest” or “feed
and breed.”parasympathetic nervous system is part of your autonomic nervous system. It could be
called your “automatic” nervous system, as it’s responsible for many functions that you don’t have to
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think about to control. This can include control of your heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, urination
and sweating, among other functions.

The parasympathetic part of your autonomic nervous system balances your sympathetic nervous
system. While your sympathetic nervous system controls your body’s “fight or flight” response, your
parasympathetic nervous system helps to control your body’s response during times of rest.

Brain Hemisphere Organization and Biology of Consciousness

____Brain Hemisphere Organization____

Our brain's look-alike left and right hemispheres serve differing functions. This
lateralization is apparent after brain damage. Research collected over more than a
century has shown that accidents, strokes, and tumors in the left hemisphere can
impair reading, writing, speaking, arithmetic reasoning, and understanding. Similar
lesions in the right hemisphere have effects that are less visibly dramatic.

Many believed this was the case until 1960, when research- ers found that the
"minor" right hemisphere was not so limited after all. The story of this discovery is a
fascinating episode in psychology's history.

Splitting The Brain

In 1961, two Los Angeles neurosurgeons, Philip Vogel and Joseph Bogen,
speculated that major epileptic seizures were caused by an amplification of
abnormal brain activity bounc- ing back and forth between the two cerebral
hemispheres. If so, they wondered, could they put an end to this biological tennis
game by severing the corpus callosum. This wide band of axon fibers connects the two hemispheres
and carries messages between them. Vogel and Bogen knew that psychologists Roger Sperry,
Ronald Myers, and Michael Gazzaniga had divided the brains of cats and monkeys in this manner,
with no serious ill effects.

The seizures all but disappeared. The patients with these split brains were surprisingly normal, their
personality and intellect hardly af- fected. Waking from surgery, one even joked that he had a "splitting
headache" (Gazzaniga, 1967). By sharing their experiences, these patients have greatly expanded
our understand- ing of interactions between the intact brain's two hemispheres.

To appreciate these findings, we need to focus for a minute on the peculiar nature of our visual wiring.
Information from the left half of your field of vision goes to your right hemisphere, and information from
the right half of your visual field goes to your left hemisphere, which usually controls speech. (Note,
however, that each eye receives sensory information from both the right and left visual fields.) Data
received by either hemisphere are quickly transmitted to the other across the corpus callosum. In a
person with a severed corpus callosum, this information-sharing does not take place.

Knowing these facts, Sperry and Gazzaniga could send information to a patient's left or right hemi-
sphere. As the person stared at a spot, they flashed a stimulus to its right or left. They could do this
with you, too, but in your intact brain, the hemisphere receiving the information would instantly pass
the news to the other side. Because the split-brain sur- gery had cut the communication lines between
the hemispheres, the researchers could, with these pa- tients, quiz each hemisphere separately.

In an early experiment, Gazzaniga (1967) asked these people to stare at a dot as he flashed HEART
on a screen. Thus, HE appeared in their left visual field (which trans- mits to the right hemisphere)
and ART in the right field (which transmits to the left hemisphere). When he then asked them to say
 14

what they had seen, the patients reported that they had seen ART. But when asked to point to the
word they had seen, they were startled when their left hand (controlled by the right hemisphere)
pointed to HE. Given an opportunity to express itself, each hemisphere reported what it had seen. The
right hemi- sphere (controlling the left hand) intuitively knew what it could not verbally report.

Right brain – left brain

The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the right and left hemispheres .They are joined by a bundle
of fibers called the corpus callosum that transmits messages from one side to the other. Each
hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. If a stroke occurs on the right side of the brain,
your left arm or leg may be weak or paralyzed.

Not all functions of the hemispheres are shared. In general, the left hemisphere controls speech,
comprehension, arithmetic, and writing. The right hemisphere controls creativity, spatial ability, artistic,
and musical skills. The left hemisphere is dominant in hand use and language in about 92% of people.

Several different types of studies indicate they do. When a person performs a perceptual task, for
example, brain waves, bloodflow, and glucose consumption reveal increased activity in the right
hemisphere. When the person speaks or calculates, activity increases in the left hemisphere.A
dramatic demonstration of hemispheric specialization happens before some types of brain surgery. To
locate the patient's language centers, the surgeon injects a sedative into the neck artery feeding blood
to the left hemisphere, which usually controls speech. Before the injection, the patient is lying down,
arms in the air, chatting with the doctor. Within seconds, the person's right arm falls limp. If the left
hemisphere is controlling language, the patient will be speechless until the drug wears off. If the drug
is injected into the artery to the right hemisphere, the left arm will fall limp, but the person will still be
able to speak.

To the brain, language is language, whether spoken or signed. Just as hearing people usually use the
left hemisphere to process speech, deaf people use the left hemisphere to process sign language.
Thus, a left-hemisphere stroke disrupts a deaf person's signing, much as it would disrupt a hearing
person's speaking.

___Biology of Consciousness____
Today's science explores the biology of consciousness. Evolutionary psychologists specu- late that
consciousness must offer a reproductive advantage (Barash, 2006). Consciousness helps us act in
our long-term interests (by considering consequences) rather than merely seeking short-term
pleasure and avoiding pain. Consciousness also promotes our survival by anticipating how we seem
to others and helping us read their minds: "He looks really angry! I'd better run!"Such explanations still
leave us with the "hard problem": How do brain cells jabbering to one another create our awareness
of the taste of a taco, the idea of infinity, the feeling of fright? Today's scientists are pursuing answers.

Cognitive Neuroscience
Scientists assume, in the words of neuroscientist Marvin Minsky (1986, p. 287), that "the mind is what
the brain does." We just don't know how it does it. Even with all the world's chemicals, computer
chips, and energy, we still don't have a clue how to make a conscious robot. Yet today's cognitive
neuroscience, the interdisciplinary study of the brain activ- ity linked with our mental processes, is
taking the first small step by relating specific brain states to conscious experiences.

A stunning demonstration of consciousness appeared in brain scans of a noncommunicative patient-a

23-year-old woman who had been in a car accident and showed no outward signs of conscious
awareness (Owen et al., 2006). When researchers asked her to imag- ine playing tennis, fMRI scans
revealed brain activity in a brain area that normally controls arm and leg movements. Even in a
motionless body, the researchers concluded, the brain-and the mind-may still be active. A follow-up
 15

study of 22 other "vegetative" patients revealed 3 more who also showed meaningful brain respons-
es to questions (Monti et al., 2010).

Many cognitive neuroscientists are exploring and mapping the conscious functions of the cortex.
Based on your cortical activation patterns, they can now, in limited ways, read your mind (Bor, 2010).
They can, for example, tell which of 10 similar objects (hammer, drill, and so forth) you are viewing.

Despite such advances, much disagreement remains. One view sees conscious experiences as
produced by the synchronized activity across the brain (Gaillard et al., 2009; Koch & Greenfield, 2007;
Schurger et al., 2010). If a stimulus activates enough brainwide coordinated neural activity with strong
signals in one brain area triggering activity elsewhere it crosses a threshold for conscious- ness. A
weaker stimulus perhaps a word flashed too briefly to consciously perceive- may trigger localized
visual cortex activity that quickly dies out. A stronger stimulus will engage other brain areas, such as
those involved with language, attention, and memory. Such reverberating activity (detected by brain
scans) is a telltale sign of conscious aware ness. How the synchronized activity produces
awareness-how matter makes mind- remains a mystery.

Dual Processing: The Two-Track Mind

Many cognitive neuroscience discoveries tell us of a particular brain region (such as the visual cortex
mentioned above) that becomes active with a particular conscious experience. Such findings strike
many people as interesting but not mind-blowing. (If everything psy- chological is simultaneously
biological, then our ideas, emotions, and spirituality must all, somehow, be embodied.) What is
mind-blowing to many of us is the growing evidence that we have, so to speak, two minds, each
supported by its own neural equipment.

At any moment, you and I are aware of little more than what's on the screen of our con- sciousness.
But beneath the surface, unconscious information processing occurs simultane- ously on many
parallel tracks. When we look at a bird flying, we are consciously aware of the result of our cognitive
processing ("It's a hummingbird!") but not of our subprocessing of the bird's color, form, movement,
and distance. One of the grand ideas of recent cogni- tive neuroscience is that much of our brain work
occurs off stage, out of sight. Perception, memory, thinking, language, and attitudes all operate on two
levels-a conscious, deliberate "high road" and an unconscious, automatic "low road." Today's
researchers call this dual processing. We know more than we know we know. Sometimes science
confirms widely held beliefs. Other times, as this next story illus- trates, science is stranger than
science fiction.

The Brain Plasticity

Brain Plasticity is also called as Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to change and adapt due to
experience. It is an umbrella term referring to the brain's ability to change, reorganize, or grow neural
networks. This can involve functional changes due to brain damage or structural changes due to
learning.

Plasticity refers to the brain's malleability or ability to change; it does not imply that the brain is plastic.
Neuro refers to neurons, the nerve cells that are the building blocks of the brain and nervous system.
Thus, neuroplasticity allows nerve cells to change or adjust.

it's understood that the brain's neuroplasticity allows it to reorganize pathways, create new
connections, and, in some cases, even create new neurons. There are two main types of
neuroplasticity:
● Functional plasticity is the brain's ability to move functions from a damaged area of the brain
to other undamaged areas.
 16

● Structural plasticity is the brain's ability to actually change its physical structure as a result of
learning.

Understanding Structure of The Neuron

Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system.

They receive and transmit signals to different parts of the
body. This is carried out in both physical and electrical
forms. There are several different types of neurons that
facilitate the transmission of information.

The sensory neurons carry information from the sensory

receptor cells present throughout the body to the brain.
Whereas, the motor neurons transmit information from
the brain to the muscles. The interneurons transmit
information between different neurons in the body.A
neuron varies in shape and size depending on its function
and location. All neurons have three different parts –
dendrites, cell body and axon.

Parts of Neuron
Following are the different parts of a neuron:
Dendrites
These are branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons and allow the
transmission of messages to the cell body. The receiving part of the neuron. Dendrites receive
synaptic inputs from axons, with the sum total of dendritic inputs determining whether the neuron will
fire an action potential.

Cell Body/ Soma

Each neuron has a cell body with a nucleus, Golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and
other components.The soma is the body of the neuron. As it contains the nucleus, most protein
synthesis occurs here. The nucleus can range from 3 to 18 micrometers in diameter.

Axon
Axon is a tube-like structure that carries electrical impulse from the cell body to the axon terminals
that pass the impulse to another neuron. It is the long, thin structure in which action potentials are
generated; the transmitting part of the neuron. After initiation, action potentials travel down axons to
cause release of neurotransmitters.

Synapse
It is the chemical junction between the terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another
neuron.Neuron-to-neuron connections are made onto the dendrites and cell bodies of other neurons.
These connections, known as synapses, are the sites at which information is carried from the first
neuron, the presynaptic neuron, to the target neuron (the postsynaptic neuron). The synaptic
connections between neurons and skeletal muscle cells are generally called neuromuscular junctions,
and the connections between neurons and smooth muscle cells or glands are known as neuroeffector
junctions. At most synapses and junctions, information is transmitted in the form of chemical
messengers called neurotransmitters.

Axon Terminal
The axon terminal is found at the end of the axon farthest from the soma and contains synapses.
Synaptic boutons are specialized structures where neurotransmitter chemicals are released to
 17

communicate with target neurons. In addition to synaptic boutons at the axon terminal, a neuron may
have en passant boutons, which are located along the length of the axon.

Schwann Cell
Schwann cell, also called neurilemma cell, any of the cells in the peripheral nervous system that
produce the myelin sheath around neuronal axons. Schwann cells are named after German
physiologist Theodor Schwann, who discovered them in the 19th century. These cells are equivalent
to a type of neuroglia called oligodendrocytes, which occur in the central nervous system.

Communication With Neuron

Neurons are specialized cells in the nervous system that communicate with each other through a
process called neurotransmission. Here is a brief overview of how neurons communicate with each
other:

1. Resting potential: Neurons are surrounded by a fluid called extracellular fluid, which contains a high
concentration of positively charged ions such as sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca2+), and a low
concentration of negatively charged ions such as chloride (Cl-) and potassium (K+). Inside the
neuron, there is a high concentration of K+ ions and negatively charged molecules called proteins.
The difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the neuron is called the resting
potential, which is typically around -70 millivolts (mV).

2. Action potential: When a neuron receives a signal from another neuron or from a sensory receptor,
it can trigger an action potential, which is a rapid change in the neuron's membrane potential. This
change is caused by the movement of ions across the membrane, which creates an electrical current.
If the membrane potential reaches a threshold level, typically around -55 mV, it triggers the opening of
voltage-gated sodium channels, which allows Na+ ions to rush into the neuron. This causes the
membrane potential to become more positive, which triggers the opening of more sodium channels
and creates a positive feedback loop that rapidly depolarizes the neuron.

3. Neurotransmitter release: Once the action potential reaches the end of the axon, it triggers the
release of neurotransmitters from specialized structures called synaptic vesicles. The
neurotransmitters diffuse across a small gap called the synapse and bind to receptors on the
membrane of the next neuron, or on other types of cells such as muscle cells or gland cells.

4. Receptor activation: When a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor, it can trigger a variety of

responses in the postsynaptic cell, depending on the type of receptor and the specific
neurotransmitter involved. For example, some neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin can
activate ion channels directly, while others such as glutamate and GABA can modulate the activity of
ion channels indirectly through intracellular signaling pathways.

Overall, the process of neurotransmission is a complex and highly regulated process that allows
neurons to communicate with each other and coordinate behavior and cognition in the brain and
nervous system.
 18

Communication Between Neuron

Neurons communicate with each other through

a complex process involving both chemical and
electrical signals. When a neuron receives a
signal from other neurons, it generates an
electrical impulse called an action potential,
which travels along the length of the neuron's
axon to the synapse.

At the synapse, the action potential triggers the

release of neurotransmitters, which are
chemical messengers that bind to receptors on
the neighboring neuron's dendrites. This
binding causes a change in the voltage of the
receiving neuron, which may trigger the
generation of a new action potential,
propagating the signal forward.

The communication between neurons is an

incredibly complex process, involving the integration of information from many different inputs and the
modulation of the signal's strength and timing by various factors, such as synaptic plasticity,
neurotransmitter availability, and neural networks' architecture. The combination of these mechanisms
allows for the intricate and flexible processing of information in the brain, which underlies our ability to
perceive, think, and act.

Module III : Neurotransmitters and Hormones

Understanding the role of major Neurotransmitters

Adrenaline
Adrenaline, also known as Epinephrine, is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone. It plays an
important role in your body's "fight-or-flight" response. It's also used as a medication to treat many
life-threatening conditions.

As a central nervous system neurotransmitter, it's a chemical messenger that helps transmit nerve
signals across nerve endings to another nerve cell, muscle cell or gland cell.

As a neurotransmitter, epinephrine plays a small role. Only a small amount is produced in your
nerves. It plays a role in metabolism, attention, focus, panic and excitement. Abnormal levels are
linked to sleep disorders, anxiety, hypertension and lowered immunity.

Epinephrine's major action is in its role as a hormone. Epinephrine is released by your adrenal glands
in response to stress. This reaction causes a number of changes in your body and is known as the
fight-or-flight response.

Noradrenaline
Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone. It plays an
important role in your body’s “fight-or-flight” response. As a medication, norepinephrine is used to
increase and maintain blood pressure in limited, short-term serious health situations. As a
 19

neurotransmitter, it’s a chemical messenger that helps transmit nerve signals across nerve endings to
another nerve cell, muscle cell or gland cell. As a hormone, it’s released by your adrenal glands,
which are hat-shaped glands that sit on top of each kidney.

As a neurotransmitter, norepinephrine is made from dopamine. Norepinephrine is made from nerve

cells in the brainstem area of your brain and in an area near your spinal cord.

As a neurotransmitter in your brain and spinal cord, norepinephrine:

● Increases alertness, arousal and attention.
● Constricts blood vessels, which helps maintain blood pressure in times of stress.
● Affects your sleep-wake cycle, mood and memory.
Health conditions that result from low levels of norepinephrine include:
● Anxiety.
● Depression.
● Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
● Headaches.
● Memory problems.
● Sleeping problems.

You can increase your levels of norepinephrine naturally by:

● Exercising regularly (30 minutes a day at least five days a week).
● Getting an adequate amount of sleep (try to get seven to nine hours a night).
● Listening to music or doing something that brings you joy (feeling happy increases the release
of norepinephrine).

Dopamine
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter made in your brain. It plays a role as a "reward center" and in many
body functions, including memory, movement, motivation, mood, attention and more. High or low
dopamine levels are associated with diseases including Parkinson's disease, restless legs syndrome
and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Dopamine plays a role in many body functions. As a neurotransmitter, dopamine is involved in:
● Movement
● Memory
● Pleasurable reward and motivation
● Behaviour and cognition
● Attention
● Sleep and arousal
● Mood
● Learning

As a hormone, dopamine is released into your bloodstream. It plays a small role in the "fight-or-flight"
syndrome. The fight-or-flight response refers to your body's response to a perceived or real stressful
situation, such as needing to escape danger.

Dopamine also:
● Causes blood vessels to relax (at low doses, it acts as a vasodilator) or constrict (at high
doses, it acts as a vasoconstrictor).
● Increases sodium (salt) and urine removal from your body.
● Reduces insulin production in your pancreas.
● Slows gastrointestinal (gut) content movement and protects your GI lining.
● Reduces lymphocyte activity in your immune system.
 20

Dopamine is known as the "feel-good" hormone. It gives you a sense of pleasure. It also gives you the
motivation to do something when you're feeling pleasure.

If you have the right balance of dopamine, you feel:

Happy, Motivated, Alert and Focused.

If you have a low dopamine level, you might feel:

Tired, Unmotivated,Unhappy, Memory loss, Mood swings, Sleep problems and Concentration
problems.

Serotonin
Serotonin is a chemical that carries messages between nerve cells in the brain and throughout your
body. Serotonin plays a key role in such body functions as mood, sleep, digestion, nausea, wound
healing, bone health, blood clotting and sexual desire. Serotonin levels that are too low or too high
can cause physical and psychological health problems.

As a neurotransmitter, serotonin carries messages between nerve cells in your brain (your central
nervous system) and throughout your body (your peripheral nervous system). These chemical
messages tell your body how to work.

Serotonin plays several roles in your body, including influencing learning, memory, happiness as well
as regulating body temperature, sleep, sexual behavior and hunger. Lack of enough serotonin is
thought to play a role in depression, anxiety, mania and other health conditions.

Most of the serotonin found in your body is in your gut (intestines). About 90% of serotonin is found in
the cells lining your gastrointestinal tract. It’s released into your blood circulation and absorbed by
platelets. Only about 10% is produced in your brain.
Serotonin plays a role in many of your body’s functions:
Mood: Serotonin in your brain regulates your mood. It’s often called your body’s natural “feel good”
chemical. When serotonin is at normal levels, you feel more focused, emotionally stable, happier and
calmer. Low levels of serotonin are associated with depression. Many medications used to treat
anxiety, depression and other mood disorders often target ways to increase the level of serotonin in
your brain.

Digestion: Most of your body’s serotonin is in your GI tract where it helps control your bowel function
and plays a role in protecting your gut. Your gut can increase serotonin release to speed digestion to
rid your body of irritating foods or toxic products. Serotonin also plays a part in reducing your appetite
while eating.

Nausea: Nausea is triggered when serotonin is released into your gut faster than it can be digested.
The chemical message is received by your brain, which you perceive as nausea. Many drugs used to
reduce feelings of nausea and vomiting target specific serotonin receptors in your brain.

Sleep: Serotonin, together with another neurotransmitter dopamine, plays a role in the quality of your
sleep (how well and how long you sleep). Your brain also needs serotonin to make melatonin, a
hormone that regulates your sleep-wake cycle.

Wound healing: Serotonin is released by platelets in your blood to help heal wounds. It also causes
the tiniest blood vessels, arterioles, to narrow, which slows blood flow and helps clots to form. This is
an important process in wound healing.
 21

Bone health: Serotonin levels may play a role in the density of your bones. High levels of serotonin in
your gut may play a role in making bones weak, which can lead to bone breaks (fractures) and
osteoporosis.

Low levels of serotonin may be associated with many health conditions including:
Depression and other mood problems.,Anxiety.,Sleep problems.,Digestive problems.,Suicidal
behavior.,Obsessive-compulsive disorder.,Post-traumatic stress disorder.,Panic disorders.,
Schizophrenia., Phobias.
Scientists still have a lot to learn about the role of serotonin in the body and in disease.

Ways to increase serotonin levels include:

● Eating more tryptophan-containing foods.
● Getting more sunlight.
● Taking certain supplements.
● Getting more exercise and lowering your stress level.

GABA
GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter. It lessens a nerve cell’s ability to receive, create or send
chemical messages to other nerve cells. Many medical conditions are associated with changing levels
of GABA. Multiple medications target the GABA receptor. More evidence is needed to learn if GABA
supplements and GABA-containing foods can help prevent or treat disease.

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a neurotransmitter, a chemical messenger in your brain. It slows

down your brain by blocking specific signals in your central nervous system (your brain and spinal
cord).

GABA is known for producing a calming effect. It’s thought to play a major role in controlling nerve cell
hyperactivity associated with anxiety, stress and fear. GABA is the most common inhibitory
neurotransmitter in your central nervous system. Inhibitory neurotransmitters prevent or block
chemical messages and decrease the stimulation of nerve cells in your brain.

By slowing certain brain functions, GABA is thought to be able to:

● Reduce stress.
● Relieve anxiety.
● Improve sleep.

Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in memory, learning, attention, arousal and
involuntary muscle movement. Medical conditions associated with low acetylcholine levels include
Alzheimer’s disease and myasthenia gravis. Researchers still need more studies to determine if
choline supplements provide health benefits.

Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter, a chemical that carries messages from your brain to your
body through nerve cells. It’s an excitatory neurotransmitter. This means it “excites” the nerve cell and
causes it to “fire off the message.”

Acetylcholine has many roles.

When it binds to muscarinic receptors, it:
● Regulates heart contractions and blood pressure and decreases heart rate.
● Moves food through your intestine by contracting intestinal muscles and increasing stomach
and intestine secretions.
● Causes glands to secrete substances such as tears, saliva, milk, sweat and digestive juices.
 22

● Controls the release of urine.

● Contracts muscles that control near vision.
● Causes an erection.
When it binds to nicotinic receptors, it:
● Allows skeletal muscle to contract.
● Causes the release of adrenaline and norepinephrine from your adrenal glands.
● Activates your sympathetic system with the release of norepinephrine.
Both types of receptors are involved in memory, including long-term and working memory, memory
formation and consolidation and retrieval. Within your brain, acetylcholine is also involved in
motivation, arousal, attention, learning and promoting rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.

Glutamate
Glutamate is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter released by nerve cells in your brain. It
plays a major role in learning and memory. For your brain to function properly, glutamate needs to be
present in the right concentration in the right places at the right time. Too much glutamate is
associated with such diseases as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and Huntington's disease.

In your brain, glutamate is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter. An excitatory

neurotransmitter excites or stimulates a nerve cell, making it more likely that the chemical message
will continue to move from nerve cell to nerve cell and not be stopped. Glutamate is essential for
proper brain function.

Glutamate is recycled and made by glial cells in your brain. Glial cells convert "used" glutamate to
glutamine, which is converted back again into glutamate when delivered back to the terminal area of
nerve cells.

Glutamate's functions include:

● Learning and memory
● Chemical messenger
● Sleep-wake cycle manager
● Pain signaler:- Higher levels of glutamate are associated with an increase in pain levels.

Endorphins
Endorphins are hormones that are released when your body feels pain or stress. They are produced
in your brain and act as messengers in your body. Endorphins are produced to help relieve pain,
reduce stress and improve mood. Endorphins can be boosted by exercising, eating, having sex,
getting a massage and many other ways.

Endorphins are chemicals (hormones) your body releases when it feels pain or stress. They're
released during pleasurable activities such as exercise, massage, and eating. Endorphins help relieve
pain, reduce stress and improve your sense of well-being.

Endorphins are created in your pituitary gland and hypothalamus, both located in the brain.
Endorphins are a type of neurotransmitter, or messenger in your body. They attach to your brain's
reward centers (opioid receptors) and carry signals across your nervous system.
 23

Understanding Hormonal Basis of Behavior: Structure and Function of The

Endocrine System
Endocrine system is made up of several organs called glands. These glands, located all over your
body, create and secrete (release) hormones. Hormones are chemicals that coordinate different
functions in your body by carrying messages through your blood to your organs, skin, muscles and
other tissues. These signals tell your body what to do and when to do it. Endocrine system
continuously monitors the amount of hormones in your blood. Hormones deliver their messages by
locking into the cells they target so they can relay the message.
Endocrine glands have no ducts and secrete their chemicals directly into the bloodstream. The
chemicals secreted by this type of gland are called hormones. As mentioned earlier in the chapter
when talking about the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, these hormones flow
into the bloodstream, which carries them to their target organs. The molecules of these hormones
then fit into receptor sites on those organs to fulfil their function, af- fecting behaviour as they do so.
As compared to synaptic communication, endocrine com- munication is generally slower due to the
time it takes hormones to travel to target organs, and the behaviours and responses they affect may
not occur until hours, weeks, or years later.The hormones affect behaviour and emotions by
stimulating muscles, organs, or other glands of the body.

The endocrine system is made up of organs called glands. Glands produce and release different
hormones that target specific things in the body. You have glands all over your body, including in your
neck, brain and reproductive organs. Some glands are tiny, about the size of a grain of rice or a pea.
The largest gland is the pancreas, which is about 6 inches long.

The main glands that produce

hormones include:
Hypothalamus: This gland is
located in your brain and controls
your endocrine system. It uses
information from your nervous
system to determine when to tell
other glands, including the
pituitary gland, to produce
hormones. The hypothalamus
controls many processes in your
body, including your mood, hunger
and thirst, sleep patterns and
sexual function.
 24

Pituitary: This little gland is only about the size of a pea, but it has a big job. It makes hormones that
control several other glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, ovaries and testicles. The
pituitary gland is in charge of many different functions, including how your body grows. It’s located at
the base of your brain.

Thyroid: Your thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. It’s responsible for your
metabolism (how your body uses energy).

Parathyroid: These four tiny glands are no larger than a grain of rice. They control the level of calcium
in your body. For your heart, kidneys, bones and nervous system to work, you need the right amount
of calcium.

Adrenal: You have two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. They control your metabolism,
blood pressure, sexual development and response to stress.

Pineal: This gland manages your sleep cycle by releasing melatonin, a hormone that causes you to
feel sleepy.

Pancreas: Your pancreas is part of your endocrine system, and it plays a significant role in your
digestive system too. It makes a hormone called insulin that controls the level of sugar in your blood.

Ovaries: In women, the ovaries release sex hormones called estrogen, progesterone and
testosterone. Women have two ovaries in their lower abdomen, one on either side.

Testes: In men, the testes (testicles) make sperm and release the hormone testosterone. This
hormone affects sperm production, muscle strength and sex drive.

Hormonal Imbalance and its effect on Behavior.

A hormonal imbalance happens when you have too much or too little of one or more hormones —
your body’s chemical messengers. It’s a broad term that can represent many different
hormone-related conditions.A hormonal imbalance happens when you have too much or too little of
one or more hormones. It’s a broad term that can represent many different hormone-related
conditions.

Hormones are powerful signals. For many hormones, having even slightly too much or too little of
them can cause major changes to your body and lead to certain conditions that require treatment.

Some hormonal imbalances can be temporary while others are chronic (long-term). In addition, some
hormonal imbalances require treatment so you can stay physically healthy, while others may not
impact your health but can negatively affect your quality of life.

Dozens of medical conditions are caused by hormone issues. For most hormones, having too much
or too little of them causes symptoms and issues with your health. While many of these imbalances
require treatment, some can be temporary and may go away on their own. Some of the most common
hormone-related conditions include:

Irregular menstruation (periods): Several hormones are involved in the menstrual cycle. Because of
this, an imbalance in any one or several of those hormones can cause irregular periods. Specific
hormone-related conditions that cause irregular periods include polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)
and amenorrhea.
 25

Infertility: Hormonal imbalances are the leading cause of infertility in people assigned female at birth.
Hormone-related conditions such as PCOS and anovulation can cause infertility. People assigned
male at birth can also experience hormonal imbalances that affect fertility, such as low testosterone
levels (hypogonadism).
Acne: Acne is primarily caused by clogged pores. While many factors contribute to the development
of acne, hormone fluctuations, especially during puberty, are a significant factor. Oil glands, including
those in the skin on your face, get stimulated when hormones become active during puberty.
Hormonal acne (adult acne): Hormonal acne (adult acne) develops when hormonal changes increase
the amount of oil your skin produces. This is especially common during pregnancy, menopause and
for people who are taking testosterone therapy.
Diabetes: In the United States, the most common endocrine (hormone-related) condition is diabetes.
In diabetes, your pancreas doesn’t make any or enough of the hormone insulin or your body doesn’t
use it properly. There are several different kinds of diabetes. The most common are Type 2 diabetes,
Type 1 diabetes and gestational diabetes. Diabetes requires treatment.
Thyroid disease: The two main types of thyroid disease are hypothyroidism (low thyroid hormone
levels) and hyperthyroidism (high thyroid hormone levels). Each condition has multiple possible
causes. Thyroid disease requires treatment.
Obesity: Many hormones can affect how your body signals that you need food and how your body
uses energy, so an imbalance of certain hormones can result in weight gain in the form of fat storage.
For example, excess cortisol (a hormone) and low thyroid hormones (hypothyroidism) can contribute
to obesity.

Effect On Behavior
The connection between mental health and hormones is that they directly correlate. Hormones like
cortisol, produced by the adrenal glands, have the ability to make us feel stressed out. When people
are stressed out, they will likely have higher levels of cortisol. This hormone impedes chemicals like
dopamine and serotonin, which help regulate sound mood, sleep, and digestion.

While the hormone cortisol can be helpful (small amounts of stress can be good at times), too much of
it can lead to health complications. Namely anxiety disorders can manifest as a result of too much
cortisol, but physical conditions may arise as well. Cushing’s disease is one health disorder that
results in weight issues, physical deformation, and anxiety.

Module IV: Understanding Physiological Mechanisms of Sleep and

Emotional Behavior

Sleep: Types (REM & NREM)

Sleep is a recurring state of relaxation that is characterized by an altered state of consciousness,
inhibited sensory activity, muscular inhibition, and severely reduced interaction with outside entities.
Sleep is an important part of our lives. It improves physical and mental health.

We may think nothing is happening when you sleep. But parts of your brain are quite active during
sleep. And enough sleep (or lack of it) affects your physical and mental health. When you sleep, your
body has a chance to rest and restore energy. A good night’s sleep can help you cope with stress,
solve problems or recover from illness. Not getting enough sleep can lead to many health concerns,
affecting how you think and feel.

During the night, you cycle through two types of sleep: non-rapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep and
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Your brain and body act differently during these different phases.
 26

Our sleep is made up of 2 types of sleep:

1. Non-REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep, which is where our brain is quieter and slows down.
2. REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep where the brain is more active and we are more inclined
to dream.

Stages of Sleep
Initially There were 5 Stages of Sleep. Sleep used to be divided into five different stages, but this was
changed by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) in 2007. Then on, there are 4 stages
of Sleep.

NREM Stage 1
The first stage of the sleep cycle is a transition period between
wakefulness and sleep. If you awaken someone during this
stage, they might report that they were not asleep.During
stage 1 sleep:
● Your brain slows down
● Your heartbeat, your eye movements, and your
breathing slow with it
● Your body relaxes, and your muscles may twitch
This brief period of sleep lasts for around five to 10 minutes. The brain is still relatively active and
producing high amplitude theta waves, which are slow brain waves occurring primarily in the brain’s
frontal lobe.

NREM Stage 2
People spend about half of their total sleep time during NREM stage 2, which lasts for about 20
minutes per cycle. During stage 2 sleep:
● You become less aware of your surroundings
● Your body temperature drops
● Your eye movements stop
● Your breathing and heart rate become more regular
The brain also begins to produce bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain wave activity, which are known as
sleep spindles. They are thought to be a feature of memory consolidation—when your brain gathers,
processes, and filters new memories you acquired the previous day.

While this is occurring, your body slows down in preparation for NREM stage 3 sleep and REM
sleep—the deep sleep stages when the brain and body repair, restore, and reset for the coming day.

NREM Stage 3
Deep, slow brain waves known as delta waves begin to emerge during NREM stage 3 sleep—a stage
that is also referred to as delta sleep. This is a period of deep sleep where any environmental noises
or activity may fail to wake the sleeping person.

Sleepwalking typically occurs during NREM stage 3 sleep. It is more common in the early part of your
night’s sleep. Children and young adults are more likely to sleepwalk than older adults.During NREM
stage 3 sleep:
● Your muscles are completely relaxed
● Your blood pressure drops and breathing slows
● You progress into your deepest sleep
During this deep sleep stage, your body starts its physical repairs. Getting enough NREM stage 3
sleep makes you feel refreshed the next day.
 27

Meanwhile, your brain consolidates declarative memories—for example, general knowledge, facts or
statistics, personal experiences, and other things you have learned.

Stage 4: REM Sleep

While your brain is aroused with mental activities during REM sleep, the fourth stage of sleep, your
voluntary muscles become immobilized.
During REM sleep, your brain’s activity most closely resembles its activity during waking hours.
However, your body is temporarily paralyzed—a good thing, as it prevents you from acting out your
dreams.

REM sleep begins approximately 90 minutes after falling asleep. At this time:
● Your brain lights up with activity
● Your body is relaxed and immobilized
● Your breathing is faster and irregular
● Your eyes move rapidly
● You dream
Like stage 3, memory consolidation also happens during REM sleep. However, it is thought that REM
sleep is when emotions and emotional memories are processed and stored. Your brain also uses this
time to cement information into memory, making it an important stage for learning.

Physiological Mechanism of Sleep and Waking cycle

The physiological mechanism of sleep and waking cycle is a complex process that involves multiple
systems and organs in the body. The two main systems involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle
are the circadian rhythm and the sleep homeostasis.

The circadian rhythm is an internal biological clock that regulates the timing of many physiological
processes, including the sleep-wake cycle. The circadian rhythm is mainly controlled by the
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a small group of cells located in the hypothalamus of the brain. The
SCN receives information about light and dark cycles from the eyes and then sends signals to other
parts of the brain and body to control the release of hormones such as melatonin, which help regulate
sleep.

Sleep homeostasis is another important mechanism involved in the sleep-wake cycle. It is a process
that helps to maintain a balance between the amount of time spent awake and the amount of time
spent asleep. This balance is regulated by a chemical called adenosine, which builds up in the brain
throughout the day as a result of neuronal activity. The more adenosine that accumulates, the greater
the pressure to sleep.

When we are awake, our brains generate electrical activity that is detected by an
electroencephalogram (EEG). The EEG shows that the brain is active and alert during waking hours,
with fast, low-amplitude brain waves known as beta waves. As we become more relaxed and drowsy,
our brain waves slow down and become more synchronized, with larger and slower alpha waves.

As we enter into deeper stages of sleep, our brain waves continue to slow down and become more
synchronized. This is when we enter into slow-wave sleep (SWS), which is characterized by
high-amplitude, low-frequency delta waves.During REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, the brain
becomes more active again, with rapid eye movements and vivid dreaming. REM sleep is also
associated with the release of neurotransmitters like acetylcholine, which are important for memory
consolidation and learning.

Overall, the sleep-wake cycle is regulated by a complex interplay of physiological processes and
neural circuits in the brain.These processes involve the circadian rhythm, sleep homeostasis, and
 28

various neurotransmitters and hormones that help to regulate our state of consciousness throughout
the day and night.

Role of Circadian Rhythms

The circadian rhythm plays a crucial role in regulating many physiological processes in the body,
including the sleep-wake cycle, hormone release, body temperature, and metabolism.

The circadian rhythm is an internal biological clock that is regulated by a group of cells in the brain
called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). The SCN receives information about light and dark cycles
from the eyes and sends signals to other parts of the brain and body to control the release of
hormones such as melatonin, which help regulate sleep.

In addition to regulating the sleep-wake cycle, the circadian rhythm also plays a role in regulating
other bodily functions. For example, the circadian rhythm helps to regulate the timing of hormone
release, including cortisol, which is important for regulating metabolism and the immune system. The
circadian rhythm also helps to regulate body temperature, which tends to be highest in the late
afternoon and lowest in the early morning.

Disruptions to the circadian rhythm, such as those caused by shift work, jet lag, or sleep disorders,
can have negative effects on health and well-being. For example, disruptions to the circadian rhythm
have been linked to increased risk of metabolic disorders, cardiovascular disease, and mental health
disorders. Understanding the role of the circadian rhythm and how to maintain a healthy sleep-wake
cycle is important for overall health and well-being.

Research on the mechanism of circadian rhythms began with insects, where the genetic basis is
easier to explore, be- cause they reproduce in weeks instead of months or years. Studies on the fruit
fly Drosophila discovered genes that gen- erate a circadian rhythm. Two genes, known as period
(abbreviated per) and timeless (tim), produce the proteins Per and Tim. Those proteins start in small
amounts early in the morning and increase during the day. By evening, they reach a high level that
makes the fly sleepy. That high level also feeds back to the genes to shut them down. During the
night, while the genes no longer produce Per or Tim, their concentration declines until the next
morning, when the cycle begins anew. When the Per and Tim levels are high, they interact with a
protein called Clock to induce sleepiness. When they are low, the result is wakefulness. Furthermore,
a pulse of light during the night inactivates the Tim protein, so extra light during the evening
decreases sleepiness and resets the biological clock. Figure 9.8 summarises this feedback
mechanism.

Why do we care about flies? The answer is that after researchers understood the mechanism in flies,
they found very similar genes and proteins in mammals. In mammals, light alters the production of the
 29

Per and Tim proteins, which in- crease the activity of certain neurons in the SCN.Understanding these
mechanisms helps make sense of some unusual sleep disorders. Mice with damage to their clock
gene, which interacts with the per and tim genes, sleep less than normal and presumably, some
cases of decreased sleep in humans might have the same cause. Various genes mod- ify the activity
of the clock and period genes, and mice with a mu- tation in one of the modifier genes, known as
overtime, produce circadian rhythms lasting 26 hours instead of 24. Any people with a similar
mutation would have extreme difficulty waking up at the normal time. They would feel as if they were
moving two time zones east every day.

One mutation of the period gene has been found in hu- mans. People with this mutation have a
circadian rhythm that runs faster than 24 hours, as if they were moving one or two time zones west
every day. They con- sistently get sleepy early in the evening and awaken early in the morning. Most
people look forward to days when they can stay up late and then sleep late the next morning. People
with the altered period gene look forward to days when they have the opportunity to go to bed even
earlier than usual and waken especially early the next day. Most people with this sleep abnormality
suffer from depression.

Melatonin
The SCN regulates waking and sleeping by controlling ac- tivity levels in other brain areas, including
the pineal gland, an endocrine gland located just posterior to the thalamus. The pineal gland releases
the hormone melatonin, which influences both circadian and circannual rhythms.The human pineal
gland secretes melato- nin mostly at night, making us sleepy at that time. When people shift to a new
time zone and start following a new schedule, they continue to feel sleepy at their old times un- til the
melatonin rhythm shifts. People who have pineal gland tumors sometimes stay awake for days at a
time.

Melatonin secretion starts to increase about 2 or 3 hours before bedtime. Taking a melatonin pill in the
evening has lit- tle effect on sleepiness because the pineal gland produces mel- atonin at that time
anyway. However, people who take mela- tonin at other times become sleepy within 2 hours.
Melatonin pills are sometimes helpful when people travel across time zones or for any other reason
need to sleep at an unaccustomed time.

Melatonin also feeds back to reset the biological clock through its effects on receptors in the SCN. A
moderate dose of melatonin (0.5 mg) in the afternoon phase-advances the clock. That is, it makes the
person get sleepy earlier in the evening and wake up earlier the next morning. A single dose of
melatonin in the morning has little effect, although repeated morning doses can phase-delay the
clock, causing the person to get sleepy later than usual at night and awaken later the next morning.
Taking melatonin has become something of a fad. Melatonin is an antioxidant, so it has some health
benefits.

Role of Superchiasmatic Nucleus

The biological clock depends on part of the hypothalamus,

called the suprachiasmatic (soo-pruh-kie-as-MAT-ik)
nucleus, or SCN. It gets its name from its location just
above ("supra") the optic chiasm. The SCN provides the
main control of the circadian rhythms for sleep and body
temperature, although several other brain areas generate
local rhythms. After damage to the SCN, the body's rhythms
are less consistent and no longer synchronized to
environmental patterns of light and dark. The SCN
generates circadian rhythms itself in a geneti- cally
 30

controlled, unlearned manner. If SCN neurons are dis- connected from the rest of the brain or
removed from the body and maintained in tissue culture, they continue to produce a circadian rhythm
of action potentials. Even a single isolated SCN cell can maintain a circadian rhythm, although
interactions among cells sharpen the accuracy of the rhythm.

A mutation in one gene causes hamsters' SCN to produce a 20-hour instead of 24-hour rhythm.
Researchers surgically removed the SCN from adult hamsters and transplanted SCN tissue from
hamster fetuses into the adults. When they transplanted SCN tissue from fetuses with a 20-hour
rhythm, the recipients produced a 20-hour rhythm. When they transplanted tissue from fetuses with a
24-hour rhythm, the recipients produced a 24-hour rhythm. That is, the rhythm followed the pace of
the donors, not the recipients. Again, the results show that the rhythms come from the SCN itself.

Sleep and Thermoregulation

Sleep and thermoregulation are closely interconnected processes in the body. Thermoregulation
refers to the ability of the body to maintain a stable internal temperature, despite changes in the
external environment. Sleep, on the other hand, is a complex physiological process that is essential
for rest and recovery.

During sleep, the body undergoes several changes in temperature regulation. Generally, the body's
core temperature drops during the night, and this drop in temperature is thought to be essential for
initiating and maintaining sleep. The body's temperature regulation system is controlled by the
hypothalamus, which coordinates the body's response to temperature changes in the environment.

Research has shown that when the body's core temperature drops, it triggers a signal to the brain to
initiate sleep. Conversely, when the body's temperature is elevated, it can interfere with the initiation
and maintenance of sleep. Therefore, creating a cool and comfortable sleeping environment is
essential for promoting good sleep quality.

Moreover, thermoregulation can also be affected by sleep itself. For example, during rapid eye
movement (REM) sleep, which is a phase of sleep associated with vivid dreams, the body's
temperature regulation system is impaired, and the body's core temperature increases. This increase
in temperature is thought to play a role in the regulation of brain function during REM sleep.

In summary, sleep and thermoregulation are closely intertwined processes in the body. Maintaining a
cool and comfortable sleeping environment is essential for promoting good sleep quality, and
disruptions in thermoregulation can affect the initiation and maintenance of sleep.

Changes in Sleep with age

Sleep patterns and needs change throughout the lifespan, with notable changes occurring during
childhood, adolescence, and aging. Here are some of the changes that occur in sleep with age:

(1)Infants and children: Newborns sleep for most of the day and night, but they have short sleep
cycles that last only a few hours. As they grow, their sleep becomes more consolidated, and they tend
to sleep for longer periods at night. During childhood, the total amount of sleep needed gradually
decreases, and daytime naps become less frequent.

(2)Adolescents: Teenagers need around 8-10 hours of sleep per night, but their sleep-wake patterns
shift to later in the evening and morning due to changes in their circadian rhythms. This shift is often
accompanied by difficulty falling asleep at night and excessive daytime sleepiness.
 31

(3)Adults: In adulthood, the total amount of sleep needed remains relatively constant at around 7-8
hours per night. However, the quality of sleep may be affected by factors such as stress, shift work,
and lifestyle choices.

(4)Aging: As we age, our sleep patterns tend to change. Older adults tend to have more fragmented
sleep with more awakenings during the night. They may also experience a decrease in the amount of
deep sleep and an increase in light sleep. Older adults may also have difficulty falling asleep and
staying asleep, leading to daytime sleepiness.

Overall, it's important to remember that individual sleep needs and patterns can vary widely,
regardless of age. While some changes in sleep may be inevitable with age, maintaining healthy
sleep habits and seeking treatment for sleep disorders can help promote good sleep throughout life.

Emotions: James Lange Theory

Emotions:- Emotions are complex psychological and physiological states that are triggered by internal
or external events and are typically accompanied by subjective feelings, physiological changes, and
behavioral responses. Emotions can be positive or negative, and they play a significant role in
shaping our thoughts, behaviors, and overall well-being.

James Lange Theory

The James-Lange theory of emotion is a psychological theory that proposes that emotions are a result
of physiological reactions to external events, rather than the other way around. This theory was first
proposed by William James and Carl Lange in the late 19th century and has been influential in the
field of psychology ever since.

According to the James-Lange theory, an individual's emotional experience is the result of their
interpretation of physiological reactions to a stimulus. For example, if you see a snake, your body may
produce a physiological response such as increased heart rate, sweating, and trembling. The theory
suggests that you then interpret these bodily sensations as fear, which leads to the experience of
feeling afraid.

In other words, the James-Lange theory proposes that the bodily response comes first, and the
emotional experience comes second. This is in contrast to other theories of emotion that propose that
emotional experience is a result of cognitive processes, such as appraisal or evaluation of an event.
While the James-Lange theory of emotion has been influential in the field of psychology, it has also
been subject to criticism. Some critics argue that emotions are more complex than simply being the
result of physiological responses, and that cognitive processes play a more significant role in
emotional experience than the theory suggests. Nonetheless, the James-Lange theory remains an
important contribution to the understanding of emotions and their relationship to physiological
processes.

Brain areas associated with emotions

Emotions involve complex interactions among different regions of the brain. Here are some of the key
brain areas associated with emotions:

(1)Amygdala: The amygdala is a small almond-shaped structure located in the temporal lobe of the
brain. It plays a crucial role in the processing of emotions, particularly fear and anxiety.
(2)Prefrontal cortex: The prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain that is responsible for
decision-making, planning, and social behavior. It also plays a role in regulating emotions and
emotional responses.
(3)Hippocampus: The hippocampus is involved in the formation of new memories, but it also plays a
role in emotional regulation and responses to stress.
 32

(4)Insula: The insula is a part of the brain that is involved in the processing of emotions, as well as
interoceptive awareness (the perception of bodily sensations).
(5)Basal ganglia: The basal ganglia are a group of structures located deep within the brain that are
involved in the regulation of movement, but they also play a role in emotional processing and
reward-based learning.
(6)Cingulate cortex: The cingulate cortex is involved in a range of functions, including attention,
emotion, and pain processing.
(7)Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus plays a key role in regulating the autonomic nervous system,
which controls bodily functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature. It is also
involved in the regulation of emotional responses, particularly in relation to stress and fear.

These brain areas are interconnected and work together to process and regulate emotional
experiences. Dysfunction in any of these areas can lead to emotional disorders such as depression,
anxiety, or bipolar disorder. Understanding the neural basis of emotions is important for developing
treatments for emotional disorders and improving overall mental health.

Physiological Basis of Aggression

Aggression is a complex behavior that can be influenced by a range of physiological and
environmental factors. Here are some of the key physiological factors that have been associated with
aggression:

1. Hormones: Hormones such as testosterone and cortisol have been linked to aggressive behavior.
Testosterone is associated with increased aggression in both males and females, while cortisol, a
stress hormone, has been linked to aggression in response to stressors.

2. Neurotransmitters: Neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine have also

been linked to aggressive behavior. Low levels of serotonin have been associated with increased
aggression, while dopamine and norepinephrine have been associated with impulsive and reactive
aggression.

3. Brain regions: Certain brain regions have also been linked to aggressive behavior. The amygdala,
which is involved in the processing of emotions such as fear and anger, has been linked to impulsive
aggression. The prefrontal cortex, which is involved in impulse control and decision-making, has been
linked to proactive aggression.

4. Genetics: Genetics may also play a role in aggressive behavior. Research has suggested that
genetic factors may account for up to 50% of individual differences in aggression.

It's important to note that while these physiological factors may influence aggressive behavior, they
are not the sole determinant of such behavior. Environmental factors such as social context,
upbringing, and life experiences also play a role in the development of aggressive behavior.

Understanding the physiological basis of aggression is important for developing interventions and
treatments for individuals who struggle with aggressive behavior. Treatments may include
pharmacological interventions to target hormones or neurotransmitters, as well as psychotherapy to
address underlying emotional and behavioral issues.

Violence and Fear

Violence and fear are closely related, as the experience of fear can lead to violent behavior in some
individuals. Here are some ways in which violence and fear are related:
 33

1. Fear as a trigger for violence: Fear can be a powerful motivator for violent behavior. When an
individual feels threatened or afraid, their fight-or-flight response may be triggered, leading to
aggressive behavior. This can be seen in situations such as domestic violence, where an abuser may
use fear and intimidation to control their partner.

2. Fear as a response to violence: On the other hand, individuals who have experienced violence may
develop a persistent sense of fear and anxiety. This can lead to a sense of hypervigilance and a
readiness to respond with violence in order to protect themselves or others.

3. Violence as a response to perceived threats: In some cases, individuals may respond with violence
to perceived threats, even if those threats are not real or justified. This can be seen in cases of hate
crimes, where individuals may respond with violence out of fear or prejudice towards a particular
group.

4. Violence as a means of reducing fear: In some cases, individuals may use violence as a means of
reducing their own fear or anxiety. For example, a bully may use violence to assert dominance over
others and reduce their own feelings of insecurity.

It's important to recognize the complex relationship between violence and fear, and to address both
issues in order to promote safety and wellbeing for individuals and communities. This may involve
interventions such as counseling and therapy, as well as community-based programs to address
issues such as poverty, inequality, and discrimination.

Neural Basis of Communication of emotions: Recognition and Expression

The neural basis of communication of emotions involves two key processes: recognition and
expression.
Recognition of emotions:
The recognition of emotions involves the ability to perceive and interpret emotional signals in others.
This process involves the activation of specific brain regions, including the amygdala, insula, and
prefrontal cortex. The amygdala plays a key role in the processing of emotional signals, particularly
fear and anger, while the insula is involved in the perception of bodily sensations and emotional
awareness. The prefrontal cortex is involved in higher-order processing of emotional information,
including attention, memory, and decision-making. These regions work together to interpret emotional
cues from others and generate an appropriate emotional response.

Expression of emotions:
The expression of emotions involves the ability to communicate emotional states to others through
various modalities, including facial expressions, vocal tone, and body language. This process involves
the activation of specific brain regions, including the motor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. The
motor cortex is responsible for the voluntary control of movement, including the muscles involved in
facial expression and vocalization. The basal ganglia and cerebellum are involved in the regulation of
movement, including the timing and coordination of facial expressions and body language. These
regions work together to produce and modulate emotional expression.

Overall, the neural basis of communication of emotions involves complex interactions among multiple
brain regions, including those involved in the processing and regulation of emotions, as well as those
involved in the perception and expression of emotional cues. Understanding the neural basis of
communication of emotions can help us develop interventions and treatments for individuals who
struggle with recognizing or expressing emotions, as well as improve our overall understanding of the
complex dynamics of social interactions.
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Module V : Understanding Physiology of Learning and Memory

Learning and Memory: Learning and Synaptic Plasticity

Learning and memory are closely related cognitive processes that involve the acquisition, storage,
and retrieval of information. Here is an overview of how learning and memory work:

Learning:
Learning involves the acquisition of new knowledge or skills through experience or instruction. The
process of learning involves changes in the brain that enable the formation of new neural connections
and the strengthening of existing connections. This process can occur through a variety of
mechanisms, including classical conditioning (associating a stimulus with a response), operant
conditioning (associating a behavior with a consequence), and observational learning (learning
through observation and imitation).

Memory:
Memory involves the storage and retrieval of information that has been acquired through learning.
There are three main stages of memory: encoding (the initial processing and acquisition of
information), storage (the retention of information over time), and retrieval (the process of accessing
and using stored information). Memory can be divided into different types, including sensory memory
(brief storage of sensory information), short-term memory (temporary storage of information), and
long-term memory (relatively permanent storage of information).

The neural basis of learning and memory involves complex interactions among multiple brain regions,
including the hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex. The hippocampus is involved in the
formation and retrieval of declarative memory (memory for facts and events), while the amygdala is
involved in the processing and storage of emotional memory. The prefrontal cortex is involved in
working memory (temporary storage and manipulation of information), as well as executive functions
such as attention, planning, and decision-making.

Overall, learning and memory are essential cognitive processes that enable us to acquire and use
new information to adapt and thrive in our environment. Understanding the mechanisms of learning
and memory can help us develop more effective strategies for education and training, as well as
improve treatments for memory disorders such as Alzheimer's disease.

SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY
Synaptic plasticity is a key mechanism underlying learning and memory. It refers to the ability of
synapses, the connections between neurons, to change in strength and structure in response to
experience. Here are some ways in which synaptic plasticity plays a role in learning:

1. Long-term potentiation (LTP): LTP is a process in which the strength of a synapse is increased in
response to repeated activation. This process involves the activation of specific signaling pathways,
including the NMDA receptor and the protein kinase CaMKII, which result in the insertion of new
AMPA receptors into the postsynaptic membrane. LTP is thought to underlie certain types of learning,
such as spatial memory and associative learning.

2. Long-term depression (LTD): LTD is a process in which the strength of a synapse is decreased in
response to prolonged low-level activity. This process involves the removal of AMPA receptors from
the postsynaptic membrane and is thought to play a role in learning and memory by allowing for the
weakening of inappropriate synaptic connections.
 35

3. Structural plasticity: Synaptic plasticity also involves changes in the structure of synapses, including
the growth and retraction of dendritic spines, which are the small protrusions on the dendrites of
neurons that receive synaptic inputs. Structural plasticity is thought to play a role in the formation of
new synapses and the strengthening of existing ones.

Overall, synaptic plasticity is a complex and dynamic process that plays a critical role in learning and
memory. By allowing for the strengthening and weakening of synapses in response to experience,
synaptic plasticity enables us to adapt to our environment and acquire new knowledge and skills.
Understanding the mechanisms of synaptic plasticity can help us develop more effective strategies for
education and training, as well as improve treatments for cognitive disorders such as Alzheimer's
disease.

Instrumental Conditioning: Role of Basal Ganglia

Instrumental conditioning, also known as operant conditioning, is a type of learning in which the
consequences of a behavior influence the likelihood of that behavior being repeated in the future. In
instrumental conditioning, an individual learns to associate a behavior with its consequences, which
can be either positive or negative.

Through instrumental conditioning, individuals learn to associate certain behaviors with positive or
negative consequences and adjust their behavior accordingly. This type of learning can be applied in
a variety of contexts, such as in education, training, and therapy, to help individuals acquire new skills
and behaviors, and to modify existing ones.

Role of Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia are a group of

structures located deep within the
brain that play an important role in a
variety of motor and cognitive
functions, including movement control,
reward processing, and habit
formation. Here are some specific
functions associated with the basal
ganglia:

1. Motor control: The basal ganglia

play a critical role in controlling
movement by modulating signals from
the motor cortex. Specifically, they
help to initiate and sustain voluntary
movements, while inhibiting unwanted
or inappropriate movements. Damage to the basal ganglia can result in movement disorders such as
Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease.

2. Reward processing: The basal ganglia are also involved in processing reward-related information
and guiding motivated behavior. They help to integrate information about the expected value of
different actions, as well as the emotional and motivational significance of rewards and punishments.
Dysfunction in the basal ganglia can lead to disorders of reward processing, such as addiction and
compulsive behaviors.

3. Habit formation: The basal ganglia are also involved in the formation and execution of habits, which
are learned, automatic behaviors that can be performed without conscious effort. They help to store
 36

the associations between specific stimuli and the motor and cognitive responses that lead to reward.
Dysfunction in the basal ganglia can lead to the development of maladaptive habits, such as drug
addiction and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Overall, the basal ganglia play a critical role in a wide range of motor and cognitive functions, and
dysfunction in these structures can have profound effects on behavior and cognition. Understanding
the role of the basal ganglia is important for developing treatments for disorders that affect these
structures, as well as for advancing our understanding of basic brain function.

Brain and Amnesia

Amnesia is a condition characterized by the loss of memory or the inability to form new memories.
The brain structures involved in memory formation and retrieval are complex and include many
different regions that work together to create and store memories. Damage to any of these structures
can result in different forms of amnesia.

Here are some brain structures that are important for memory formation and retrieval:
1. Hippocampus: The hippocampus is a seahorse-shaped structure located in the temporal lobe of the
brain that is involved in the formation and consolidation of new memories. Damage to the
hippocampus can result in anterograde amnesia, which is the inability to form new memories.

2. Amygdala: The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure located in the temporal lobe of the brain
that is involved in the processing and storage of emotional memories. Damage to the amygdala can
result in deficits in emotional memory.

3. Prefrontal cortex: The prefrontal cortex is the region of the brain located in the front part of the
cerebral cortex that is involved in working memory and executive function. Damage to the prefrontal
cortex can result in deficits in working memory and difficulties with planning and decision-making.

4. Basal ganglia: The basal ganglia are a group of structures located deep within the brain that are
involved in the formation and retrieval of procedural memories, which are memories for how to
perform tasks or skills. Damage to the basal ganglia can result in deficits in procedural memory.

5. Thalamus: The thalamus is a structure located deep within the brain that is involved in relaying
sensory information to other parts of the brain. Damage to the thalamus can result in deficits in both
short-term and long-term memory.

Overall, the brain structures involved in memory formation and retrieval are complex and
interconnected, and damage to any of these structures can result in different forms of amnesia.
Understanding the specific brain regions involved in different types of memory can help to develop
more targeted treatments for memory disorders.