BASIC GRAMMAR CONCEPT

PUNCTUATION
SPELLING
BASIC GRAMMAR CONCEPT
Grammar is the system and structure of a language. The rules of grammar help us decide the
order we put words in and which form of a word to use.
When you're talking about grammar, it's useful to know some basic terms. The following are
called parts of speech and they each have their own function.

These are grammar concepts used in teaching ancient Greek. The examples, though, come
mostly from English.

Personification of grammar
We use these concepts not to burden students unnecessarily. Indeed, none of this is going to be
tested. Rather, it's to help make the learning process more efficient. And there's nothing wrong
with learning a little grammar!

Word Groups

sentence. A group of words that together express one or more complete thoughts. Complete
sentences can stand on their own; they don't feel as if they're lacking something.

These are sentences:

 "I am your teacher"

 "When you go out, please close the door"
 "I saw the movie, and then I went home"

These are not complete sentences:

 "Your teacher"
 "For you"
 "When you go out"

clause. In English, a clause expresses a thought, though maybe not a complete one. Some clauses
are full sentences, others are not. In English, a clause (almost?) always contains a verb. In
Greek, the verb may be left out or implied. For instance:

 "I went to bed" (both a clause and a full sentence)

 "When I went to bed, . . ." (a clause, but not a full sentence)
 ὁ Φίλιππος ἀγαθός, ho Philippos agathos, "Philip is good" (Greek often drops the verb "to
be")

phrase. A small group of words that go together, less than a clause:

 "For you"
 "The big, round ball"

Parts of Speech
 We'll be talking about these parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, articles, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions (particles), exclamations (interjections).

noun. Word naming a person, place, or thing:

 book
 person
 highway
 courage
 Greece
 Jennifer
 Stephanos

Nouns
Nouns are the names of people, places, things and ideas. There are four kinds of noun.
 Common nouns - dog, computer, river, biscuit
 Collective nouns (names of a group of something) - a herd of cows, a flock of sheep
 Proper nouns (the names of people, places and so on) - London, Anne, Plain English
Campaign
 Abstract nouns (names of things we can't see or touch) - love, hope, fear, decision, poverty

 The easy way to remember nouns is that they refer to people, places, or things. Even
intangible or abstract concepts like ideas or thoughts are things. In the following sentences, the
nouns are highlighted:
Sally doesn’t use an iPhone . Jared doesn’t eat subs . The Earth is not the center of
the universe .#

pronoun. A word, typically, very short, that takes the place of a noun:

 she
 her
 they
 who
 someone

There are different types of pronoun. I'll use English to illustrate:

 Personal pronouns: "I," "you," "he," she," "it," "they," and their inflected forms
 Demonstrative pronouns that "point" to things: "this," "that"
 Intensive pronouns:
o "She herself" (and no one else, the one and only: "She did it herself," with no one's help, in
person)
o "You yourself," etc.
 Reflexive pronouns (similar in form, different in function, from intensive):
o "They help themselves" (they do it to themselves)
o "I help myself," etc. (contrast "I myself help him")
 Relative pronouns refer to a noun or other pronoun (the antecedent), stated or implied, in the
clause and introduce relative clauses:
o "They who like ice cream should hurry to the ice cream truck" ("they" is the antecedent of the
rel. pronoun "who")
o "The baby that you heard is a newborn"

adjective. A word used to describe, or "modify," a person, place, thing, or pronoun:

 beautiful ("the beautiful picture")

 smart ("she is smart")
 loud ("I like my music loud")
o A special kind of adjective is the participle. That's a verb altered by changing its stem (the part
you add endings to) so it can work like an adjective, i.e., can "modify" nouns and pronouns:
"The man working in the field." "Working" is an adjective modifying "man." But it's also an
action word, a verb, except that its stem, "work-," has had something added to it: "-ing." By
adding "-ing," we've changed the stem. We've made the verb into a participle.

Adjectives agree in case, number, and gender with the nouns or pronouns they modify.

Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns.
For example:
 She wore a blue dress.
 The small dog barked at me.
 A cool breeze made her shiver.

Adjectives are descriptive words that add detail to a sentence. They can give important or
necessary information (e.g., Please hand me the blue paper), or they can just make the
sentence more interesting (e.g. A frigid wind blew around the icy town). Adjectives describe
nouns. Please sew the red dress. The weather is hot and humid . The stuffed toy
is fuzzy and round .

article. We'll only be talking about the "definite" article. In English, it's "the": "the book."

Like adjectives, articles agree with their nouns in case, number, and gender.

Articles
There are two kinds of article: definite and indefinite.
The definite article is 'the'. It is used to identify a specific thing.
The indefinite article is 'a' and 'an'. It is used to refer to something in general.
For example:
 The cat sat on the mat. (We know which cat and which mat.)
 I need a ruler. (We do not need a specific ruler, any will do.)
 The car would struggle to get up a hill. (We can identify which car, but are referring to any
hill.)

verb. A word expressing an action or a state:

 She runs fast
 He sleeps a lot
 Eat your food!
 I am happy

Verbs
Verbs are often known as 'doing words'. They can also show 'having' or 'being'.
For example:
 The horse jumped the fence.
 The rider had a fall.
 The rider is not hurt.
 Verbs are action words: that’s a rather simplified explanation, but it’s the clearest one. Verbs
tell you what the subject of the sentence is up to.
 He ran into the wall. She buys new shoes. The cat licks its fur.

Verb Tenses

Verbs come in past, present, and future tenses. The past is used to describe things that have
already happened (e.g., earlier in the day, yesterday, last week, three years ago). The present
tense is used to describe things that are happening right now, or things that are continuous.
The future tense describes things that have yet to happen (e.g., later, tomorrow, next week,
next year, three years from now).

Past tense I lived here when I was ten. Present tense I live here now. Future tense I will
live there when I am retired.

adverb. A word describing ("modifying") a verb, adjective, or other adverb. Some adverbs
express time or place. Others express manner:

 He runs slowly
 The book is very interesting
 Run very fast!
 Come home tomorrow
 I'm staying here

Adverbs
Adverbs give us extra information about how, where or when a verb happens. For example:
 He drove slowly.
 She spoke loudly.
 The article is well written.

Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or even a whole sentence. Adverbs often end with the
suffix -ly (for example, badly, hungrily), but some look the same as their adjective forms
(for example, the word fast is used as both an adjective and adverb).
particle/conjunction. I.e., linking words.

Regular conjunctions (linking words), English:

 and
 but
 or

Subordinating conjunctions. These are words that introduce "subordinating" clauses that offer
context:

 When the Saints go marching in, I want to be in that number

 I want to show you where the money is

Conjunctions
Conjunctions link words, sentences or parts of a sentence together.
 The rug is blue and cream.
 The road was busy. And it was loud.
 I closed the door but I didn't lock it because I thought she was still inside.
 Conjunctions are words like and, but, and or that connect concepts, clauses, or parts of
sentences.
 I wanted to meet her there on time, but I got stuck in traffic. You can’t wear
socks and sandals.

preposition. Prepositions come before a noun or pronoun and express a relationship between that
noun/pronoun and something else. Preposition + noun or pronoun = prepositional phrase:

 She dances with her friend

 He dances on the floor
 They arrived after you

Prepositions
Prepositions come before nouns or pronouns and usually show a connection.
For example:
 Your pen is on the desk.
 The children went to the park.
 We rested under the tree.
 Jim hid behind the door.

Prepositions are little words that tell where or when (among other things) something is. The
monkey is on his back. The glue is behind the board. The dream catcher is above the bed.

Exclamations (interjections):

 Wow!
 Hey, teacher!

Interjections

Interjections are words like wow and yay. They’re sounds we make to convey extreme
emotion or to create emphasis when we’re talking, sometimes when we can’t think of a good
way to express ourselves. The problem with interjections is that they require a great deal of
context to be understood. For instance, hey can mean hello, or that’s great, or stop doing
that. Hey! How’s it going? Wow! Those fireworks are impressive. Yay! I passed calculus!

Sentence Parts, Sentence "Roles"

Sentences in English and Greek are divided into different parts, with words and phrases
playing special "roles," like actors in a movie or players on a sports team. Note especially the
following roles:

subject. The noun, pronoun, or noun phrase ("the barking dog") that the sentence is all about, the
star of the show, who or what's driving the car. Subjects often (not always) "do" the action or
state:

 He is a teacher
 She drives the car
 The cat chases the mouse

linking verb. Linking verbs connect subjects to complements. The most common linking verbs in
English are "to be" and "to become."

 She is a police officer ("she" subject," "is" linking verb, "police officer" complement)
 He became a teacher

complement. A complement is what "completes" a sentence with a linking verb. It is usually a

noun or adjective:

 She is a police officer

 He became a teacher
 Be good!

intransitive verb. An intransitive verb expresses an action or state that involves no target of the
action/state (no direct object):

 The dog is sleeping

 The cat is running

transitive verb. A transitive verb expresses an action that targets someone or something (the
direct object):

 The dog is chasing the mouse

 Jane rang the bell
 Achilles killed Hector

direct object. The person or thing targeted by a transitive verb:

 The dog is chasing the mouse
 Jane rang the bell
 Achilles killed Hector

NOTE: The complement of a linking verb and the direct object of a transitive verb are two,
entirely different things. In Greek, they will (except in certain special situations) be in entirely
different noun cases (nominative for complements, accusative for direct objects).

indirect object. The person or thing that an action relates to or that it's for, but isn't directly
targeted. In English, often (not always) expressed by a prepositional phrase; in Greek, by the
dative case:

 Jane gave the money to her mother

 Give me the money

Parts of Words

Not all words can be broken up into parts, but many can.

compound words. Compound words are made of more than one word: "bookstore" = "book" +
"store."

root. A word root is a word boiled down to its single most essential element, with nothing added
to it before, after, or inside. In English and in Greek, word roots are very short, often no more
than two consonants plus a vowel. Roots can travel between different parts of speech.
Sometimes, the root can function all by itself, as its own little word ("and"). Sometimes you
need to add something. New words (aka, derivatives), or new forms of the same word, come
from adding to the root:

 sun (root) >

o sun-ny (derived adjective)
o sun-s (plural of the noun "sun")
o sun-ning (gerund form of the verb "to sun")
 go (root) >
o go-es ("you" singular form of verb)
o go-ing (gerund of verb)

Here follows under separate heading more detailed discussion of word parts. . . .

Prefix, Suffix, Infix

Prefixes, suffixes, and infixes are word add-ons that change the meaning or function of a word
root.

prefixes. Prefixes are added at the beginning:

 dog-house (house for a dog)

 by-law (a law or rule for a specific place or organization — "by" in the sense of "nearby" or
"local")

suffix. Suffixes are added at the end:

 dog-s (the plural "s" says it's more than one dog)
 dogg-ed (= "persistent," as in "dogged determination." The "-ed" is an English past-participle
ending, making "dog" into an adjective")
 dog-'s (the ending " 's" makes a noun into a possessive noun)

infix. The term "infix" as a teaching tool makes more sense for Greek than for English. A
common verb infix is the vowel iota added inside a verb root, where is creates a present stem.
(More on stem and tense below.)

Stem

A stem is the part of a word you add endings to. It might be the root, or it might be root + any
number of add-ons (prefix, suffix, infix).

 dog >
o dog's
o dog-s
o dog-s'
 train >
o train-s
o train-ed
o train-ing
 doghouse (compound noun stem) >
o doghouse-s
o etc.

Ending, Inflection

Endings, or inflexions, are added to the end of the stem (they're suffixes), sometimes with
changes to the stem.

The image is of a word that bends ("inflects") its ending to repurpose its role and/or function,
yet otherwise keep its basic meaning the same.

In English, there is some, but not much, inflection:

 train >
o trains
o trained
o training
 who >
o whom
o whose

We speak of that as changes to the inflected form, or simply, "form," of a word. (The plural
form of "dog" is "dogs.")

Pronouns usually reflect the gender and number, but not necessarily the case, of the noun that
they take the place of (the "antecedent").

 Pronouns
 Pronouns are usually small words which stand in place of a noun, often to avoid repeating the
noun. They include words such as I, you, he, we, hers, they, it.

 Pronouns are words that replace nouns: I, me, she, we, they, who, that, yours, his, her, etc.
 Pronouns need antecedents. That means that the thing (or person, or place) that the pronoun
refers to needs to have been mentioned already by name somewhere earlier in the sentence or
paragraph. If it’s not clear which thing the pronoun refers to, the reader can get quite confused.
 I swam in the ocean. You swam in the ocean. He swam in the ocean. She swam in the
ocean. It swam in the ocean.

The Importance of Spelling

Spelling is important for three reasons:

 Communication: Spelling is a critical component of communication

 Literacy: Spelling and reading skills are closely related and help develop overall literacy
 Employment: Spelling quality has a direct impact on employment opportunities

While autocorrect and spelling software has become a given in our lives, the importance of
spelling hasn’t lessened – it’s actually never been more important.

Why is spelling still so important?

As spelling and literacy have reached their apogee across all of human history, so too has the
demands on the quality of delivery.

Poor spelling can interfere with:

Our basic ability to communicate

85% of people around the world are connected online and receive email, while 62% of them
communicate through social media. The spectrum of risk can be negligible, like sending
someone to the wrong address, to lethal, if sending someone instructions on prescriptions.

Employment opportunities

Online job hunting and posting is growing exponentially, and the first impression most
employees will have with their employees is their resume or CV. However, where a peron
might be forgiving with a misspelling, Applicant Tracking Systems (ATS) which scan
applications for keywords lack any remorse.
It doesn’t end at professional documents either – employers are increasingly to surveying
applicants personal social media to check for suitability.

Perceived trustworthiness

Tolerance for typos is low. On printed materials, it makes the producer look careless or cheap,
while online it’s become a signal of a phishing or scamming attempt.

Spelling and the development of communication skills

Communication skills are essential for children to grow and interact successfully with the
world. Communication usually begins with simple body language, gestures and vocalisations.
As children progress to verbal communication, they naturally develop an early understanding
of their native language.

Making the connection between verbal expression and written communication is much more
complex, and requires a combination of observation and formal instruction. The foundational
skills for successful written communication are learnt at this time, such as the ability to
identify letters by sight, and build associations between written patterns and vocal expressions.

Spelling and its role in literacy development

Spelling, the art of correctly assembling words from their letters, is one of the essential
components of successful writing. Being confident at spelling leads to confidence in all
aspects of literacy. The ability to recognise the links between word of the same origin and
understanding word relationships has been proven to aid comprehension skills.

Research has found that spelling, reading, writing and comprehension skills are all closely
linked. A research study conducted by L.C. Ehri for the Scientific Study of Reading found that
spelling instruction improves reading ability, as it builds a learner’s knowledge of the
alphabetic system as it is used in reading.

Teaching young spellers the strategies, rules and concepts to grow their spelling and
vocabulary knowledge benefits them in all aspects of their learning, as well as in their
everyday life.

Learners who feel confident with letters and word patterns are able to read and comprehend
more complex texts. They also have the necessary language tools to better convey their own
ideas through both written and verbal communication.

The relationship between written words and sounds can seem arbitrary and difficult for many
learners. But building a strong foundational knowledge of the links between forms, letters,
sounds and meaning is essential for students to become confident communicators.

Punctuation
Punctuation is the set of marks used to regulate texts and clarify their meanings,
mainly by separating or linking words, phrases, and clauses. The word comes from the Latin
word punctuare meaning "making a point."

Marks of punctuation
include ampersands, apostrophes, asterisks, brackets, bullets, colons, commas, dashes, diacriti
c marks, ellipsis, exclamation points, hyphens, paragraph
breaks, parentheses, periods, question marks, quotation marks, semicolons, slashes, spacing,
and strike-throughs.

The use (and misuse) of punctuation affects meaning—sometimes dramatically—, as seen in

this "Dear John" letter, where the change in punctuation from one to the next drastically alters
the meaning.

Dear John:

I want a man who knows what love is all about. You are generous, kind, thoughtful. People
who are not like you admit to being useless and inferior. You have ruined me for other men. I
yearn for you. I have no feelings whatsoever when we're apart. I can be forever happy—will
you let me be yours?

Jane

Dear John:

I want a man who knows what love is. All about you are generous, kind, thoughtful people,
who are not like you. Admit to being useless and inferior. You have ruined me. For other men,
I yearn. For you, I have no feelings whatsoever. When we're apart, I can be forever happy.
Will you let me be?

Yours,
Jane

The Basic Rules of Punctuation

Like many of the so-called "laws" of grammar, the rules for using punctuation would never
hold up in court. These rules, in fact, are conventions that have changed over the centuries.
They vary across national boundaries (American punctuation, followed here, differs
from British practice) and even from one writer to the next.

Understanding the principles behind the common marks of punctuation should strengthen your
understanding of grammar and help you to use the marks consistently in your own writing. As
Paul Robinson observes in his essay "The Philosophy of Punctuation" (in Opera, Sex, and
Other Vital Matters, 2002), "Punctuation has the primary responsibility of contributing to the
plainness of one's meaning. It has the secondary responsibility of being as invisible as
possible, of not calling attention to itself."
 With these goals in mind, we'll direct you to guidelines for correctly using the most common
marks of punctuation: periods, question marks, exclamation points, commas, semicolons,
colons, dashes, apostrophes, and quotation marks.

End Punctuation: Periods, Question Marks, and Exclamation Points

There are only three ways to end a sentence: with a period (.), a question mark (?), or
an exclamation point (!). And because most of us state far more often than we question or
exclaim, the period is by far the most popular end mark of punctuation. The American period,
by the way, is more commonly known as a full stop in British English. Since around 1600,
both terms have been used to describe the mark (or the long pause) at the end of a sentence.

Why do periods matter? Consider how these two phrases change in meaning when a second
period is added:

"I'm sorry you can't comeThis is an expression of regret.

with us."
"I'm sorry. You can't comeThe speaker is informing the listener that s/he may not
with us." accompany the group.

Until the 20th century, the question mark was more commonly known as a point of
interrogation—a descendant of the mark used by medieval monks to show voice inflection in
church manuscripts. The exclamation point has been used since the 17th century to indicate
strong emotion, such as surprise, wonder, disbelief, or pain.

Here are the present-day guidelines for using periods, question marks, and exclamation
points.

Example of multiple types of punctuation from "Peanuts" by Charles Schulz:

"I know the answer! The answer lies within the heart of all mankind! The answer is 12? I think
I'm in the wrong building."

Commas

The most popular mark of punctuation, the comma (,) is also the least law-abiding. In Greek,
the komma was a "piece cut off" from a line of verse—what in English today we'd call
a phrase or a clause. Since the 16th century, the word comma has referred to the mark that sets
off words, phrases, and clauses.

Keep in mind that these four guidelines for using commas effectively are only guidelines:
there are no unbreakable rules for using commas.

Here are several examples of how comma usage can change the meaning of sentences.

Commas With Interrupting Phrases

 The Democrats say the Republicans will lose the election.

 The Democrats, say the Republicans, will lose the election.

Commas With Direct Address

 Call me fool if you wish.
 Call me, fool, if you wish.

Commas With Nonrestrictive Clauses

 The three passengers who were seriously injured were taken to the hospital.
 The three passengers, who were seriously injured, were taken to the hospital.

Commas With Compound Clauses

 Do not break your bread or roll in your soup.

 Do not break your bread, or roll in your soup.

Serial Commas

 This book is dedicated to my roommates, Oprah Winfrey, and God.

 This book is dedicated to my roommates, Oprah Winfrey and God.

Example of comma usage from Doug Larson:

"If all the cars in the United States were placed end to end, it would probably be Labor Day
Weekend."

Semicolons, Colons, and Dashes

These three marks of punctuation—the semicolon (;), colon (:), and dash (—)—can be
effective when used sparingly. Like the comma, the colon originally referred to a section of a
poem; later its meaning was extended to a clause in a sentence and finally to a mark that set
off a clause.

Both the semicolon and the dash became popular in the 17th century, and since then the dash
has threatened to take over the work of other marks. Poet Emily Dickinson, for instance, relied
on dashes instead of commas. Novelist James Joyce preferred dashes to quotation marks
(which he called "perverted commas"). And nowadays many writers avoid semicolons (which
some consider being rather stuffy and academic), using dashes in their place.

In fact, each of these marks has a fairly specialized job, and the guidelines for using
semicolons, colons, and dashes aren't especially tricky.

Here, the use of colons and commas completely changes the meaning of the sentence.

A woman without her man is nothing. A single woman is worth

nothing.
A woman: without her, man isA single man is worth nothing.
nothing.

Example of dash usage from "The Secret Sharer" by Joseph Conrad:

"The why and wherefore of the scorpion—how it had got on board and came to select his
room rather than the pantry (which was a dark place and more what a scorpion would be
partial to), and how on earth it managed to drown itself in the inkwell of his writing desk—
had exercised him infinitely."
 Colon and semicolon examples by Disraeli and Christopher Morley respectively:

"There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics."
"Life is a foreign language; all men mispronounce it."

Apostrophes

The apostrophe (') may be the simplest and yet most frequently misused mark of punctuation
in English. It was introduced into English in the 16th century from Latin and Greek, in which
it served to mark the loss of letters.

The use of the apostrophe to signify possession did not become common until the 19th
century, though even then grammarians could not always agree on the mark's "correct" use. As
editor, Tom McArthur notes in "The Oxford Companion to the English Language" (1992),
"There was never a golden age in which the rules for the use of the possessive apostrophe in
English were clear-cut and known, understood, and followed by most educated people."

Instead of "rules," therefore, we offer six guidelines for using the apostrophe correctly. In the
examples below, the confusion that results from incorrect apostrophes is clear:

Apostrophes With Contractions: Who is master, man or dog?

 A clever dog knows its master.

 A clever dog knows it's master.

Apostrophes With Possessive Nouns: Whether the butler is rude or polite, depends on the
apostrophe.

 The butler stood by the door and called the guests names.
 The butler stood by the door and called the guests' names.

Quotation Marks

Quotation marks (" "), sometimes referred to as quotes or inverted commas, are punctuation
marks used in pairs to set off a quotation or a piece of dialogue. A relatively recent invention,
quotation marks were not commonly used before the 19th century.

Here are five guidelines for using quotation marks effectively—which is important, as seen
from these examples. In the first, it is the criminal who is to swing, in the second, the judge:

 "The criminal," says the judge, "should be hanged."

 The criminal says, "The judge should be hanged."

Use of quotation marks from Winston Churchill:

"I am reminded of the professor who, in his declining hours, was asked by his devoted pupils
for his final counsel. He replied, 'Verify your quotations.'"

The History of Punctuation

The beginnings of punctuation lie in classical rhetoric—the art of oratory. Back in ancient
Greece and Rome, when a speech was prepared in writing, marks were used to indicate where
—and for how long — a speaker should pause. Until the 18th century, punctuation was
primarily related to spoken delivery (elocution), and the marks were interpreted as pauses that
could be counted out. This declamatory basis for punctuation gradually gave way to
the syntactic approach used today.

These pauses (and eventually the marks themselves) were named after the sections they
divided. The longest section was called a period, defined by Aristotle as "a portion of a speech
that has in itself a beginning and an end." The shortest pause was a comma (literally, "that
which is cut off"), and midway between the two was the colon—a "limb," "strophe," or
"clause."

Punctuation and Printing

Until the introduction of printing in the late 15th century, punctuation in English was
decidedly unsystematic and at times virtually absent. Many of Chaucer's manuscripts, for
instance, were punctuated with nothing more than periods at the end of verse lines, without
regard for syntax or sense.

The favorite mark of England's first printer, William Caxton (1420-1491), was the
forward slash (also known as the solidus, virgule, oblique, diagonal, and virgula suspensiva)
—forerunner of the modern comma. Some writers of that era also relied on a double slash (as
found today in http://) to signal a longer pause or the start of a new section of text.

One of the first to codify the rules of punctuation in English was the playwright Ben Jonson—
or rather, Ben:Jonson, who included the colon (he called it the "pause" or "two pricks") in his
signature. In the final chapter of "The English Grammar" (1640), Jonson briefly discusses the
primary functions of the comma, parenthesis, period, colon, question mark (the
"interrogation"), and exclamation point (the "admiration").

Talking Points: 17th and 18th Centuries

In keeping with the practice (if not always the precepts) of Ben Jonson, punctuation in the
17th and 18th centuries was increasingly determined by the rules of syntax rather than the
breathing patterns of speakers. Nevertheless, this passage from Lindley Murray's best-selling
"English Grammar" (over 20 million sold) shows that even at the end of the 18th century
punctuation was still treated, in part, as an oratorical aid:

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into sentences, or parts of sentences,
by points or stops, for the purpose of marking the different pauses which the sense, and an
accurate pronunciation require.
The Comma represents the shortest pause; the Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma;
the Colon, double that of the semicolon; and a period, double that of the colon.
The precise quantity or duration of each pause, cannot be defined; for it varies with the time of
the whole. The same composition may be rehearsed in a quicker or a slower time; but the
proportion between the pauses should be ever invariable.

Increasing Importance in Writing: 19th Century

By the end of the industrious 19th century, grammarians had come to de-emphasize
the elocutionary role of punctuation, as John Seely Hart noted in his 1892 "A Manual of
Composition and Rhetoric."

"It is sometimes stated in works on Rhetoric and Grammar, that the points are for the purpose
of elocution, and directions are given to pupils to pause a certain time at each of the stops. It is
true that a pause required for elocutionary purposes does sometimes coincide with a
grammatical point, and so the one aids the other. Yet it should not be forgotten that the first
and main ends of the points is to mark grammatical divisions."

Current Punctuation Trends

In our own time, the declamatory basis for punctuation has pretty much given way to the
syntactic approach. Also, in keeping with a century-long trend toward shorter sentences,
punctuation is now more lightly applied than it was in the days of Dickens and Emerson.

Countless style guides spell out the conventions for using the various marks. Yet when it
comes to the finer points (regarding serial commas, for instance), sometimes even the experts
disagree.

Meanwhile, fashions continue to change. In modern prose, dashes are in; semicolons are
out. Apostrophes are either sadly neglected or tossed around like confetti, while quotation
marks are seemingly dropped at random on unsuspecting words.

And so it remains true, as G. V. Carey observed decades ago, that punctuation is governed
"two-thirds by rule and one-third by personal taste."

Punctuation

What Are The 14 Punctuation Marks You Need To Know?

Punctuation has a way of adding emphasis and cadence to our written sentences. Still, many
people, from native English speakers to people learning English as a foreign language, aren’t
always sure when and where to use punctuation marks.

If you find punctuation confusing, rest assured you’re not the only one. Plenty of people, even
native English speakers, have trouble when it comes to using the right punctuation marks. The
good news is that the 14 different punctuation marks aren’t as confusing as you’d think when
you break them all down. If you want to master your writing, whether it’s for an essay or even
a bestselling novel, it’s important to understand how to use each punctuation mark.

So, what are the 14 punctuation marks and how should you use them? Let’s dive into it.

What are the 14 Punctuation Marks in English?

 There are 14 punctuation marks that are used in the English language. They are: the period,
question mark, exclamation point, comma, colon, semicolon, dash, hyphen, brackets, braces,
parentheses, apostrophe, quotation mark, and ellipsis.

If you want to make your writing easier to read and generally look more professional, you
should know what each one is and how to use them.

Don’t worry, we’ll break down each punctuation mark and show you exactly how and when to
use it.

The 14 Punctuation Marks with Examples

We can break down the punctuation marks into five categories, as follows:

 Sentence endings: period, question mark, exclamation point

 Comma, colon, and semicolon
 Dash and hyphen
 Brackets, braces, and parentheses
 Apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipsis
Each category serves its own purpose within a sentence or a text. While there are some
differences between American and British punctuation styles, here we’ll focus on the main
examples instead of breaking down the slight differences. Let’s take a closer look at each
punctuation mark and its usages.

Period (.)

This one is probably the most straightforward. Also referred to as a full stop, the period
denotes the end of a sentence. A full sentence is considered as one that is complete and
declarative.

Here’s an example of a period at the end of a sentence:

 The dog ran under the fence.

Periods are also used in abbreviations, such as in names or titles.

Here are examples of how to use a period in abbreviations:

 Dr. Smith read his patient’s chart.

 Mr. H. Potter opened his front door.

Question Mark (?)

 A question mark also ends a sentence, however it ends a sentence that is a direct question.
Typically, sentences that are questions begin with what, how, when, where, why, or who.

Here’s how to use a question mark in a sentence:

 How do you like your eggs?

 Why didn’t you like the movie last night?
Generally, a question mark also denotes a shift in tone in a sentence if it’s being read out loud,
so this is something to take note of.

Exclamation Point (!)

An exclamation point or exclamation mark is also used at the end of a sentence when that
sentence expresses an intense emotion. The expression can be a variety of things, from
excitement, disgust, anger, joy, or anything else. Exclamation points are meant to add
emphasis to a sentence.

Here’s how to use one in a sentence:

 “Look out behind you!” she yelled.

 I’m so excited to go to the park tomorrow!

Comma (,)

Commas are used to insert a pause into a sentence. The purpose of the pause can be for
different reasons, such as to separate ideas, phrases, or even alter the structure of a sentence.

Commas have a few different uses. Commas are used for a direct address, such as:

 Joe, it was nice to see you again.

They’re also used to separate two complete sentences:

 He went to the library, and then he went out for lunch.

Commas can also be used to list items in a sentence:

 She went shopping and bought shoes, a dress, two shirts, and a pair of pants.
Commas are one of the most misused punctuation points, and its misuse often results in a
comma splice. A comma splice is when you join two independent clauses with a comma
instead of a conjunction. For example:

 It’s almost time for dinner, I’m not hungry.

 Instead of using a comma, the sentence should read:
 It’s almost time for dinner and I’m not hungry.
Oxford commas are often debated within academics and the English language, and using one
often comes down to preference. An Oxford comma is when a final comma is placed on the
last item of a list. For example:

 He likes to eat fruits, cake, vegetables, and pasta.

Colon (:)

A colon has three primary uses. One way to use it is when introducing something, such as a
quote, an example, a series, or an explanation.

She took four classes last semester: history, biology, arts, and economics.

A colon can also be used to link two independent clauses if the second clause clarifies or
completes the first one. For example:

 They didn’t have time to waste: it was already late.

 Finally, a colon can also emphasize a subject in a sentence:
 I only hate one vegetable: brussel sprouts.

Semicolon (;)

Similar to a colon, a semicolon links two independent clauses. However, in this case, the
clauses are more closely related than when you would use a colon. For example:

I have a meeting tomorrow morning; I can’t go out tonight.

Both clauses are independent enough to be their own sentences, but instead of using a period,
it’s possible to use a semicolon to show both clauses are connected.

Another less common use for semicolons is within a list that uses commas. Have a look:

 Last summer we traveled to London, England; Paris, France; Rome, Italy; and Athens, Greece.

Dash (-)

There are two types of dashes that vary in size and use.
 En dash: Typically shorter in length, the en dash is used to denote a range, such as between
numbers or dates. For example:

 The company was operational from 1990-2000.

 He took the Chicago-New York train last night.
 Em dash: this dash is longer, and is sometimes used instead of other punctuation marks, like
commas, colons, or parentheses. Here’s an example:
 Her answer was clear — Yes!

Hyphen (-)

Not to be confused with a dash, a hyphen is used in compound words when two or more words
are connected. Here are some examples of hyphenated words:

 Step-by-step
 Mother-in-law
 Ex-boyfriend

Brackets ([ ])

Brackets are used to clarify something or for technical terms or explanations. It can also be
used to clarify a subject when quoting another person or text. For example:

 She [Mrs. Smith] agrees that cats are better than dogs.
 Adam said that “[summer] is my favorite time of year.”

Braces ({ })

It’s unlikely you’ll need to use braces very often unless you’re writing a mathematical or
technical text. However, it’s still good to know so you don’t accidentally use them instead of
brackets or parentheses. Braces are usually used in operations, for example:

 6{3x+[28+2]}=xy

Parentheses (( ))
 Parentheses are used to supply further details or information or as an aside. Parentheses can
often be replaced with commas and the sentence would retain its same meaning. Here’s an
example:

 Kate (who is Matt’s wife) likes to go for walks.

Apostrophe (‘)

Apostrophes are meant to show that a letter or letters have been omitted and also to indicate
the possessive or contractions. It can also be used to pluralize lowercase letters. Here are some
examples:

 I’ve been working from home for 6 months and it’s great.
 Rebecca’s dog had surgery yesterday.
 All that’s left to do is dot the i’s and cross the t’s.

Quotation Marks (“)

Quotation marks are used to denote text, speech, or words spoken by someone else. It is also
used to indicate dialogue.

 “I don’t like this,” said Mark.

 She told him that she “prefers not to think about that.”
 Single quotation marks (‘ ’), not to be confused with apostrophes, are often used for a quote
within a quote.
 Jill told her mother “Jack ran up the hill and he said he was going to ‘fetch a pail of water’
before he fell.”

Ellipsis (…)

An ellipsis is three periods used together to represent an omission of words or letters. They are
often used to jump from one sentence or phrase to another while omitting unnecessary or
obvious words. It’s also used when quoting someone and unnecessary words are left out.

Here are some examples:

 At midnight, she began to count down: “ten, nine, eight…” and then the ball dropped.
 When Martin Luther King said “I have a dream…” he was talking about civil rights and an
end to racism.
 Osezii