A.

Philosophy

• Philosophy is defined as love of wisdom because it came from two Greek words philos (love) and
Sophia (wisdom).

B. Importance of studying philosophy

• The study of philosophy enhances a person’s problem-solving capacities

• It helps us to analyze concepts, definitions, arguments, and problems.

C. What is epistemology? Why do we need it?

• Epistemology is a science devoted to the discovery of the proper method of acquiring and validating
knowledge” (Rand 1990)

The purpose of epistemology therefore is two-fold:

1. To show how we can acquire knowledge.

2. To give us a method of demonstrating whether the knowledge we acquired is really
knowledge (i.e., true).

D. What is the science and art of correct thinking

•The Science Of Correct Thinking: Logic

E. Types of philosophical reflections

• Primary Reflection – partial understanding on a situation

• Secondary Reflection – holistic, critical or analytical reflection in primary reflection.

F. Philosophical skills

• The ability to think logically.

• The ability to analyze and solve problems.

• The ability to assess proposed solutions.

• The ability to write and speak clearly, attending to details.

G. Theory of Truth

Three Different Theories of Truth

There are several competing “theories” of truth; theories about the nature of truth, and how it works

• The Correspondence Theory of Truth

• The Coherence Theory of Truth

• The Pragmatic Theory of Truth

H. Aspect of the Human Person

1. Cognitive self - involves the development of a set of constructive behaviors that affect one’s use of
cognitive abilities to integrate learning processes.

2. Physical self – describes how an individual views his health condition, body, and physical
appearance

3. Psychological self - it determines what we accept in life, how we treat other people, and what we
attract into our lives.

4. Sociological self – is a relatively stable set of perceptions of who we are in relation to ourselves,
others, and to social systems

I. Concept of Environment

• studies the moral relationship between human beings and nature, as well as the value and moral
status of the environment and its non-human contents (Brennan andLo, 2010).

Environment The sum total of all surroundings of a living organism, including natural forces and
other living things which provide conditional development and growth as well as danger and damage.

J. Components of Human Person

1.Unspirited Body View -human person is just essentially just his/her body and nothing more.

2.Disembodied Body View – human person is just essentially just his/her spirit and nothing more
3.Embodied Spirit View – human person is just essentially the unity of his/her body and spirit.

K. Holistic and Partial thinking

• Holistic thinking refers to a perspective that considers large-scale patterns in systems. A holistic
perspective requires an individual to have an open mindset and ability to get the general sense or
impression regarding a situation.

• Partial thinking focuses on specific aspects of a situation. The partial view is an important
component of analytical thinking, as an individual focuses on certain areas or aspects of a problem in
order to understand it

L. Discipline of Philosophy

Environmental

Studies the human’s place within the natural environment and about the human – environment
relationship.

Social

The philosophical study of the social world.

Physical

The view that everything that exists is ultimately physical.

Intellectual

The mental perspective that emphasizes the use, the development, and the exercise of the intellect;
and also identifies the life of the mind of the intellectual person.

M. Part of Social Ecology

It is a critical social theory founded by American anarchist and libertarian socialist author Murray
Bookchin. Conceptualized as a critique of current social, political, and anti- ecological trends, it
espouses a reconstructive, ecological, communitarian, and ethical approach to society

N. Theory of Ecofeminism

The theory of Ecofeminism

◆ Ecofeminism describes movements and philosophies that link feminism with ecology.

◆ Ecofeminism connects the exploitation and domination of women with that of the environment, and
argues that there is a connection between women and nature.

◆ Ecofeminism believe that this connection, illustrated through the traditionally ‘female’ values of
reciprocity, nurturing and cooperation, which are represent both.

Ecofeminism

It is also called ecological feminism, branch of feminism that examines the connections between
women and nature. Its name was coined by French feminist Francoise d’Eaubonne in 1974.

A philosophical idea that combines feminism and ecology concerns, emphasizing that both suffer
from their treatment by a Male dominated society comes from the idea that women and nature have
significant connection, since women most often have a close association with nature in many societies
due to the nature of their traditional roles.

O. Theories

1.Pragmatic - The Pragmatic Theory of truth determines whether or not a belief is true or not based
on whether it has a useful (pragmatic) application in the world. If it does not, then it is not true. As
with Coherence Theory, truth in this sense is nothing to do with the way the world ‘really is’ but is
just a function of whether an idea can be used as a model to make useful predictions about what is
going to happen in the world. As a result pragmatic truths can only be learnt through interaction with
the world: we don’t discover truth by sitting alone in a room and thinking about it.

2. Correspondence – The Correspondence Theory of Truth is probably the most common and
widespread way of understanding the nature of truth and falsehood. Put quite simply, the
Correspondence Theory argues that “truth” is whatever corresponds to reality. An idea which
corresponds with reality is true while an idea which does not correspond with reality is false.

3. Coherence – The Coherence Theory of truth is probably second in popularity to the

Correspondence Theory even though it often seems to be an accurate description of how our
conception of truth actually works. Put simply: a belief is true when we are able to incorporate it in an
orderly and logical manner into a larger and complex system of beliefs or, even more simply still, a
belief is true when it fits in with the set of all our other beliefs without creating a contradiction.

4. Semantic theory – The Semantic theory intended to characterize what sentences within a certain
part of language mean and to show, in the process, by virtue of that semantic theory, that those
sentences lack the ontological commitments they seem to have on the basis of an analogy with other
kinds of discourse.

P. Philosophers

Philosophy, which literally means “the love of wisdom, is one of the oldest disciplines in history.
There are many ideas about philosophers and what they do. Some have even considered the field to be
a science that deals with logic and reason. Either way, many famous philosophers have made their
contributions known to the world through their writings and their students. Below is a list of the
greatest thinkers of all time along with their most important theories about human nature and other
ponderings of the world

Karl Max The Communist Manifesto, co-founder and father of Socialism & Communism.

Karl Marx is better known as the “father of socialism and communism,” one follows the other. Marx
has been labeled as a “revolutionary socialist” for his belief in what has been called dictatorship of the
proletariat. In addition to espousing his own philosophies, he was also a sociologist, economist,
journalist, and historian.

Voltaire

His philosophical wit.

French philosopher François-Marie Arouet was a well-known during the 18th century. He is better
known under his pseudonym, Voltaire. Voltaire was an advocate of some of the most basic freedoms,
he believed in the freedom of expression, religion and voiced this through his witty writing. One of
his favorite targets was the Catholic Church.

Socrates The Socratic Method of logic and a founder of Western philosophy

His story began in his hometown of Athens, Greece but unfolded through the writings of his students
and fellow philosophers. The field of ethics was the specialty of Socrates and introduced a concept
that has been dubbed aselenchus, or the Socratic Method. He contributed much to the field of logic
and epistemology.

Plato

Platonic idealism and the theory of forms.

Athenian native Plato, and his role in western philosophy can be traced back to when he was student
of Socrates. He also excelled in mathematics, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and religion. He founded the
Academy in Athens
Idealist is now usually understood in philosophy as the view that mind is the most basic reality and
that the physical world exists only as an appearance to or expression of mind, or as somehow mental
in its inner essence.

Rationalist the view that regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge. Holding that
reality itself has an inherently logical structure, the rationalist asserts that a class of truths exists that
the intellect can grasp directly.

Empiricist is a philosophical theory applicable in many disciplines, including science and software
development, that human knowledge comes predominantly from experiences gathered through the
five senses. In empiricism, knowledge is spoken of as a posteriori, or “from the latter,” meaning
gained from experience.

Nominalist is the view that universals and abstract objects do not actually exist other than being
merely names or labels. There are at least two main versions of nominalism. One version denies the
existence of universals – things that can be instantiated or exemplified by many particular things.

Q. Criteria

Belief This refers to the statement or idea that a person holds to be true or accepts as a fact. Beliefs
can be based on personal experience, cultural or religious traditions, education, or other sources

Root This refers to the origin or source of a belief or argument. It can include the evidence, data,
logical reasoning, or assumptions from which the belief arises

Justification This refers to the reasons or evidence that support a belief or argument. It can include
scientific studies, expert testimony, personal observations, or reasoning based on logical principles

Value This refers to the importance or significance of a belief or argument, either for the person
holding the belief or for society as a whole. It can be based on ethical, moral, cultural, or practical
consideration

R. Based on the module,

1. Reasoning refers to the process of using critical thinking and logical reasoning to arrive at a
conclusion or decision.
 2. Proposition refers to a statement or assertion that is put forward for consideration or
discussion.

3. Argument refers to a set of reasons or evidence that supports a particular claim or

conclusion.

4. Reflection refers to the process of considering or contemplating one’s own thoughts, actions,
and experiences in order to gain insight or understanding.

5. Embodied refers to the experience of being aware of and connected to one’s physical body.

6. Transcendent refers to experiences or concepts that go beyond the physical realm and are
often associated with spirituality or higher consciousness.

7. Inalienable refers to rights or qualities that are inherent and cannot be taken away or
transferred to another.

8. Interiority refers to the inner experience or consciousness

S. Define
1. Human Being a culture-bearing primate classified in the genus Homo, especially the species H.
sapiens. Human beings are anatomically similar and related to the great apes but are distinguished by
a more highly developed brain and a resultant capacity for articulate speech and abstract reasoning
2. Human Creature can refer to any living thing that is not a plant as a creature, especially when it is
of an unknown or unfamiliar kind. People also refer to imaginary animals and beings as creatures
3. Human Nature comprises the fundamental dispositions and characteristics—including ways of
thinking, feeling, and acting—that humans are said to have naturally. The term is often used to denote
the essence of humankind, or what it ‘means’ to be human.
4. Human Person as physical being, as knower, as responsible agent, as a person in relation to other
persons, to society, to God, and to the end, or purpose, of human life

T.
Eco centrism = Ecology at the center
A philosophy or perspective that places intrinsic value on all living organism and their environment
regardless of their perceived usefulness or importance to human being.
• Eco centrism an environmental ethical stance that argues that ecological concern should over and
above human priorities be central to decisions about right and wrong action.
Example:- A tree has value because it is part of or contributes to community(environment).

Anthropocentrism
Anthropocentrism Human being at the center’
Derived from ancient Greek word Anthropos, for “Human being” and Ketnron, “Center” Regarding
human being as the central element of the universe. Assuming human beings is to be the final aim of
the universe

Viewing and interpreting everything in terms of human experience.(www.dictionary.com)

Placing humanity at the center, so that other forms of life will be regarded only as resources to be
consumed by human being. Philosophically it can refer to the point of view that humans are only, or
primary holders of moral standards.

Biocentrism
Life-centered/bio centric views do not put humans at the center of the moral system.
A human centered environmental ethics (e.g., Baxter in “People or Penguins”) can value the
environment and even require people to sacrifice for the environment but the ethical value the
environment has derives from the value of human beings. (E.g., the forest is valuable because it has
resources for us, because we get pleasure from walking in it, etc.)
A second theory of moral responsibility to the environment is biocentrism or life-centered
environmental ethics. According to the broadest version of the bio-centric theory, all forms of life .
Have an inherent right to exist.
For example: some believes that we have a greater responsibility to protect animal species than plant
species and a greater responsibility to protect mammals than invertebrates. Another group o bio-
centrists, known as “bio-centric egalitarians, take the view that all living organisms have an exactly
equal right to exist.

Socialism
SOCIAL-refers to a characteristics of living organisms as applied to populations as humans and
Socialism is an ideology with the core belief that a society exist in which popular collectives contral
the means of power, and therefore the means of production. The meaning changed overtime however
it remains strongly related to the establishment of an organized working class created through either
revolution or by social evolution, with the purpose of building a classless society
•Socialism basically means that we all work together to ensure that everyone has what they need it’s
based on the idea of cooperation in a socialist society, every person would be equal regardless of race,
gender religion, or nationalty Everyone would have a home and food, water, and clothes Every person
would receive medical care and a good education Everything is shared equaily among all the people.
These are the key factors to the Socialist ideal

U.
Gabriel Marcel
As an existentialist, Marcel’s freedom is tied to the raw experiences of the body. However, the
phenomenology of Marcelian freedom is characterized by his insistence that freedom is something to
be experienced, and the self is fully free when it is submerged in the possibilities of the self and the
needs of others.

Immanuel Kant
His moral philosophy is a philosophy of freedom. Without human freedom, thought Kant, moral
appraisal and moral responsibility would be impossible. Kant believes that if a person could not act
otherwise, then his or her act can have no moral worth.

Herbert Marcus
In his best-known and most influential work, One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of
Advanced Industrial Society (1964), Marcuse argued that the modern “affluent” society represses
even those who are successful within it, while maintaining their complacency through the ersatz
satisfactions of consumer culture

Anaximander
In his cosmogony, he held that everything originated from the apeiron (the “infinite,” “unlimited,” or
“indefinite”), rather than from a particular element, such as water (as Thales had held). Anaximander
postulated eternal motion, along with the apeiron, as the originating cause of the world
INTRODUCTI