Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Al-Mustaqbal University
College of Engineering & Technology
Medical Instrumentation Techniques Engineering Department
Electrical Technology
Third Class

Weeks 9,10 &11

Electromechanical energy conversion

By Osamah Jaber Ghayyib

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1. INTRODUCTION

We daily use many devices that convert one form of energy into another form. For example,
a heater converts electrical energy into heat energy while an electric bulb converts electrical
energy into light energy. However, electromechanical conversion devices (i.e., devices that
convert electrical energy into mechanical energy or vice — versa) find wide practical
applications. For example, an electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
On the other hand, an electric generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. A
major reason for the widespread use of electro-mechanical energy conversion devices is that they
are relatively efficient and permit an easy control.

2. ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy or vice versa is known as
electromechanical energy conversion. Electromechanical energy conversion involves the
interchange of energy between an electrical system and a mechanical system through the medium
of a coupling electric field or magnetic field. Therefore, an electromechanical conversion system
has three essential parts , an electrical system, a mechanical system and a coupling field (electric
or magnetic). Fig. 1 shows the block diagram of an electromechanical energy conversion system.
Note that from left to right, the system represents con-version from electrical to mechanical .
However, from right to left, it will represent conversion from mechanical to electrical.

Fig.1 Electromechanical Energy Conversion System.

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 (i) Electric field as coupling medium. Electromechanical energy conversion can take
place when electric field is used as the medium. Consider two oppositely charged plates of a
capacitor which are separated by a dielectric medium. A force of attraction exists between the
two plates that tends to move them together. If we allow one plate to move in the direction of the
force, we are converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. On the other hand, if we apply
an external force on one plate and try to increase the separation between them, we are then
converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. Electrostatic microphones and electrostatic
voltmeters use electrostatic fields for energy conversion.

(ii) Magnetic field as coupling medium. Electromechanical energy conversion can also
take place more effectively when magnetic field is used as the medium. Consider the case of a
current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field. The conductor experiences a force that
tends to move it. If the conductor is free to move in the direction of the magnetic force, the
magnetic field helps the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy. This is
essentially the principle of operation of all electric motors. On the other hand, if an externally
applied force moves the conductor in a direction opposite to the magnetic force, mechanical
energy is converted into electrical energy. The generator action is based on this principle. Note
that in both cases, the magnetic field acts as a medium for energy conversion.

It is important to note that the quantity of energy that can be converted by a device using
electric field as a medium is relatively small. It is because the amount of force developed by an
electric system is usually very small even when the applied voltage is high and the physical
dimensions of the system are quite large. However, when magnetic field is used as a medium, a
system with the same physical dimensions develops a much larger force than a system using an
electric field as a medium. For this reason, the use of electric field as a medium for energy
conversion has limited applications.

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3. ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION DEVICES

Electromechanical energy conversion takes place through electric field or magnetic field
as the medium. Although the various conversion devices operate on common set of physical
principles, the structures of the devices depend on their function. Electromechanical energy
conversion devices can be divided into the following three categories :

(i) Transducers. These conversion devices are used for measurement and control. They
generally operate under linear input-output conditions and with relatively small signals. Examples
include microphones, pickups and loudspeakers.

(ii) Force-producing devices. These conversion devices are meant for producing force or
torque with limited mechanical motion. Examples include relays, solenoid actuators and
electromagnets.

(iii) Continuous energy conversion devices. These devices continuously convert

electrical energy into mechanical energy or vice versa. They are used for bulk energy conversion
and utilization. Motors and generators are the examples of such conversion devices.

It may be noted that magnetic field is most suited as a medium for electromechanical
energy conversion. Therefore, in this lecture, we shall deal with magnetic field as the medium of
energy conversion.

4. FEATURES OF ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Electromechanical energy conversion takes place through the medium of magnetic field.
The following features are worth noting in this energy conversion :

(i) As with any energy conversion system, the principle of conservation of energy holds
good in case of electromechanical energy conversion. That is energy can neither be
created nor destroyed; it can only be changed from one form to another.

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(ii) During electromechanical energy conversion, various losses occur in the system.
This is illustrated in Fig. 2 which shows the conversion of electrical energy into
mechanical energy.

Fig.2 Electromechanical Energy Conversion System.

The electrical energy loss (i2 R) is due to current (i) flowing in the winding (having
resistance R) of the energy converter. The field loss is the core loss due to changing
magnetic field in the magnetic core. The mechanical loss is the friction and windage
loss due to the motion of the moving components. All these losses are converted into
heat and raise the temperature of the energy conversion system.

(iii) Electromechanical energy conversion is a reversible process except for the losses in
the system. The term reversible means that the energy can be transferred back and
forth between the electrical and the mechanical systems. However, each time we go
through an energy conversion process, some of the energy is used up to meet the
losses in the conversion process. These losses are converted into heat and are lost
from the system forever.

(iv) Electromechanical conversion devices are built with air gaps in the magnetic circuit
to separate the fixed and moving parts. Most of the m.m.f. of the windings is required
to overcome the air-gap reluctance so that most of the energy is stored in the air gap
and is returned to the electric source when the field is reduced.

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 (v) The electromechanical energy conversion system can be analyzed by using principle
of conservation of energy, laws of electric and magnetic field, electric circuits and
Newtonian mechanics.

(vi) The rotating electrical machines (motors and generators) continuously convert
electrical energy into mechanical energy or vice versa. Fig. 3 shows the block
diagram of electromechanical energy conversion in an electrical machine. The
primary quantities involved in the mechanical system are torque (T) and speed (wm)
while the analogous quantities in the electrical system are voltage (e) and current (i)
respectively.

Fig.3 Electromechanical Energy Conversion System.

5. ENERGY BALANCE EQUATION

An electromechanical energy conversion system has three essential parts, an electrical

system, a mechanical system and a coupling magnetic field as shown in Fig. 2. Since conversion
of energy from one form into another form satisfies the principle of conservation of energy, the
energy transfer equation is as under:

Electrical energy Mechanical energy Increase in energy Energy

( ) = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) (1)
input from source out Stored in coupling field Loss

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 Eq (1) is applicable to all conversion devices. For motor action, the electrical and
mechanical energy terms have positive values. For generator action, the electrical and mechanical
energy terms have negative values.

During this energy conversion, energy loss occurs due to three causes ,

(i) i2R loss in the winding of the energy converter.

(ii) core or field loss due to changing magnetic field.

(iii) mechanical loss is the friction and windage loss due to the motion of moving parts.
All these losses are converted to heat. If the energy losses in the electrical system,
the coupling magnetic field and the mechanical system are grouped with the
corresponding terms in eq. (1), the energy balance equation can be written as under:

Electrical energy Mechanical energy Increase in energy

( ) = ( ) + ( ) (2)
input from source out Stored in coupling field

Now consider a differential time dt during which an increment of electrical energy dW𝑒
flows to the system. During this time dt, let dW𝑓 , be the energy supplied to the field and dW𝑚 the
energy converted to mechanical form. In differential form, eq. (2) can be expressed as

dW𝑒 = dW𝑓 + dW𝑚 (3)

6. ENERGY IN MAGNETIC SYSTEM

6.1 Singly excited electromechanical system (stationary)

Consider singly—excited magnetic system shown in Fig. 4. It is the magnetic system of an
attracted armature relay. Here a coil of N turns wound on the magnetic core is connected to an
electric source.

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 Let us assume that the armature is held stationary at some air gap and the current is
increased from zero to some value i. As a result, flux Փ will be established in the magnetic system.

Fig.4 Example of singly excited system.

Total flux linkages, λ = NՓ

𝑑Փ 𝑑 𝑑λ
𝑒=𝑁 = 𝑁Փ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

For the coupling device to absorb energy from the electric circuit, the coupling field must
produce a reaction in the circuit. This reaction is the e.m.f. e produced by the magnetic field.

The incremental electrical energy due to the flow of current in time dt is

dW𝑒 = 𝑒𝑖 𝑑𝑡

The energy balance equation in differential form is

dW𝑒 = dW𝑓 + dW𝑚

We assume there the armature is held stationary then.

dW𝑒 = dW𝑓

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 𝑒𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = dW𝑓
𝑑λ
𝑖𝑑𝑡 = dW𝑒 = dW𝑓
𝑑𝑡

dW𝑓 = 𝑑λ 𝑖 = 𝑁𝑖 𝑑Փ (4)

dW𝑓

Fig.5 Example of singly excited system.

The relationship between coil flux linkages λ and current 𝑖 for a particular air-gap length
is shown in Fig. 5 The incremental field energy dW𝑓 , is shown as crosshatched area in this figure.
When the flux linkage is increased from zero to λ (or flux from zero to Փ),the energy stored in
the field is:

λ Փ

W𝑓 = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑λ = 𝑁 ∫ 𝑖 𝑑Փ (5)
0 0

Since

Փ
𝑁𝑖 = 𝐻𝑔 𝑙𝑔 + 𝐻𝑐 𝑙𝑐 , 𝐵= , 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
𝐴
Then
Փ 𝐵 𝐵

W𝑓 = 𝑁 ∫ 𝑖 𝑑Փ = ∫ 𝐻𝑔 𝑙𝑔 𝐴𝑔 𝑑𝐵 + ∫ 𝐻𝑐 𝑙𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝑑𝐵 (6)
0 0 0

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 𝐵 𝐵

W𝑓 = 𝑉𝑔 ∫ 𝐻𝑔 𝑑𝐵 + 𝑉𝑐 ∫ 𝐻𝑐 𝑑𝐵 (7)
0 0

The energy stored in core equals:

𝐵

W𝑓𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 ∫ 𝐻𝑐 𝑑𝐵
0

And for air gap :

𝐵 𝐵
𝐵 𝐵2
W𝑓𝑔 = 𝑉𝑔 ∫ 𝐻𝑔 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑉𝑔 ∫ 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑉𝑔
𝜇0 2𝜇0
0 0

Example 1. The magnetic core of system below is made of cast steel whose B-H
characteristic is shown below. The coil has 250 turns and the coil resistance is 5Ω. For a fixed air
gap length g = 5 mm, a D.C. source is connected to the coil to produce a flux density of B=1 tesla
in the air gap.

(i) Find the voltage of D.C. source. (ii) Find the stored field energy.

Solution

B = 1 T, N = 250 , R = 5Ω, lg = 5 mm

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(i) From B-H figure we find 𝐻 = 670 𝐴𝑇/𝑚

Length of 𝑙𝑐 = 2(10 + 5) + 2(10 + 5) = 60 𝑐𝑚 = 0.6 𝑚

Magnetic intensity of air gap 𝐻𝑔 can be found as

𝐵𝑔 1
𝐻𝑔 = = = 795.8 × 103 𝐴𝑇/𝑚
𝜇0 4𝜋 × 10−7

𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 𝑁𝑖 = 2𝐻𝑔 𝑙𝑔 + 𝐻𝑐 𝑙𝑐

𝑁𝑖 = (670 × 0.6) + (795.8 × 103 × 2 × 5 × 10−3 ) = 8360 𝐴𝑇

8360
𝑖= = 33.4 𝐴
250

Then the voltage of dc source is 𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅 = 33.4 × 5 = 𝟏𝟔𝟕. 𝟐 𝑽

(ii) Field energy stored in core :

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W𝑓𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 ∫ 𝐻𝑐 𝑑𝐵
0

Since A=0.1 ×0.05 =0.005 m2 then

𝑉𝑐 = 0.005 × [(2 × 0.2) + (2 × 0.1)] = 0.003 𝑚3

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1
W𝑓𝑐 = 0.003 ∫ 𝐻𝑐 𝑑𝐵 ≅ 0.003 × × 1 × 670 = 𝟏 𝐉
2
0

Field energy stored in air gaps is given by :

𝐵2 −3
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W𝑓𝑔 = 𝑉𝑔 = 0.05 × 10 × = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟗 𝐉
2𝜇0 2 × 4𝜋 × 10−7

Then the total stored field energy is :

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 W𝑓 = W𝑓𝑐 + W𝑓𝑔 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟗 𝐉

6.2 Singly excited electromechanical system (non-stationary)

The λ − 𝑖 characteristic of an electromagnetic system depends on the air gap length and B-
H characteristic of the magnetic material. These λ − 𝑖 characteristics are shown in Fig. 6 for three
values of airgap length. If the air gap length is large, the characteristic is essentially linear. The
characteristic becomes nonlinear as the air gap length decreases.

Fig.6 Effect of change in air gap over λ − 𝑖 characteristics.

Another quantity can be defined from the λ − 𝑖 characteristics is called (in Fig 7) the Co-
energy and defined as :
i

W𝑓′ = ∫ λ 𝑑𝑖
0

This quantity has no physical significance. From λ − 𝑖 characteristics ,the sum of both W𝑓
and W𝑓′ as follows:

W𝑓 + W𝑓′ = λ𝑖

If the relation λ − 𝑖 is linear, then W𝑓 = W𝑓′ .

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 W𝑓

W𝑓′

Fig. 7 energy and Co-energy field.

Now let’s consider the electromagnetic system shown in Fig. 7. Let the current through the
coil be when a voltage source v is applied across its terminals. The current i sets up magnetic flux
ф in the magnetic circuit. The flux linkages induce an e.m.f. e in the coil.

Fig. 8 energy and Co-energy field.

Suppose the movable part moves from one position (say x =x1.) to another position (x =x2,)
so that at the end of the movement, the air gap decreases. The λ − 𝑖 characteristics of the system
for these two positions are shown in Fig. 9(i). Note that operating points of the system are a when
x = x1, and b when x = x2,. The current i(= v/R) will remain the same at both the positions in the
steady state.

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 Fig. 9 energy and Co-energy field.

If we assume the system have a linear λ − 𝑖 relation then :

λ = L(x) 𝑖 (8)
Where L(x) is the inductance of the coil which depends on length of the air gap x. The
energy field is given by:

λ λ
λ λ2 1
W𝑓 = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑λ = ∫ 𝑑λ = = L(x)𝑖 (9)
L(x) 2 L(x) 2
0 0

From Eq 3 we know that :

dW𝑓 = dW𝑒 − dW𝑚 = 𝑖𝑑λ − F dx

Since W𝑓 is a function of both λ and x then

𝜕W𝑓 (λ , x) 𝜕W𝑓 (λ , x)
dW𝑓 (λ , x) = 𝑑λ + 𝑑x
𝜕λ 𝜕x

By comparing the above two equations we conclude:

𝜕W𝑓 (λ , x) 𝜕W𝑓 (λ , x)
𝑖= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 F = −
𝜕λ 𝜕x

From Eq 9 we can find F :

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 𝜕W𝑓 (λ , x) 𝜕 λ2 𝑖2 𝑑L(x)
F=− =− ( )| =
𝜕x 𝜕x 2 L(x) λ = constant 2 (L(x))2 dx

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