THE USE OF LIBRARY

AND
INFORMATION
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY STUDY SKILLS

Edited by
Dr. A. A. Osunrinde
Prof. I. A. Ajayi
Dr. L. B. Ajayi
© Directorate of General Studies
Ekiti State University
Ado Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria

Published by:
Ekiti State University
Ado Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria

First Edition 2017

All Rights Reserved

Except for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review as permitted under the copyright
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 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Ajayi, N.A.is a Chartered Librarian and currently the University Librarian of Ekiti State
University, Nigeria.

Fabunmi, F.A. (Ph.D) is a Chartered Librarian and the Deputy University Librarian of Ekiti
State University, Nigeria.

Osunrinde, A.A. (Ph.D) is a Chartered Librarian and Principal Librarian in the University
Library, Ekiti State University, Nigeria.

Folorunso, O. is a Chartered Librarian and Principal Librarian in the University Library, Ekiti
State University, Nigeria.

Awoyemi, O.O. is a Chartered Librarian and a Barrister-at-Law; she is a Senior Librarian in the
University Library, Ekiti State University, Nigeria.

Ogba, O.C. is a Chartered Librarian and a Barrister-at-Law; she is a Senior Librarian in the
University Library, Ekiti State University, Nigeria.

Familusi, E.B. is a Chartered Librarian and Senior Librarian in the University Library, Ekiti
State University, Nigeria.

Bamidele, O. is a Chartered Librarian and Senior Librarian in the University Library, Ekiti State
University, Nigeria.

Owoeye, P.O. is a Chartered Librarian and librarian I in the University Library, Ekiti State
University, Nigeria.

Adereolu, O. is a Chartered Librarian and librarian I in the University Library, Ekiti State
University, Nigeria.

Odeyemi, S. O. is a librarian II in the University Library, Ekiti State University, Nigeria.

 FOREWORD
The Use of Library and Information Communication Technology Study Skills as the gateway to
any undergraduate study globally, will not only assist in accessing, retrieval and utilizing
information but learning and research purposes. There is no doubt that library ICT acquisition
skills and practice will actualize the vision of university graduates. There is no gain saying that
the use of library, ICT Study Skills has many fascinating and educative topics that
undergraduates could employ to access four-wall traditional, digital/virtual and other types of
libraries in the world since the society had developed from physical / face-to-face mode of
communication to an information society where the art of existence is information utilization for
industrial growth and development.
In order to conform to the trends of modern information society, it is expedient for every
undergraduate to acquire the needed skills such as information searching techniques, retrieval
procedures, information sharing and utilization for their educational goals and objectives. This
text will effectively impart the students’ simple techniques of accessing, retrieval and utilization
of automated academic and other libraries globally. Therefore, students are enjoined to
maximally utilise the book to their advantage for excellent performance in their academic pursuit
even beyond the attainment of first degree certificate.
However, the study skills will not only assist in accelerating research work but creating an
enabling environment for the acquisition of information skills and accuracy of retrieval.

N.A. Ajayi
University Librarian
 INTRODUCTION
The library and studies skills are insights to education and scholarly research and other academic
activities. To locate and retrieve required information, delivery becomes imperative in the
academic worlds. It is necessary to highlight the chapters of this text to give clarity. There are
fourteen chapters in all.
Chapter one; Brief History of Libraries by Fabunmi, F.A. Ph.D. The focus of this chapter is to
consider the meaning of library and the importance of its history; giving the overview of the
development of written and printing in Nigeria and Africa.
Chapter two; Library Education by Ajayi, N.A. (University Librarian). The chapter examines
library user education as process of making clientele familiar with the routine and operations of
the library; acquiring necessary skills to identify, locate, and retrieve the available resources.
Also conforming to the rules and regulation of the library.
Chapter three; University Libraries and other types of Libraries by Folorunso, O. This chapter
explores basically the six (6) different types of libraries established to meet the information
needs of divers users with special focus on ascertaining the peculiarities of university library and
its structure.
Chapter four; Care of Books and other Libraries Materials by Osunrinde, A.A. Ph.D. &
Awoyemi, O.O. The chapter explains the curses of deterioration of library materials and their
method control.
Chapter five; Study Skills (Reference Services) by Adereolu, Ojo. This chapter focuses on
strategies that enables learner make use of their resources, time and academic potentials through
Motivation, Goal Setting and Time Management. It also focuses on the reference services and
resources available in the library.
Chapter six; Types of Library Materials by Osunrinde A.A. Ph.D. This chapter gave an in-depth
background to what library materials are and further discusses extensively the major types of
information material available in the library.
Chapter seven; Serials by Ajayi, N.A. (University Librarian) & Familusi, E.B. This chapter
identifies serials as information materials in print and electronic format which are published
periodically in successive part at intervals and how it can be utilized for learning and research
purposes.
Chapter eight; Using Library Resources Including E-Learning and E-Materials by Ogba, O.C. &
Owoeye, P.O.. This chapter discusses the use of library resources in learning environment in four
facets i.e. E-Learning, E-Learning Tools, E-Materials and library resources.
Chapter nine; Understanding Library Catalogues and Classification by Familusi, E.B. This
chapter emphasises on the importance of the organisation of library materials which involve the
process of cataloguing and classification. It discusses the basic knowledge of cataloguing and
classification, types of catalogue and the advantages of library catalogue.
Chapter ten; Library Automation by Owoeye, P.O. & Odeyemi, S.O.. This chapter examine
library automation as the mechanisation of library routine through integrated library system. It
also explains system analysis for library automation and various library software.
Chapter eleven; Information Sharing and Security by Ogba, O.C. This chapter asserts that
information sharing and security is an integral part of the fundamental right to freedom of
expression and right to privacy.
Chapter twelve; Copyright and its Implication by Awoyemi, O.O. This chapter dealt extensively
with the issue of copyright as a law that exists to prevent others from stealing the owner’s
property. It also looks at plagiarism and implications. Finally it mentions what constitutes
copyright infringement.
Chapter thirteen; Database Resources by Bamidele Olawale. The summary of this chapter is to
have a clear understanding of database resources, to identify its types and its use. While on the
other hand, to understand the search tips and tricks of the search engines. Finally we should
understand the benefit accrued to it usage and the short comings thereof.
Chapter fourteen; Bibliographic Citations and References by Fabunmi F.A. Ph.D. & Folorunso
O. The role of references and bibliographic citations are significant in all research activities for
clarity of information source. There is no doubt that this paradigm will facilitate research and
service delivery.
We want to appreciate and express our profound gratitude to various contributors. We thank the
Vice Chancellor Professor Samuel Oye Bandele, GST Director, Professor Ajayi A.I. and the
GST Assistant Director Dr. Ajayi L.B.
Osunrinde A.A. Ph.D.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
List of Contributors
Foreward
Table of Contents

Chapter One
Brief History of Libraries
Chapter Two
Library Education
Chapter Three
University Libraries and other type of Library
Chapter Four
Care of Books and other Library Materials
Chapter Five
Study Skills (Reference Services)
Chapter Six
Types of Library Materials
Chapter Seven
Serials
Chapter Eight
Using Library Resources including E-Learning and E-Materials
Chapter Nine
Understanding Library Catalogues and Classification
Chapter Ten
Library Automation
Chapter Eleven
Information Sharing and Security
Chapter Twelve
Copyright and its Implications
Chapter Thirteen
Database Resources
Chapter Fourteen
Bibliographic Citation and References
 CHAPTER ONE

BRIEF HISTORY OF LIBRARIES

F. A FABUNMI
1.0 Introduction
To know the use of Library, study skills and information science, you should consider the
meaning of Library and the importance of the history of library; this will lead you to the
development of writing and printing, library in ancient time and library in Africa and Nigeria.
This knowledge will help you to give correct meaning of library and its historical antecedents.

2.0 Objectives
When you have studied this chapter you should be able to:
 define the word ‘library’.
 list the importance of history of library
 know the development of writing and printing
 explain the development of library in ancient time
 expound the development of library in Africa and Nigeria

3.0 Meaning of Library and Importance of History of Library

3.1 Meaning of Library
The word ‘Library’ that seems to be used in so many different aspects now from the brick
and mortal library to the digital library of the present age was derived from the Latin word
“Liber” meaning “book”.
Eberhart (2010) defined library as a collection of resources in a variety of formats that is
organised by information professionals or other experts who provide convenient physical, digital,
bibliography or intellectual access and offer targeted services and programmes with the mission
of educating, informing or entertaining a variety of audiences and the goal of stimulating
individual learning and advancing society as a whole.
Another general definition from the Online Dictionary of Library and Information
Science ODLIS (2013) stated that the word library from Latin “Liber”, meaning “book” In Greek
and the Romance languages, the corresponding term is bibliotheca. A collection or group of
collections of books and or other print or non-print materials organised and maintained for use
(reading, consultation, study, research)etc.

3.2 Importance of History of Libraries

A study of the history of libraries is important to students and other library users for
many reasons. According to Morka, (1992) there are seven such reasons:
 It is interesting and entertaining
 It increases curiosity in the student and enables him face the challenge of library work.
 It shows that librarians are important personalities in their communities.
 A realization of such importance would encourage him to be proud of the library
profession.
 The student would discover that the use or possession of libraries give joy and pride to
their owners. For example, Roman Aristocrats had libraries in their houses, while
monarchs established libraries in their palaces. Priests built collections in Temples while
Roman war-lords plundered and carried away libraries as booties to adorn their houses.
 For libraries to strive, its funding should be very liberal.
 Library buildings are especially constructed to be functional.

3.3 Development of Writing and Printing

Ojo-Igbinoba (1993) observed that writing is the representation of sound and speech in
meaningful form and in graphic form on papyrus, stone, vellum or parchment, or on similar
objects. Through the alphabet, we make a combination of letters to spell out every sound that we
make when speaking. This is only intelligible to literate persons and to those knowledgeable in
the language being spoken. The alphabet in current use is more than 4000 years old and it came
to modern times through many changes some of which were previous forms of writing and some
of them are considered here.

Libraries developed through a collection of written works. Writing developed in China.

Ink was invented there. Paper was in use before the birth of Christ. Printing from moveable types
was also known and practiced in china. The first Chinese “books” consisted of animal scapulae
and tortoise-shells and the first known library contained about 17,000 tortoise shells with strange
inscriptions and dated from about 3000 BC. They used insecticides to preserve paper since the 3 rd
century A.D. The first mention of chemicals being used to combat termites occurred in
connection with the library of a Persian Wizir in 993 A.D. The first attempt to control
temperature in a library in a hot climate was carried out at Shirazi in modern day Iraq where a
library was cooled by circulating piped water on all sides of it. These are all elements of
librarianship and seems, as Nnaji observed, to originate from China (OjoIgbinoba, 1993).

It is lost in antiquity as to when and how humankind began to develop writing. Childe
says that humankind in Mesopotamia probably agreed upon a conventional method of records of
temples activities in written signs that should be intelligible to all their colleagues and
successors. They thus invented writing. Thus, writing came about as a result of humankind’s
need to aid his memory, to maintain his civilization and to have a permanent means of keeping
records. (Ojo-Igbinoba, 1993)

Picture writing is simply the use of symbols to denote words. According to Childe, the
invention of a system of writing was just the agreement on the meanings to be attached to the
symbols by the society using them for its common ends. The symbols (characters) on the oldest
tablets are mostly pictures which are often self-explanatory. These symbols were in use before
humankind invented the alphabet. Humankind communicated his ideas through drawing and
painting them. The drawings, symbols and paintings may be called pictograms or picture-
writing. A script composed of them was called pictography. Pictography (a script composed of
pictograms) was a feature of prehistoric humankind. (OjoIgbinoba, 1993).

The nature of writing has been constantly evolving, particularly due to the development
of new technologies over the centuries. The pen, the printing press, the computer and the mobile
phone are all technological developments which have altered what is written, and the medium
through which the written word is produced. Particularly with the advent of digital technologies,
namely the computer and the mobile phone, characters can be formed by the press of a button,
rather than making the physical motion with the hand. Written communication can also be
delivered with minimal time delay (e-mail, SMS), and in some cases, instantly (instant
messaging), (Ojo-Igbinoba, 1993).
 A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting
upon a medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring an image. The mechanical systems
involved were probably first assembled in Germany by the goldsmith Johann Gutenberg around
1439,Casson(2002) based on existing screw-presses used to press cloth, grapes etc., and possibly
to print woodcuts, which were printed in Europe before Gutenberg. Although both woodblock
printing and movable type printing press technologies were already developed first in ancient
China and then later in the Chinese vassal state of what now Korea in East Asia several hundred
years earlier, Gutenberg was the first in Western Europe to develop a printing press, (Meehan,
2009).

Printing methods based on Gutenberg’s printing press spread rapidly throughout first Europe and
then the rest of the world. It eventually replaced most versions of block printing, making it the
most used format of modern movable type, until being superseded by the advent of offset
printing, (Meehan, 2009).

3.4 Development of Library in Ancient Time

The history of libraries began with the first efforts to organize collections of documents. Topics
of interest include accessibility of the collection, acquisition of materials, arrangement and
finding tools, the book trade, the influence of the physical properties of the different writing
materials, language distribution, role in education, rates of literacy, budgets, staffing, libraries for
specially targeted audiences, architectural merit, patterns of usage, and the role of libraries in a
nation's cultural heritage, and the role of government, church or private sponsorship. Since the
1960s issues of computerization and digitization come to the fore.
The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of writing—the clay tablets in
cuneiform script discovered in temple rooms in Sumer, (Casson, 2002), (Krasner-Khait, 2010)
some dating back to 2600 BC. (Maclay, 2003) These archives, which mainly consisted of the
records of commercial transactions or inventories, mark the end of prehistory and the start of
history.(Renfrew, 2008), Roberts (1997).

Things were much the same in the government and temple records on papyrus of Ancient Egypt.
(Krasner-Khait 2010)
Over 30,000 clay tablets from the Library of Ashurbanipal have been discovered at Nineveh,
(Assurbanipal Library Phase 2017) providing modern scholars with an amazing wealth of
Mesopotamian literary, religious and administrative work. Among the findings were the Enuma
Elish, also known as the Epic of Creation,Dalley (1989) which depicts a traditional Babylonian
view of creation, the Epic of Gilgamesh,a large selection of "omen texts" including Enuma Anu
Enlil which "contained omens dealing with the moon, its visibility, eclipses, and conjunction
with planets and fixed stars, the sun, its corona, spots, and eclipses, the weather, namely
lightning, thunder, and clouds, and the planets and their visibility, appearance, and stations",Van
De Mieroop (2007) and astronomic/astrological texts, as well as standard lists used by scribes
and scholars such as word lists, bilingual vocabularies, lists of signs and synonyms, and lists of
medical diagnoses.

3.4.1 Classical Period

The Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most significant great library of the
ancient world.Cosmos (1980)It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and
functioned as a major center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the
Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The library was conceived and opened either during the
reign of Ptolemy I Soter (323–283 BC) or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II (283–246
BC).An early organization system was in effect at Alexandria Phillips (2010)

The Library of Celsus in Ephesus, Anatolia, now part of Selçuk, Turkey was built in honor of the
Roman SenatorTiberius Julius Celsus PolemaeanusSwain (2002), (Nicols 1978)(completed in
AD 135) by Celsus’ son, Gaius Julius Aquila (consul, 110). The library was built to store 12,000
scrolls and to serve as a `monumental tomb for Celsus. The library's ruins were hidden under
debris of the city of Ephesus that was deserted in early Middle Ages. In 1903, Austrian
excavations led to this hidden heap of rubble that had collapsed during an earthquake. The
donator's son built the library to honor his father's memory and construction began around 113 or
114. Presently, visitors only see the remains of the library's facade.(Strocka,2003).

In the West, the first public libraries were established under the Roman Empire as each
succeeding emperor strove to open one or many which outshone that of his predecessor. Rome’s
first public library was established by Asinius Pollio. Pollio was a lieutenant of Julius Caesar and
one of his most ardent supporters. After his military victory in Illyria, Pollio felt he had enough
fame and fortune to create what Julius Caesar had sought for a long time: a public library to
increase the prestige of Rome and rival the one in Alexandria.(Casson, 2001) Pollios’s library,
the Anla Libertatis,(Ewald,2004) which was housed in the Atrium Libertatis, was centrally
located near the Forum Romanum. It was the first to employ an architectural design that
separated works into Greek and Latin. All subsequent Roman public libraries will have this
design.(Casson, 2001) At the conclusion of Rome’s civil wars following the death of Marcus
Antonius in 30 BC, the Emperor Augustus sought to reconstruct many of Rome’s damaged
buildings. During this construction, Augustus created two more public libraries. The first was the
library of the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine, often called the Palatine library, and the second
was the library of the (Buchanan, 2012).

Two more libraries were added by the Emperor Tiberius on Palatine Hill and one by Vespasian
after 70. Vespasian’s library was constructed in the Forum of Vespasian, also known as the
Forum of Peace, and became one of Rome’s principal libraries. The Bibliotheca Pacis was built
along the traditional model and had two large halls with rooms for Greek and Latin libraries
containing the works of Galen and Lucius Aelius.Casson, (2001) One of the best preserved was
the ancient Ulpian Library built by the Emperor Trajan. Completed in 112/113 AD, the Ulpian
Library was part of Trajan’s Forum built on the Capitoline Hill. Trajan’s Column separated the
Greek and Latin rooms which faced each other (Ewald, 2004). The structure was approximately
fifty feet high with the peak of the roof reaching almost seventy feet (Houston, 2008).

Unlike the Greek libraries, readers had direct access to the scrolls, which were kept on shelves
built into the walls of a large room. Reading or copying was normally done in the room itself.
The surviving records give only a few instances of lending features. Most of the large Roman
baths were also cultural centres, built from the start with a library, a two-room arrangement with
one room for Greek and one for Latin texts.

Libraries were filled with parchment scrolls as at Library of Pergamum and on papyrus scrolls as
at Alexandria: the export of prepared writing materials was a staple of commerce. There were a
few institutional or royal libraries which were open to an educated public (such as the Serapeum
collection of the Library of Alexandria, once the largest library in the ancient world), Phillips
(2010) but on the whole collections were private. In those rare cases where it was possible for a
scholar to consult library books there seems to have been no direct access to the stacks. In all
recorded cases the books were kept in a relatively small room where the staff went to get them
for the readers, who had to consult them in an adjoining hall or covered walkway.

In 213 BCE during the reign of Emperor Qin Shi Huang most books were ordered destroyed.
The Han Dynasty (202 BCE - 220 CE) reversed this policy for replacement copies, and created
three imperial libraries. Liu Xin a curator of the imperial library was the first to establish a
library classification system and the first book notation system. At this time the library catalog
was written on scrolls of fine silk and stored in silk bags. Important new technological
innovations include the use of paper and block printing. Zurndorfer (1995), Hur-Li (2012)
Wood-block printing, facilitated the large-scale reproduction of classic Buddhist texts which
were avidly collected in many private libraries that flourished during the T'ang Dynasty (618-906
CE).

The Ming Dynasty in 1407 founded the imperial library, the Wen Yuan Pavilion. It also
sponsored the massive compilation of the Yongle Encyclopedia, containing 11,000 volumes
including copies of over 7000 books. It was soon destroyed, but similar very large compilations
appeared in 1725 and 1772.

Libraries have been the repositories of knowledge since ancient Mesopotamian times, first
housing scrolls or codices, then later bound books and digital databases.For book authors and
publishers, libraries represent a significant market for their books — and libraries help create
readers and (hopefully) future book buyers. Here's an overview of important libraries past and
present, librarians, the role of ALA and more. Evidence of Mesopotamian collections, remains of
the Library of Ashurbanipal, records about the Great Library of Alexandria — all point to the
fact that even in ancient times, people liked to have lots of different types of information —
whether tablets or scrolls — under one roof. Libraries probably started as collections and
repositories of documents and letters,
Asimov(2017) observed that Libraries are one of the most significant institutions
in human history beginning in the ancient Near East in the third millennium B.C. In the
early Byzantine period of the fourth and fifth centuries A.D., the spread of Christianity
and monasticism essentially changed the development of libraries.
The writings of the thoughts by men from the past, the learning of the present,
and the hopes and fears of the future all could be seen in the written words that were
preserved and accessible (if they survived) in libraries or bibliotheca’s.

3.4.2 Development in Sumerian and Egypt

There were peace, prosperity and surplus products of the land during the reign of King
Sargon 1, of Sumerian (Modern Iraq). He brought peace to the Mesopotamian Valley, i.e. area
between the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris. He achieved a unification of the multitude of
independent city-states which endured for about a century. This achievement was repeated by the
Sumerian Kings of Ur, by Hammurabi of Babylon and others (Ojo-Igbinoba, 1993).

Egyptians were also able to develop their writing, build up and maintain collections
because of peace which engendered prosperity. There was also absence of war-like rivals. In the
prevailing peace and prosperity youths were able to develop themselves and their education by
going to school. In a war situation, all the youths would have been called upon to take up arms to
defend their country (Ojo-Igbinoba, 1993).

3.5 Development of Library in Africa and Nigeria

Aina (2004) observed that African is generally regarded as the Dark Continent because there was
very little interaction between Africans and the West during the ancient times; hence it was
thought that African was late in receiving Western civilisation. According to him, it is known,
however, that collections of recorded knowledge had existed in Africa, as witnessed with the
development of writing and libraries in Egypt As well as in Ethiopia. Just like in the Greek and
Roman Empires, learned priests and monks played prominent roles in the spread of knowledge in
Ethiopia, as manuscripts were kept in churches and monasteries. Ethiopia adopted Greek as its
religious and diplomatic language. Also, the Islamic spread to Africa brought the use of Arabic
writing which created Arabic records. In spite of the fact that recorded knowledge existed in
Africa, these were mainly in foreign languages like Greek, Arabic and Latin. There was absence
of recorded knowledge in indigenous languages, but there were certainly records that referred
specifically to Africa. The earliest written record, a handbook known as Periplus of the
ERYTHREAN Sea was written in Greek language. It contained information on ships and sailors
that were involved in the exchange of commodities between the East African coast and towns in
the East African coast and towns in the East African mainland. Also, Chinese records describing
trade between Southern China and East Africa were also found. The first record written in a
language indigenous to Africa was found in Ethiopia. The language was Geez. The record found
was a Bible that was written in Geez language.

There is no doubt that the missionaries were in the forefront of the expansion of knowledge in
Africa. The Christian missionaries developed the system of writing in Africa language and
encouraged literacy. Although oral traditions were prevalent in Africa at the time the
missionaries came into the continent, because of the absence of writ en records, there was hardly
any development of libraries. Even though knowledge was preserved through the elders of
communities who were used as repositories of knowledge on the culture of the community, this
knowledge was transmitted from one generation to the other verbally, or in the form of rituals,
ceremonies, etc.

During the 19th century, many important libraries existed in Africa. For example, South Africa
had a library in Cape Town (1818) known as the South African Public Library. Other libraries in
South Africa, especially subscription libraries were established in Grahamstown (1842), Port
Elizabeth (1848), Cradock (1850), etc. THE Fourah Bay College Library was founded in Sierra
Leone in 1827, the Library of the Faculty of Medicine, Cairo in 1828. The Library of the
Bibliotheque du Centre de Recherches et de Documentation du Senegal, as St. Louis was started
in 1837, the Library of the University of Liberia was established in 1862. The National Library
in Cairo was established in 1870 and the Library of the University of Algiers was built in 1879.
Bulawayo Public Library was opened in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in 1896. It was a
subscription library. By 1928, there were seven subscription libraries spread throughout the
country. The first agricultural library in tropical Africa was established in Zomba, Nyasaland
(now Malawi) in 1899. (Aina, 2004)

However, the rapid development of libraries as we know it today in Africa can be traced to the
colonial era when Europeans colonised most parts of Africa and implanted their culture and
norms. One of the important legacies of the colonialists was the library. Aina (2004) quoting
Ekpe (1979), however, maintained that the establishment of libraries by the colonialists in Africa
was purely economic. For example, the production of export crops was emphasised during the
colonial era for commercial purposes. Thus, a number of research institutes and departments
were established with a view to advancing their production. The need to establish special
libraries for these research institutes/departments, especially agricultural libraries, became norm.

During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia, the Italians established a central government library
for Italian East Africa and also had a good library in Asamara. One significant development in
the Eastern Region of Africa was the establishment of the East African Literature Bureau in
1947. It was set up mainly to meet and foster the increasing demands for books, encourage local
authorship and publish books in local language and in English language. It was also mandated to
establish large libraries in the three capital towns of Kenya, Tanganyika (now Tanzania) and
Uganda. Although it failed to establish large libraries, nevertheless, it pioneered library
development in the region (Aina, 2004).

The colonialists encouraged higher education in the colonies. For example, the Commission on
Higher Education in West Africa, which was set up in 1943, recommended a university each for
Ghana, Nigeria and Sierra Leone. Thus, by 1948, University Colleges in Ibadan, Nigeria and
Legon, Ghana were established and they were affiliated to the University of London. Their
libraries were also established in that year. (Aina, 2004).

In 1950, the Gold Coast (now Ghana) Library Board Ordinance was passed. It was the first
library legislation for the development of libraries in tropical Africa. It was set up to equip and
maintain libraries throughout Ghana. This was a departure from the norm then where public
libraries were under local authorities. Thus, a central government with financial strength backed
up with legislation was expected to develop public libraries in the country evenly. The Board
was charged with the development of libraries in secondary schools, teacher training colleges,
polytechnics, and middle schools throughout the country (Aina, 2004).
According to Ojo-Igbinoba, (1995) the development of Library in Africa can be traced to the
Egyptian civilization developed in late 4th millennium B.C. and was to continue for 3000 years
until it was absorbed by the classical world in the 4th century B.C.

Egypt is situated along the valley of River Nile. The Nile flows from the East African plateau
through a delta to the Mediterranean Sea. By about 10,000 B.C. the Egyptians had grouped in
small settlements in the Nile valley. These early settlements are now buried deep in the Nile silt
under modern towns and cultivated fields. Before 4000 B.C., the Egyptians had started to
develop their culture, a civilization, and were urbanized in such cities as Gizeh (Giza), Memphis,
Thebes, Tel el Amarna etc. (Ojo-Igbinoba, 1995).

Ojo-Igbinoba (1995) further posited that the land was thickly populated, productive of grain, rich
in gold, copper and iron with a great range of building stones and marbles. Cedar was from
Lebanon through Byblos an ancient Phoenician city and p0ort. The papyrus trade of which Egypt
had a monopoly, was a great source of revenue. It supplied the most important and widely used
writing material of the time. These records have been one of the sources of our knowledge of
Egyptian history. The Egyptians were also great collectors and built libraries or stored their
written works in Temples. The establishment of schools led to an increase in literary works. The
need to preserve and store these increasing literary works led to the growth of libraries. The
earliest libraries dated from the reign of Rameses II (304-1237 B.C.) who established a great
library of sacred literature in Thebes. It is obvious that the Egyptians attached great significance
to libraries. Over the library door was written: “Medicine for the souls”(Ojo-Igbinoba, 1995).

The library tradition, as we now know it, did not exist in pre-colonial times until introduced by
the British. But if library service is the provision of information for the citizenry then the
conglomeration of kingdoms, republics and city-states that later formed Nigeria had their system
of information service for their citizens.(Ojo-Igbinoba, 1995).

In the West and South were monarchies which developed an elaborate system of administration
and information service. The area in the Eastern part is mostly inhabited by people who are
generally republicans and they had their own system of information service. The North had a
diversified administration and public information system with its Sarki, palace officials who are
title holders, Dogari, district officers who work, the districts on behalf of the title holders and
maiShaila who were information officers1. Information was passed orally or written (Ojo-
Igbinoba, 1995)

The situation was similar in the West and South. The monarchies (palaces) nominated or
appointed title holders, some of whom were hereditary. Princes called Enogies ruled the
provinces. These Enogies and chiefly sub-system had officers at district and hamlet levels that
processed the information. In the Eastern part in which the people were mostly republicans, the
Elders in the autonomous communities depended on town-criers with their gongs to spread
information to the communities. Court messengers were used for specific information functions.
There were elders’ Hall meetings. The Age-grade system was used to spread information. Others
were market places and market days. So the method was essentially by word of mouth and partly
written information (Ojo-Igbinoba, 1995).

There are also court bards repositories of lincage history. Older people made their memories
available as information banks for their communities, grand-parents doubled as consultants on
family histories. Folktales distilled the wisdom of the community in matters of moral pedagogy.
Court rituals were the open though unwritten book of immemorial usages in the constitution of
political legitimacy. These were the ways through which information processing, storage and
retrieval were performed in pre-colonial times (Ojo-Igbinoba, 1995). With the advent of
Christianity and Islam, these information services continued in the form of Town Hall meetings,
preaching, public sermons, debates, story sessions and what the British called Palava House
meetings. In time, missionary activities and mission schools and Islamic education and Quoranic
schools provided more elaborate and improved information services. With the ability to read and
write, some rudimentary collections began to develop as palace, private, church and mosque
libraries. This system was far-reaching to the rural grassroots (Ojo-Igbinoba, 1995).

Aguolu (2014) observed that writers on the history of Nigerian Libraries generally take the year
1948 as the beginning of modern libraries, not because they are unaware of the existence of
Libraries before the historic date, but because “it was with the establishment of the University of
library at Ibadan that Nigeria acquired a library in the fullest sense, equipped for reference &
research professionally directed and staffed, and provided with an assured judged and an
appropriate building.

4.0 Conclusion
It can therefore be observed that knowledge of historical antecedents of library for students in
studying use of Library and study skills and information is very germane.
This is because history of libraries is interesting and challenging, it shows the important
personalities in their communities, and it makes students realize the role of libraries in human
development and make them to be proud of the library professional among others.

5.0 Summary
The chapter gives the meaning of library and importance of history of library to students and
other library users. It further stated the development of writing and printing; thereby tracing the
development of writing from China with the invention of ink, and German Johann Gutenberg in
the invention of printing. It further traced the development of library from ancient time of the
Sumerian Cuneiform script to the modern librarianship as we have it today.

6.0 Revision Exercises

1. What do you understand by the word ‘Library?

2. Mention seven importance of history of library to students and other library users.

3. Trace the development of writing and printing

4. Explain the development of library in ancient time

5. Give the development of library in Africa and Nigeria.

7.0 References
Aguolu C.C. (2014). The foundations of modern libraries in Nigeria –pp 461-483 retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/00207837(7)900 20-6 on 19th July, 2017.
Aina, L.O. (2004) Library and Information Science text for Africa, Ibadan: Third World
Information Services Ltd Pp. 14 – 27
Asimov, I. (2017) Isaac Asimov, edited by Joseph D. Olanderand Martin Harry Greenberg.
Retrieved from link.dracutlibrary.org/portal/Isaac-Asimov on 18th July, 2017.
Assurbanipal Library Phase 1", British Museum One (2017)". Britishmuseum.org. Retrieved 17th
July, 2017. From
Buchanan, S. (2012). Designing the Research Commons: Classical Models for School Libraries.
School Libraries Worldwide, 18(1), 56-69.
Casson, L. (2001). Libraries in the ancient world. New Haven: Yale University Press pp. 61 – 81
Casson, Lionel (2002). Libraries in the Ancient World. Yale University Press. p. 3. Retrieved 6
July 2017.
Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, Sagan, C (1980), "Episode 1: The Shores of the Cosmic Ocean"
Eberhart, (2010) The Librarian’s Book of Lists Chicago: ALA, Retrieved from
libguides.ala.org/library-definition on 18th July, 2017.
Epic of Creation", in Dalley, Stephanie(1989). Myths from Mesopotamia. Oxford, pp. 233-81
Epic of Gilgamesh", in Dalley, Stephanie (1989); Myths from Mesopotamia. Oxford, pp. 50–135
Ewald, W.(2004), Strategic Presence of INCOSE, Wiley Online Library, Retrieved from,
onlinelibrary.wiley.com>doi>full on 18th July, 2017
Houston, G. W. (2008). Tiberius and the Libraries: Public Book Collections and Library
Buildings in the Early Roman Empire. Libraries & the Cultural Record, 43, 247-269.
http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/research_projects
all_current_project/ashurbanipal_library_p hase_1.aspx
Hur-Li Lee, (2012)"Epistemic foundation of bibliographic classification in early China: A Ru
classicist perspective," Journal of Documentation 683 pp 378-401. pool will
shiftonline
Krasner-Khait, Barbara (2010). "History Magazine". history-magazine.com. Retrieved 5 July
2017.
Maclay, Kathleen (2003). "Clay cuneiform tablets from ancient Mesopotamia to be placed
online". Retrieved 2 June 2017.
Meehan, (2009) a short history of writing and printing; borrowed from Wikipedia. (Literature
and Composition Blog)
 https://comppost.wordpress.com Retrieved on 20th July, 2017.
Morka, P.C. (1992); History of Libraries.Benin City, Skola Publishers. P3.
Nicols, John (1978). Vespasian and the partes Flavianae. Steiner. p. 109. ISBN 9783515023931.
Ti. Julius Celsus Polemaeanus (PIR2 J 260) was a Romanized Greek of Ephesus or
Sardes who became the first eastern consul.
Ojo-Igbinoba, M.E. (1995)History of Libraries and Library Education Ekpoma: Uto Enterprises
Ltd, Pp 1 – 77.
Online Dictionary for Library and Information Science (2013) Retrieved from www.abc-
clio.com>ODLIS>odlis_about on 18th July, 2017.
Phillips, Heather A. (2010), "The Great Library of Alexandria?". Library Philosophy and
Practice, August 2010
Renfrew, Colin. (2008) Prehistory The Making Of The Human Mind, New York: Modern
Library.
Strocka, Volke, M. (2003). The Celsus Library. Ancient libraries of Anatolia: libraries of
Hatusha, Pergamon, Ephesus, Nysa.(Ankara): Middle East Technical University
Library, 2003, pp. 33-43
Strocka, Volke, M. (2003). The Celsus Library. Ancient libraries of Anatolia: libraries of
Hatusha, Pergamon, Ephesus, Nysa.(Ankara): Middle East Technical University
Library, 2003, pp. 33-43.
Swain, Simon (2002). Dio Chrysostom: Politics, Letters, and Philosophy. Oxford University
Press. p. 57.
Van De Mieroop, Marc (2007). A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000–323 2BC. Oxford,
UK: Blackwell Publishing, pg. 263
Zurndorfer, Harriet Thelma (1995). China bibliography: a research guide ... – Google Books.
 CHAPTER TWO
LIBRARY EDUCATION
N. A. AJAYI
1.0. Introduction

What is Library Education

Many information users or students of all categories find it relatively hard to search for
information especially if it is contained in libraries. To have access to such information, the user
has to know the arrangements of materials in the library, types of information resources available
and how to conduct library search. Therefore, the information user or students has to be
instructed in the use of library through what is popularly known as user education or library
education. Library user education involves a process of making the students learn and be familiar
to the library to make effective and efficient use of the library available resources through the
acquisition of necessary skills in the identification, location, retrieval and exploitation of
information materials (Igbena, 1990).This provides instructions to the users on how to obtain
required information by making use of the total resources and materials available in the library.

The major purpose of library education is helping the students understand the library
environment, its organization, and arrangements of materials, catalogue use and creating
enabling environment that can make users to effectively use the library to satisfy his/her
information needs and for better academic performance. Library education within its power
creates love for books and information among users, offering bibliographic tours for the library
users, giving bibliographic workshop or lecture on library resources, publication program and
electronic services. Above all library education or instructions enables users to have a perfect
understanding of the usefulness of the library in provision of their information needs.

2.0. Objectives

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

a. know the importance of library education to new users, as the machinery to resource
and information exploitation.
 b. cultivate good reading habit for self directed learning, intellectual development and
self education.
c. understand the reasons for setting up rules and regulation in the library for the smooth
running of the organization.
d. know the anti-library use behavior and its negatives effect on other library users.
e. see the library diagram of each departments and their respective sections or units.

3.0. Library Orientation

According to Collins Concise Dictionary “orient” means to adjust or align oneself or something
else according to surroundings or circumstances. Therefore, library orientation, user education,
use of library, reader advisory service, bibliographic instructions, library outreach, library
literacy, and study skills is thus the act of aligning or adjusting new users to the library and its
materials or holdings for useful utilization of the library. It’s a means of creating love for books
and information among users or clientele, this includes introducing to users the general
techniques of library usage and services available, and the organization, layout and faculties or
sections of the library. The importance of library orientation of users is to acclimatize them with
the library to be able to make use of the library resources and services adequately and to their
own satisfaction. More so, user’s orientation helps the users to feel comfortable in the library and
trust the competency of the library staffs.

Library orientation can take place in different forms or medium, it can be informal library
orientation or is formal library orientation. The informal library orientation takes place when
library workers do library orientation on one to one basis while, the formal library orientation is
when group of people are introduced to the library in an organized way. As well, library
orientation can be done electronically via the internet; tertiary institutions make use of the option
where there is online access to their resources. Library orientation program in universities are
also scheduled for the first year students as an introduction to library resources and service
through a tailored classroom lecture. This includes library tours to introduce students to the
physical orientation of the library building, its resources and a very brief introduction to the
library home page, pointing out links to student resources.
3.1. Anti-Library Use Behaviour

anti-social behavior is a global phenomenon, these are acts believed to be against the norms of
the society. There are types of anti-social behavior noted in the society ranging from aggression
towards colleagues, cruelty, theft, mutilation vandalism, manipulation, drug abuse and many
more. Likewise, anti-library behaviors have been observed and documented, these are acts that
lacks consideration of other library users and often cause damages to library materials.

Lack of availability of essential books and the high cost of those materials in the bookshop as
well promote anti-library use behavior in the society. This has led to stealing of books by library
users, with different methods such as throwing books through the window, hiding, and
smuggling it out of the library. The major harm of these kinds of acts is that it deprives other
users the ability to utilize the materials.

Here are some forms of anti-library user behavior; that are listed below:

i. eating in the library makes the library materials vulnerable to pest, rats, and other
pestilence destruction of library holdings.
ii. mischievous activities such as removing books from the subject area to hide.
iii. noise making and fighting with fellow library user thereby disturbing others.
iv. mutilation of library materials and removing the mutilated parts for personal use, thereby
depriving others from utilizing of the material.
v. removal of library ownership signs or marks so that the book can be converted to
personal use.
vi. impersonation is a criminal offence in the library; this includes using other students ID
card to have access to the library.
vii. defacing of books
viii. indecent dressing to the library to distract attention of other users.
ix. verbal harassments of library staff.
3.2. Library Rules and Regulations

 All users must observe total silence in the library and its environs at all times.
 All users are required to show their library card to the security officer upon entrance to
the library.
 Mobile phones should be put to silent mode while in the library.
 All bags, cases, folders etc. must be left in the luggage area outside the library.
 Users are not allowed to leave their baggage overnight in the library. The library shall not
take any responsibility for loss of personal property or books already signed out to a user.
 Users are not allowed to log in using their personal passwords at the search computers or
to access the internet from there. Do not shut down the resource mate program after you
are through with your search.
 All users are required to show all items to the security officer before leaving the library.
 No student is allowed to enter the circulation area without the consent of the library staff.
 Order liners must be observed in the library at all time, eating and drinking, smoking,
sleeping etc. will not be allowed
 Group discussions are only allowed in the discussion room and the noise must be kept to
a minimum and should not disturb any other user in the library.
 Use of sound equipment’s like radios, Walkman’s, cell phones etc. is not allowed in the
library and its environs.
 No seats reservation in the library.
 Users are not allowed to reshelf books after removing them from the shelf. Leave the
books on the table or on the trolley.
 No food and water must be brought to the reading room.
 No library equipment may be moved, modified or tampered with without permission
from the librarian.
 Students can be suspended for any anti-social behavior.

Borrowing Procedure

 Borrowing period is strictly between 8:00am and 4:00pm on week days.

  All users must register in the current session to be able to use the library services.
 All students must present their library card before borrowing any library materials.
 Library materials may not be removed from the library unless the library staff has
properly issued them out.
 All borrowed materials must be returned on or before the due date.
 A student can borrow a book at a time for home use.
 Loan period is two weeks.
 Students are not allowed to borrow books on behalf of others or transfer borrower tickets
to other students.
 Students with overdue materials and overdue fines will not be allowed to use the library
services.
 Reference materials such as reference books, journals, newspapers etc., can only be used
within the library.

Damage/ Loss of Library Materials

 All users will be held responsible for any damage or loss of library materials in their
possession and will be required to meet the cost of replacement and processing.
 Users must ensure that the books to be borrowed are in good condition to avoid being
held responsible for any damages noted while returning the books.
 Lost books must be reported to the librarian immediately.
 Lost library books that are recovered, must be handed to the librarian as they remain the
property of the library.

Admission: The following people are eligible to use the library:

• All registered students of the University

• Faculty and other staff in the University

• Any other deemed fit by the librarian.

3.3. Library Organogram

The diagram below is a typical illustration of a University Library.

3.4. Functions of the Library

Libraries are established in order to provide services to its users, the functions or services
provided by a typical library are derived from the objectives of a parent institution and the
category of the library. Generally, the following services are supposed to be provided:

i. Provision of materials and services specifically designed to meet the requirements of

researchers in their various discipline.
ii. Provision of materials for teaching and learning, serving as depository of academic
publications.
iii. Selection and acquisition of materials pertaining to all subject and programs offered
by the parent institution.
iv. Organization of the materials through cataloguing, classification and physical
arrangement of the materials on the shelves.
 v. Lending of materials to users (loan services).
vi. Preparation of reading lists and compilation of bibliography and other library
publications (current awareness).
vii. Answering readers’ queries: Reference librarian is designated with answering variety
of questions especially those pertaining to the use of books and the library.
viii. Instruction in the use of library materials: Librarians also consider it their duty to
instruct students in the practical use of the various resources of information and
bibliographical tools such as catalogues, indexes and bibliographies.
ix. Reader’s advisory services: The readers’ adviser in the library is preoccupied with the
duty of helping the users locate suitable books on any given topics.
x. Inter library loan services: Very often a user may need materials which are not
available in his/her library. For such user there are facilities in the library for
interlibrary loan from wherever they can be located.
xi. Photocopying facilities and services: Provisions are made for users to make
photocopy from part of a book, journal and other publication for minimum fee in the
library. This is useful in case such materials can’t be borrowed out of the library.
xii. Exhibition display: This medium is saddle with providing means of making users
aware of materials available in the library. Book display helps in attracting readers to
resources mostly overlook by the users and as well stimulates their interest.
xiii. Library, also provide internet facilities for its users.

4.0. Conclusion

User education is a mechanism of ensuring effective library and information services delivery
among its users, whether it’s done through orientation, tour, bibliographic instruction and user
awareness, its usefulness will be felt within and outside the library setting. This helps the
students’ performance after they might have cultivated the interest of reading either for pleasure
or research, because it efficacy is creating in the library users the right attitude to learning and
use of information resources. User education can be implemented through lecture, demonstration
and any other methods applicable or worthwhile. It’s important here to note that a suitable
method as applied to a particular library may not be suitable to other libraries.
The anti-library behaviors that has been discussed in the paragraph above is to combat any form
of disruptive activities to other library users and to entails the proper dissemination of
information services to users irrespective of services needed. It’s as a result of this that rules and
regulations were set up within the library to assist the proper handling and use of information
materials in the library among its users.

This chapter has also shown a diagram of each department in the library and their respective
sections or units under each department, to enable the user get adjusted or aligned with the
services being rendered by each departments and sections. Thus, it’s certain that library
orientation or user education is very crucial to teaching, learning and research study among
students, for optimal use of the library resources, which thereby leads to better performance.

5.0. Summary
Library is an integral part of teaching; learning and research. Some methods of implementing
library orientation or education have been established to key in new library users to the existing
information products and services readily available in the library for self-education and better
performance.

To achieve the aims and objective of a library in providing adequate answers to students query or
needs, the library as set up some means of getting students acclimatized with the holdings or
information resources available through user education or orientations. This might take different
forms ranging from lectures on use of library and study skills, tour, orientation, use awareness
and bibliography instructions, to align the new students or clientele with the library information
resources and services. Therefore, in a bid to achieve effective dissemination of information
services to students in the library, some set of rules and regulations have been put in place, which
allows easy running of the library services to all students on equal basis and to promote fast
retrieval of information. Thus, this is to help students get familiar with the library through its
different departments and units, as well as letting them know the services being render by each
departments and sections, to create love for books among the students.

6.0. Revision Exercises

 (1) What is library education? Give at least two importance of library education.
(2) List and explain the aims and objective of library orientation program?
(3) What is anti-library use behavior? Explain the different types of anti-library behaviors
which are common among library users.
(4) What are other forms or types of library orientations you know? List and explain.
(5) List the library departments and its units in hierarchical form.
(6) Discuss the objectives of an academic library.
(7) List and discuss the rules and regulations you know pertaining the library.
(8) Is there any difference between library education and user orientation.

7.0. References

Aguolu, C. C. (1985). The future of Education for Librarianship in Nigeria: problems and
expectations.Libri35 (3):10-24.

Aguolu, C. C. and Mohammed, A. (1987).Library Education in Nigeria. Zaria: Department of

Library and Information Science, (Unpublished).

Ajibero, M. I. (1990).Staff crisis in Nigerian Library Schools. A paper presented at the 5th
National Conference on Library Education in Nigeria held at Maiduguri, 18-20 February.

Boyce, B. R. (1994). The death of library education.American Libraries, 25(3):

257-260.

Budd, R. W. (1992). A new library school of thought.Library Journal, 117(8): 44-47.

Emmanuel, A.O. (2004) Issues in library and information science.Tonybenpublishers,Owerri.

(7):112-119.

https://www.slideshare.net/Janecatalla/library-orientation-14381347.Accessed3rd Feb, 2017.

Kasowitz-Scheer, A. &Pasqualoni, M. (2002) Information literacy instruction in higher

education: Trends and issues. Eric Digest. Retrieved from
 http://surface.syr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=sul.Accessed3rd Feb,
2017.

Lorenzen, M. (2003). Encouraging community in library instruction: A jigsaw experiment in a

university library skills classroom. Illinois Libraries 85(1): 5-14.

Nwalo, K.I.N(2003) Fundamentals of library Practice: a manual of library routines Ibadan. Stir-
Horden Publishers. P.33

Okiy, R.B (2015).History of libraries.2nd Edition.AmbikPress,Benin City.(11):205-267.

Onwubiko,E.C.N, Uzoigwe, C.U. (2004) Library: home of knowledge. HRV Publishers,Enugu.

P.45

Opara,U.M. (2001) Guide to the use of libraries.Evicoleman,Ibadan. P.11

Uhegbu, A.N (2007). The information user: Issues and themes. WhytemPublishers,Nigeria.
(9):147-158.
 CHAPTER THREE

UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES AND OTHER TYPE OF LIBRARY

FOLORUNSO, OLAYINKA

1.0 Introduction

Types of Libraries

Libraries are of different types. There are basically six (6) different types of libraries established
to meet the information needs of different categories of users. A library is different from any
other ones based majorly on the forms and types of materials in the library, the category of users
such library allows as users and the services such library renders.

There are six types of libraries;

i. Academic Libraries
ii. School Libraries
iii. Special Libraries
iv. Public Libraries
v. Private Libraries
vi. National Libraries

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

i. identify the categories of libraries and information centres

ii. know the differences among the various categories of libraries

iii. know the peculiarities of a University Library and its structures

3.0 Types of Libraries

The six types of Libraries are explained below:

3.1 Academic Libraries

Academic Libraries are libraries that belong to or attached to institutions of higher learning. The
institution of higher learning include Universities, Polytechnics, Monotechnics, Colleges of
Education and other institutions or academy of equal standing. Academic libraries are the ones
established to support teaching, learning, research and for community development. They are
basically put in place to give intellectual supports to the academic programmes and activities of
their parent bodies. In essence, the primary function of academic libraries is to address and
satisfy the information needs of members of the academic communities.

3.1.2 University Libraries

University Libraries are the libraries established to primarily serve as information and knowledge
centres for the Universities. University Libraries fall under the category of academic libraries
which are established to primarily serve as information and knowledge centres for the
Universities. University libraries are established to support and enhance teaching, learning and
research activities. They are established to support the academic and all the intellectual
aspirations of universities.

Users of a University Library include every member of the university community like students,
lecturers, non-teaching staff and any other person that maybe permitted by the University
Librarian.

3.1.3 Structure and operations of a typical University Library.

The overall head of a university library is called University Librarian. Also anyone that occupies
the position of University Librarian is a Principal Officer of the University and such person is
directly responsible to the Vice-chancellor on everything that has to do with the library services
3.1.4 Sections/Departments and Units in University Libraries

For Smooth administration, organizations and establishments are usually divided into sections,
departments or units. In this kind of arrangement, University Libraries are not left out.

A University Library may have the following divisions or departments depending on the size of
the library and the extant establishment positions of the University and the discretion of the
library administrator who is also the University Librarian. The departments may include:

3.1.5 Readers’ Services

Technical Services

Other sub-divisions or units that may be found in a University Library:

i. Circulation Unit
ii. Serial Unit
iii. E-library Unit
iv. Government Publication Unit
v. Reserved Unit
vi. Reference Unit
vii. Bindery Unit
viii. Collection Development / Acquisition Unit
ix. Cataloguing Unit
x. Indexing and Abstracting Unit

It should be noted that each of the departments has its specific functions, roles and
responsibilities.

Some of the units and division are further explained below:

3.1.6 Cataloguing Unit

This unit is usually under the Technical Services Department. It is usually headed by the
Chief Cataloguer. According to Aina (2004) a cataloging unit or department is responsible
basically for preparing the public access catalogues, shelf list and authority file. The basic
function of the catalogue prepared by the cataloguing unit is to enable users have access to all
documents in the stock of the library. Other subsumed activities in the cataloguing unit include
filing, classification etc.

3.1.7 Bindery Unit

This is another important Unit in a University Library. This is a technical unit that is responsible
for the preservation and conservation of information materials. The unit is, in other words,
responsible for repairing worn-out documents so as to enhance the longevity of such materials.

3.1.8 Circulation Unit

This Unit comes under the Readers services Department. It is the unit that a user will first meet
or see immediately after entering the University Library. Some of the important functions of the
unit include attending to users’ inquires, loaning of books, collection of fines for overdue books,
arrangement of shelves etc. More than other units, circulation unit interacts intimately with
library users.

3.2 School Libraries

These are categories of libraries that belong to or attached to nursery and primary schools,
secondary schools, technical colleges and all other post-primary schools not withstanding
whatever names they are called. They are established to support and enhance the academic
programmes and activities of such schools. A school library is usually headed by a school
librarian or a Teacher – Librarian while the users include the staff and students/pupils of the
school. The information materials in a school. The information materials in a school library
range from re-creational resources, pictorial resources and materials that support the school
curricula.

3.3 Special Libraries

These are the libraries that belong to or attached to specialized institutions. They are primarily
established to satisfy the information needs of members of the specialized institutions only.
Access to special libraries is not open to everyone like public libraries, but only for members of
the organization or institution.

According to Reitz (2004) a special library is a library established by a commercial firm, private
association, government agency, non-profit organization, or special interest group to meet the
information needs of its employees, members of staff in accordance with the organization’s
mission and goals, and the scope of the collection is usually limited to the interests of its host
organization. Examples of specialized organizations with special libraries are pharmaceutical
hospitals, companies, media houses, accounting firms, law firms, research institutes, museums,
religious bodies, prisons etc.

3.4 Public Libraries

A public library is a kind of library established and maintained by government or government

agents at federal, state or local levels. Some individuals or philanthropists who know the value of
libraries may also establish a library and donate it to communities. All these fall under the
category of public libraries. Public libraries are normally funded by the government from the
collected taxies. The collections of public libraries are usually spread to cover every human field,
and access to public libraries is usually free to all duly registered matured and mentally fit
members of the public. Examples of public libraries are the State Library Boards, Local
Government Libraries, Community Libraries etc.

3.5 Private Libraries

These are the categories of libraries established, owned and maintained by individuals. Some
individuals, out of love and passion for knowledge and knowledge dissemination and sharing and
because of their educational and social background, have established private libraries for
themselves. The holdings in most private libraries are usually a reflection of the field of study of
the owners. Example of private libraries include the Late Chief Obafemi Awolowo Library at
Ikenne, Ogun State, Nigeria (but now bequeathed to Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye as
willed by the late Sage)
3.6 National Libraries

A National Library of a country is usually established and maintained by the federal or central
government of the country. The National Library of Nigeria was established by the Federal
Government of Nigeria (FGN) in 1964 in Lagos with branches in every state capital. However,
the headquarters of the National Library of Nigeria has since been moved to Abuja when the
Federal Capital was moved from Lagos.

The National Library of Nigeria acts as Legal Depository for the nation as it accepts legal
deposits. Legal deposits are copies of publications deposited to the National Library as stipulated
by the law. Of all the categories of libraries mentioned, it is only the National Library that
functions as legal depository. It should be noted that before the establishment of the National
Library of Nigeria, it was the University of Ibadan Library that was functioning as the legal
depository.

4.0 Conclusion

The conclusion reached is that even though a library is an organization of information-bearing

materials, they (libraries) are in several categories based on their collection, users and owners.
Also, even though all libraries are primarily established to meet the information needs of users,
they have different regulatory bodies and laws governing them.

5.0 Summary

1. That there are six basic categories of libraries

2. That every library is established to satisfy the information needs of users.

3. That a particular library is different from another based majorly on the collection, users
and owner or regulatory body.

4. That apart from satisfying the information needs of users, each category of libraries
performs peculiar functions.

5. That a University Library is like a faculty having several departments and units within it.
6.0 Revision Exercises

i. Clearly dichotomize between academic libraries and school libraries

ii. Succinctly describe the National Libraries and their unique functions.

iii. Mention three important units that can be found in a typical University Library and list
the major functions that each unit performs.

7.0 References

Aina, L.O. (2004) Library and Information Science Text for Africa – Ibadan; Third World
Information Services, 192p.

Nwalo, K.I.N. (2003) Fundamentals of Library Routines – Ibadan: Stirling Harden, 28p.

Ogunleye, G.O. (2000). The Use of the Library. Ado-Ekiti: Ralph Blessed.

Reltz, J.M. (2004) Dictionary for Library and Information Science. Westport: Rain Tree, 567,
578, 673pp.
 CHAPTER FOUR
CARE OF BOOKS AND OTHER LIBRARY MATERIALS
OSUNRINDE A.A & AWOYEMI O.O

1.0 Introduction
Libraries spend huge sum of money to purchase information materials such as book and non-
book materials. As a result, these information materials must be handled by library users with
utmost care so as to ensure the existence of the items for many years to come.

Much of the damage that library and archival collections sustain is caused by poor handling. A
culture of good handling will significantly reduce the need for costly conservation work and
ensure continued access to collections. It is the duty of all concerned to ensure that collections
are preserved for future generations of users.

According to Busayo (2004) “Book mutilation and defacement are practices which are
detrimental to academic pursuit and excellence which must be avoided. The moment such books
are abused, either stolen or valuable pages are torn from them, such books become valueless or
incomplete for other users to make use”.

In order to ensure proper utilization of all library materials, there is the need to maintain the
available resources and to protect them from damage, theft and deterioration.
This chapter will explain with typical examples the causes of deterioration to library material and
their methods of control.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
 know how to care for library books and other information materials.
 list and explain sources of damage to library materials.
 list the different parts of a book
3.0 Sources of Damage and Deterioration of Library Materials
In order to ensure proper utilization of all library materials, there is need to maintain the
available resources and to protect them from damage, theft and deterioration. There are different
reasons why library information materials deteriorate and the most cost effective way to protect
library materials is to ensure the good and orderly physical and administrative management of
the entire collection.
Deterioration is a change of original state of any material by interaction between the object and
the factors of destruction. The different types of deterioration of the paper based materials are
reflected in wear and tear, shrinkage, cracks, brittleness, warping, bio-infestation, discoloration,
abrasion, hole, dust and dirt accumulation etc. Generally library materials are susceptible to
deterioration by the following factors:-
1. Environmental/ Climatic Factors: light, sunshine, high temperature, heat, humidity and
moisture.
2. Biological factors: Microorganisms, insects and rodents.
3. Chemical factors: chemical composition in which the paper is produced, glues, and other
elements of construction, level of acidity found in paper manufacturing and other atmospheric
contaminators
4. Human factors: theft, book mutilation, excessive photocopying, improper handling, back
folding of books, use of pencil/biro on library materials etc
5. Natural Disasters: Fire, Flood, Earth quake. Cyclones etc

1. Environmental /Climatic Factors

The climatic conditions such as temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, wind direction, and
sunshine promote the growth of biological substances which deteriorate information resource
materials. Temperature also has deteriorated effect on library materials. Each material in the
library responds differently to heat or high humidity. If temperature is high it can speed up the
rate at which chemical reactions take place thereby causing the rate at deterioration to increase in
the library resource materials. Avery good example is the decorative action of acid hydrolysis on
paper. Unomah (1988) asserts that the greatest single factor of deterioration of library materials
in Nigeria is high temperature and humidity. As the rate of chemical activity increases, thus the
rate of at which paper deterioration doubles says Thomas (1987). Relative humidity is the rate of
water in a volume of air expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount the air could hold at
the same temperature, the warmer the air, the more moisture it is capable of holding. The
increase in relative humidity causes paper deterioration, also at the same time if it is too low it
poses a danger for paper based information materials in the library. If the relative humidity is
below 45% the paper gets brittle.

2. Biological Factors
The deterioration caused by biological agents such as micro-organisms, insects and rodents is
generally known as bio-deterioration. Almost all book components, be it paper, leather, textiles
or straw board used for binding are prone to attacks by these biological agents. The climatic
condition accelerates the growth and multiplication of living organisms. There is perhaps no
library, which has not suffered the ravages of these agents of bio-deterioration. These biological
agents can be subdivided into:-
(i) Micro-organisms- Fungus or moulds, bacteria etc. In libraries fungal growth is known
as mould or mildew and they appear as brown/black vegetative growth on paper,
leather and textiles. Fungus consume cellulose and also thrive on nutrients in leather,
glues, pastes, binding threads etc. they weaken and stain the paper and can cause
discoloration. Besides fungus, bacteria also decompose cellulose in paper and binding
textiles
(ii) Insects
Even though there are thousands of insects, only certain insects badly damage the Library and
archival materials. They are silverfish, cockroaches, booklice, bookworms or book beetles and
termites.

(iii) Rodents
Rodents include mice, rats, squirrels and many other species. Mice and rats are mainly found in
libraries and they find their way into buildings through dry drains and openings in doors and
windows. Rodents are attracted by dark, damp basement, accumulation of waste and debris and
spilled food particles. In libraries they eat and destroy materials made up of paper, cloth, leather,
glue, etc. These animals are very swift to move and hide in dark corners.

3. Chemical Factors
In the manufacturing of paper sometimes fibers are used with low cellulose contents and some
chemical compounds like alum, rosin etc. are used for sizing of paper which cause acidic effect
and facilitate chemical deterioration of the paper with the passage of time. Besides, in the
atmosphere among various constituents unwanted materials such as oxides of carbon, sulphur,
nitrogen and hydrogen sulphides are also present. Because of the absorption of the chemicals by
the moisture absorbed by the paper, the library materials get affected. The notable deleterious
substances for the library materials are sulphur dioxides, oxides of nitrogen and ozone. Sulphur
dioxide is a hazard to cellulose materials like paper and cloth. The most familiar effect in
libraries is the brown and brittle edges of books caused by sulphur dioxide. Most of the nitrogen
dioxide comes from automobile exhausts & when it combines with oxygen and water turns into
nitric acid. This nitric acid has strong acidic effects and attacks the dyes in ink, cloth, paper and
leather. Ozone acts as a powerful destroyer of organic materials. It makes the colours of fabric
book covers fade and the book binding materials such as leather, gelatin, glue and paste are also
susceptible to deterioration by ozone in humid atmosphere.

4. Human Factors
A serious cause of deterioration often is the attitude of the library staff as well as the users of the
library towards books as physical objects. Librarians in charge of the documentary heritage are
directly responsible for the overall conservation and preservation of their collections, but they are
not always aware how to handle, store and use collections carefully to minimize damage and
help preservation. The standard of care and handling of books by their custodians and users is
often pretty low. Improper storage, rough handling, deliberate abuse, folding the fore-edges of
pages as a mark of reading, marking by pen or pencil, mutilation, vandalism are all examples of
deterioration of books by human beings.

5. Natural Disasters
No library is exempted to the devastations that can occur as a result of natural disasters. In
libraries, archives and museums there is a likely-hood of fire as the collections are mostly
organic in nature. Once fire starts, it is difficult to save those materials which get fire. Items not
directly engulfed in flames can be charred by soot and smoke. Heat emitted from fire causes
bindings to shrink and warp and plastic base materials to melt. Water used for fighting fire can
cause enormous damage. Besides fire, floods, high winds, cyclones, earth quakes are also agents
of deterioration for the library collections. These will lead documents to absorb water, swell,
warp and become extremely vulnerable to physical damage. Dyes and ink may bleed and book
pages stick together. Leather bindings seriously warp and change shape. Effects of disasters on
library collections are too obvious to comprehend.

3.1 Steps to Take to Reduce Damage and Deterioration of Library Materials

The processes of preservation, conservation and restoration are applied to safeguard the library
materials from further decay and deterioration. Preservation is the process in which all actions
are taken to check and retard deterioration where as conservation includes proper diagnosis of
the decayed material, timely curative treatment and appropriate prevention from further decay.
More over there are two aspects of preservation of library materials:
(i) the preventive measures which includes all forms of indirect actions aimed at increasing the
life expectancy of undamaged or damaged elements of cultural property.
It comprises all the methods of good house-keeping, caretaking, dusting, periodical supervision
and prevention of any possibility of damage by physical, chemical, biological and other factors.
(ii) the Curative measures consists of all forms of direct actions aimed at increasing the life
expectancy of undamaged or damaged elements of cultural property. It includes repairing,
mending, fumigation, deacidification, lamination, and other jobs which are required considering
the physical condition of the individual document.
Preventive conservation plays a vital role and has assumed much importance in our country
because a large number of institutions do not have proper conservation facilities. In fact if
diagnosis in time is followed by proper preventive measures many problems can be solved.
Some measures have been suggested to control the library materials from the effect of various
deteriorating factors.

Preventive Measures for Environmental/ Climatic Factors

Control of environmental factors partially begins from selection of site, the planning and the
construction of the library building and also the soil on which it will be constructed because
these elements have greater impact over the environmental control inside the library building. It
is very important to choose the best architectural design for the library having cross ventilation
facilities for free air circulation within the building. If there is a need to use wooden materials,
the wood selected should be well seasoned and must be treated chemically to avoid insects.
Growth of plants near the building must be avoided, as the roots will damage the building
foundation. It is always better to construct the building away from traffic to avoid dust and dirt.
Provision of adequate number of electric fans, air conditioner and few exhaust fans will facilitate
air circulation inside the library.
Sunlight should be prevented from falling directly on papers because the sun is a great emitter of
ultraviolet rays. The windows must be provided with colored curtains, which will prevent falling
of direct light as well as absorb ultraviolet rays. Lemon yellow or green coloured glass panes
should be fitted in window panes as these are more effective in blocking ultraviolet rays. It is
extremely good to fit acrylic plastic sheet in the panes of window because it filters out UV rays
to a greater extent than coloured glass. The UV rays of fluorescent tubes should be filtered by
covering the tubes.
As high humidity and high temperature are more hazardous for library materials it is advisable to
maintain ideal room temperature (200-250c) and relative humidity of(RH45- 55%) for
preservation of documents.
High humidity could also be minimized by the use of de-hydrating agents like silica gel. The
requisite quantities of silica gel may be spread in dishes and kept in different places in the room.
As accumulation of dust and dirt accelerate the physical damage of books, a cleaning schedule
should be made considering the sequence of operations following daily and weekly routines.
Specific instructions should be given to clean remote corners of the book shelves, behind
cabinets, under desks, chairs, and all surfaces accumulating dust.

Preventive Measures for Biological Factors

Since stagnant water, dampness, dark and dingy places in a library facilitate the growth of
biological pests, good housekeeping and maintenance of optimum storage condition is necessary
to control the propagation of the insects. Provision of cross windows, ventilators, fans and air-
conditioners ensures good circulation of air but at times it is necessary to circulate the air inside
the room with electric fans. It is preferable to avoid contact of book racks with walls (at least 15
cm away from the walls) to eliminate dampness. Attending to cracks, crevices and loose joints in
floors and walls eliminate the possibility of insect hiding in these places. Eating inside the library
should not be allowed. Periodic use of insecticidal powder of solution like lindane at the\ dark
corner walls, beneath the racks is a good precautionary measure to prevent insects. It is safe to
use paradichloro-benzene as it acts both as an insect repellent and insecticide.
A simple practice is to keep naphthalene bricks on the shelves as it repels the insects from
coming to the book racks. Dry neem leaves, neem seed powder and camphor tablets tied in
muslin bags should be kept inside the racks for keeping the pests away. The foundation of all the
new library buildings should be given anti-insect treatment.
Also, food should be kept away from the library materials because it attracts insects and rodents
that eat paper and bindings.

Preventive Measures for Chemical Factors

If the air pollution is controlled there will not be any external acidity in the paper materials. One
of the best ways of controlling atmospheric pollutants is filtering of the air intake in to storage
areas, which can be attained by air conditioning system operating for 24 hours throughout the
year. Without this facility simple measures like wrapping the books and manuscripts in cloth or
placing them in book containers reduces the effects of pollution to a great extent. Documents
kept inside folders are safer than those which are kept in the open. Proper care should be taken to
save books and documents from dust. It is preferable to use vacuum cleaner and fine brushes for
dusting of shelves and books. Wooden storage should be avoided as it gives off volatile acidic
vapours.If it is to be used it must be covered with coats of acrylic emulsion paint. Besides, acid
free paper, board and good quality materials should be used for repair and restoration of
documents.

Preventive Measures for Human Factors

There are certain do’s and don’ts which the library staff and the users should followto increase
the longevity of the library resources. These are among others:
i. For carrying a large number of books trolleys should be used. Utmost care should be taken
while transporting rare, valuable and delicate books.
ii. Care should be taken while photocopying the books as at that time considerable stress is
imposed on the material and the bindings suffer most and also the spine damages.
iii. Use bookends to support books when shelves are not full. Books should not be shelved too
tightly or too loosely.
iv. It must be always ensured while opening the books, pages are not torn or covers are not
damaged. To turn a page lift the top corner and lightly slip the finger tips down the fore-edge
supporting the page.
v. Avoid licking of fingers as an aid to turn pages.
vi. Users must not mark or highlight library materials either with pencil or pen.
vii. Books should not be left open on the reading table, face downwards.
viii. Leaning on an open book should be avoided since this can damage the spine and binding.
ix. Never allow a book to stand on its fore edge.
x. Never apply tape or glue to library materials.
xi. Always handle library materials with clean, dry hands.

There are no known drugs for theft yet. Nonetheless, library books can be saved through
vigilance and tight security measures.

Preventive Measure for Natural Disaster

Libraries should be provided with fire and smoke detection system and automatic fire
extinguishing system. Use of match stick or open flame and smoking should strictly be
prohibited inside the library. Inflammable materials and chemicals should not be stored inside
the stacks. The telephone number of the fire office should be visibly and clearly exhibited.
Location of emergency gate must be clearly indicated. The electrical defects and faults should be
set right in time. Thunder-catcher and other means should be in-built in library building.

3.2 Book Anatomy

The New Lexicon Webster’s Encyclopaedia Dictionary of the English language defined a book
as “a number of printed pages fastened together and enclosed in a cover”.
Oyegbaju (2006) defines a book as “a collection of printed sheets usually numbered pages
protected from damage by a pair of cover which can be hard or soft paper”. Books can come
indifferent shapes and sizes. Books stimulate interest and satisfy the basic needs for information.
Books are therefore essential to learning; however, you must know how to make use of them in
order to aid your learning.
It is pertinent to note that not all publications are books. Any Publications that are less than forty
nine pages are regarded as pamphlets. Books can be one volume or more than a volume and they
could be in different forms and sizes. A single sheet within a book is called a leaf, and each side
of a leaf is called a page.
A set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format is known as an electronic
book (e-book).

3.2.1 Parts of a Book

For some readers the only important part of a book is the text itself. Discriminating readers
however know that the author and the publisher have given them more than the text. They use
the information supplied in the table of contents, the index, and the bibliography to help them get
the most out of their reading. In this section you will learn the parts of a book and the
information each supplies.
The Cover
The cover of a book is the outer part of a book. Cover means to put something over or upon, as
to protect conceal or enclose. Hence the cover of a book holds the leaves of the book together to
protect the book as well as making it easy to handle. The cover usually carries the title and the
author of a book.
Spine
The spine is the back part of the book and it faces outward when you shelf the book right. The
spine is the binding edge of a book, and it carries the book title, author’s name, publisher’ name
and sometimes the logo of the publisher.
The Front Piece
The front piece is a full-page illustration. It usually faces the title page.

Half Title Page

This page introduces the book. It appears prior to the title page, it typically contains only the title
of the book, although, at times, the author's name and/or other information may appear.

Title
A distinguishing word or phrase, usually appearing in a publication, naming the publication or
work contained in it.

Title Page
The page at the beginning of a book giving the complete title, the subtitle (if there is one), the
names of the author or editor together with the qualifications, the name of the publisher, and the
place of publication.

Recto
A right-hand page of a book or the front side of a leaf, on the other side of the verso usually odd
numbered e.g. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 etc.

Verso
The left-hand page of a book usually bearing an even page number e.g 2, 4, 6, 8 e.t.c.

Fly leaves
These are blank pages which could be first and last leaves in a book.

Copyright Page
This is the reverse side of the title page. Information on this page includes the year the book was
copyrighted, that is year of publication and the name of the copyright holder, the International
Standard Book Number (ISBN) and in some cases, the library of congress classification numbers
or the Cataloguing Publication data (CIP). The copyright grants the holder the exclusive right to
print the book or any part of it during the lifetime of the author and a specified number of years
after his (the author’s) death.

Table of Content Page

The content page or pages, gives the list of chapters, their subdivisions and the page number
where each chapter begins. Readers examine the table of contents before reading the book to
gain an overall view of the content and the organization of the entire work.
List of illustration materials
These are usually lists of photographs, drawing, portraits, map, plates, tables, diagrams e.t.c that
are placed in the book and they also give the relevant pages of such illustrations.

Preface
The preface is an introductory statement written by the author or authors specifically to the
reader. The preface gives the author’s reason and purpose for writing the book, and may include
a summary of problems encountered while writing the book. The preface also attempts to
describe the reader; for whom the book is meant. This should not be confused with the
foreward.
The foreward (sometimes spelled forward) contains remarks about the book, usually written by
someone other than the author.

Introduction
The introduction, like the preface is written by the author. However, here the author tells the
reader what the book is about and how it should or might be used. For example, the author might
indicate that experienced readers should begin with section two or that it is better to read the
work through before attempting the exercises. If this is a second or subsequent edition, this is
where the author explains the changes and improvements.
The Preliminary Pages
These are the pages that are numbered in Roman numerals that is, i, ii, iii, iv, v, etc. These pages
carry some explanatory notes (Information) on the actual text.

Text
This is the major part of a book, comprising chapters, lesson or parts. The pages are numbered in
Arabic numerals, that is, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 etc.

Acknowledgements
This page, when it is included, is meant for the friends, family and colleagues of the author(s).
This section is usually comprised of a paragraph thanking various people for their assistance,
contribution and time in helping with the writing and publishing of the book.
Auxiliary Pages
This is usually the last part of a book and it is generally divided into five parts namely: appendix,
glossary, bibliography, references and index.

i) Glossary
The glossary is a small dictionary designed specifically from the words or key terms used in the
textbook. This part of the book is usually at the end of the book, it lists the definitions of difficult
or technical words used in the book and it is usually arranged in alphabetical order and printed at
the back of the book.
ii) Appendix
Some textbooks have more than one appendix (plural appendixes or appendices) depending on
the book's discipline. An appendix is a page or pages that contain a variety of information that is
related to the book's topic, but not relegated to one specific chapter. For example, history books
will often have maps and copies of important charters or treaties in appendixes. Math books will
have a table of logarithms, and chemistry books contain the periodic table and other material.

iii) References
Even though one, two or more authors write a textbook, the author does not make up the text.
The information comes from many other places called sources. A textbook author must list all of
the books, articles, recordings, and other printed sources, that were used in the writing of the
textbook. Whenever the author repeats or borrows from a source, and writes that information in
the textbook, the original title and author of the source is listed in a section called references.

iv) Bibliography
The bibliography is a list of all the material read, that the author learned from, or contributed to
his own ideas that are written in the book. Unlike the references, the bibliography does
list works that were cited directly by the author.
v) Index
The index is a thoughtful list of words and topics taken from the text of the book. Written in
alphabetical order, and organized so that it also reflects sub-topics. The index gives you an idea
of the book's subject matter. Each word is followed by the page or multiple page numbers of
every instance the word (or topic) appears in a meaningful context.
This is the page where some important words mentioned in the book are systematically arranged,
giving enough information for each item to be traced in the text by means of page numbers or
other symbols indicating its position in a sequence. Index could be author index, subject index or
place index. However, not all books make provision for the index, though, very important. An
index is a pointer to the content of a work (book).

4.0 Conclusion
It is no longer news that librarians are aware of deterioration. Deterioration comes with the
advent of paper making when the libraries and writing started. It is a common knowledge that as
long as we have libraries all these agents of deterioration will still livea long side with the
libraries. What then is the next line of actions to rescue our materials? Alegbeleye (1996)
recommends that for library materials that are still in good condition should be well stored in an
environment in which both temperature and humid levels are controlled. He therefore
recommends the installation of air-conditioners in the library as the most efficient and effective
method of storage. There should be an improvement in our environment.
Library environment calls for hygienic condition, and this should be monitored and sustained.
For a library to be free from insects, fumigation should be done quarterly. This could be done on
weekends, when people would be away for the weekends.
Preventive conservation plays a key role in preserving library collection. Every library should,
therefore, practice preventive conservation to keep the documents in healthy, good, and usable
condition.
5.0 Summary
We have examined care of books and other library materials. Much of the damage that library
and archive collections sustain is caused by poor handling. A culture of good handling will
significantly reduce the need for costly conservation work and ensure continued access to
collections. It is the duty of librarians and other information scientist to ensure that collections
are preserved for future generation of users.

6.0 Revision Exercises

1. What is deterioration?
2. Mention and discuss five major sources of deterioration or damage to library materials
3. List and discuss five examples of environmental/climatic factors
4. Briefly discuss disaster preparedness
5. Name and discuss ten physical part of a book
6. What are the differences between foreward and preface of abook?

7.0 References

Alegbeleye, B.(1996). A Study of Book Deterioration at the University of Ibadan Library and Its
Implication for Preservation and Conservation in Africa University Libraries. African
Journalof Library, Archives and Information Science, 6(1), 37-45.

Barbara, D (2012 Anatomy of a Book: The Physical Parts available at

http://www.barbaradoyen.com/book-publishing/physical-anatomy-of-a-bookaccessed on
19th June, 2017

Books available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookaccessed on 15th February, 2013.

Book Care and Handling Tips available

athttp://www.smith.edu/libraries/info/preservationaccessed on 19thJune, 2017

Busayo, I.O (2004). Library Use and Practices. Ado-Ekiti : Onaopemipo Publisher, pp.15.

Joseph, K (2003) What to know about the Library. Kay Jay Publishers, Ibadan.

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2000) Fourth Edition,New York,
Houghton Mifflin Company.
The Basic Parts of a Hardback Textbook available
athttp://www.montgomerycollege.edu/Departments/enreadtp/textbook.htmaccessed on 12th
June, 2017.

The New Lexicon Webster’s Encyclopeadia Dictionary of the English Language (1991), Deluxe
Edition. NewYork: Lexicon Publisher

Olajide, Abiodun (2013) Deterioration of Library Materials in Nigeria:Causes and Remedies for
Librarians. Journal of Research in Education and Society. 4: 2, 97-102
Thomas, D. L. (1987). Study on Control of Security and Storage Holding: A Ramp Study with
Guidelines. Paris: UNESCO, pp.5.
Unomah, J. I. (1988). Deterioration and Restoration of Library Materials: The Nigerian
Situation.Nigerbiblios, 13:2, 10-15.
 CHAPTER FIVE
STUDY SKILLS (REFERENCE SERVICES)
ADEREOLU OJO

1.0 Introduction

Study techniques are strategies that enable learners to make the most efficient use of their
resources, time and academic potentials. When learners improve on their study skills, it affords
them the opportunity to efficiently use of their time and make their learning easier. Anyone who
is engaged in learning activities can benefit from study skills.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
 itemize the various study skills,
 mention five reference resources and services and explain and
 list various types of electronic reference services.

3.0 Study Technique

According to Rita, (2000) study technique is divided into stages which include:
1. Motivation, Goal Setting and Time management.

Motivation

It is not easy to follow any course of study. There are occasion when you wonder what
prompted you to start in the first place, and you may even feel like walking away from it all.
Most students at a time feel like this. However, at such a time your study behavior will motivate
you. Strong motivation is important for success which can be developed through good study
skills.
Goal Setting:

Goal setting involves effort, therefore set your goals. You should believe that you can
achieve your goal,

 Avoid what can negate you not to realize your goals

 Rewards when you realize your goals
 Develop behaviors that match your goals intentions that will make you realize your goals.

Time management:

The following are guidelines for organizing your time efficiently

 Use whatever time that is available for you.

 Practice “clumping” like with like (do everything you want to do at once (making of
phones call, ironing your clothes, payment of bill).
 Set time table for yourself.

2 Tips for organizing yourself for effective study

 Find a workspace/room that can always associate with study.
 Have shelves to keep your books in order to clearly visible.
 Use clutter – free Desk – keep your desk tidy.
 Have a study notebook to keep events and deadlines.
 Study for a while and take a break.
 Summarize what you have read.
 Monitor and evaluate your progress.

3 Reading and Note – Taking Techniques

The following are better ways to read according to Brown (2001)
 Skim – read to get an overview of the information to alert your brain.
 Have questions prepared so that you can know what information you seek.
 Read and read with increased focused and attention.
 Recall what you have learnt.
 Review what you have learnt within 24hrs for increased efficiency.
You can adopt the SQ3R system. These involve survey, question, read, Recall and
Review.

Survey is getting the overall sense of what is in a book. Speed read to get a fore
knowledge of what the book is all about.

(2) Question:

Ensure that you can ask questions before you start reading. In case there are questions at
the end of the chapter, ensure that you answer them.

(3) Read and Write

 Read the chapter again and again

 Slow down if you come across a difficult passage
 Write down any information that seem to provide answer to your study questions
 Take note of any difficult words.
(4) Recall

You can recall by going over again what you have read or learnt. Then summarize it in
your own words.

(5) Review, go over your note again.

4. Preparing for Exams:

When preparing for exams, you should:

 Plan for it.

 Set time table
 Avoid noise and other distractions
 Ensure that you have covered your syllabus
 You can review past – exam questions
 Cover main parts in your course notes
 Read before exam period
At examination venue:

 Read every instruction and adhere to it

 Answer the question you know best first
 Write down something when they come as flash light while you are still attempting a
question so that you don’t forget it.

3.1 Types of Reference Information Resources

Reference materials are information resources designed to be consulted or referred to from
time to time for specific information. They are not to be read from page to page. The reference
information resources may appear in book forms, compact discs, and other electronics media.
There are two types of reference books that contain needed information such as encyclopedia,
bibliographical dictionaries, atlases, handbooks, gazetteers. The second type of reference books
are the ones that direct the clientele to where the information could be located such as
indexes, abstracts and bibliographies.

Characteristics of Reference Information Resources

i. Reference materials give general and specific information. They are meant for
consultation only and are not to be read through from cover to cover or from page to page.
They cannot be borrowed since the Materials are not allowed to leave the library because
they are consulted regularly,
ii. They occupy a specific place in the library known as reference section,
iii. The materials are usually very bulky and can sometimes run into several volumes.
iv. Reference materials are frequently revised by updating,
v. Reference materials contain facts that have been brought together from many sources
and organized for easy retrieval either in an alphabetical or chronological order,
vi. They are written to provide appropriate information for solving problems and for
acquiring certain knowledge in a desired topic.
vii. There are some reference materials that do not provide information but point out
sources of information such as bibliographies, indexing and abstracting. Reference
 books usually lack continuous exposition.
Reference information resources include encyclopedia, dictionaries, handbooks,
almanacs, yearbooks, gazetteers, gazettes, treaties, directories, Indexes, atlases, reviews,
abstracts and bibliographies.

I. Encyclopedias: An encyclopedia is a book of information on every branch of knowledge.

Encyclopedia gives a complete overview to all kinds of human knowledge. It is usually
composed of articles arranged alphabetically. It summarizes the most significant or useful
ideas and facts in vast knowledge areas and recognized fields of study. Encyclopedia is a
collection of many volumes which are usually very bulky. They offer general information
on a variety of subjects and its articles or essays are usually long from a few lines to several
pages. The articles are usually written by experts and it is always the best source of
information to start a research paper.

There are two main types of encyclopedia namely,

1. General
2. Specialized or specific
A General Encyclopedia contains information on all subjects by giving an overview of a
topic, accounts and descriptions, backgrounds and a list of books for further study.

Specialized Encyclopedias contain information on topics that are related to broad subject
areas.

Examples

General Encyclopedia

1. Encyclopedia Britannica, Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica. The current edition

consists of 33 vols.

 Encyclopedia Americana, Danbury: CT: Grolier. The latest edition consists of 30 vols.
 The New Columbia Encyclopedia is one volume of 3052 pages.

Specialist Encyclopedia
 i. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. New
York. McGraw-Hill20vols.
ii. Encyclopedia of Architecture, Design, Engineering and Construction. New York:
John Wiley, 5vols.
iii. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. New York:
Marcel Dekker, 1975.36 vol. with supplements.
iv. The Encyclopedia of Religion. New York. Macmillan, 16 vol.
v. Encyclopedia of Medical Sciences
vi. Encyclopedia of Education.
vii. Encyclopedia of Physical Science and technology. Abridged Encyclopedias treat the topics
in a condensed form.
Children Encyclopedia

i. Children's Britannica: Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 vols.

ii. Compton's Encyclopedia and Fact Index. Chicago Encyclopedia Britannica,
26vols.
iii. Merit Students' Encyclopedia New York: Macmillan Educational Corporation, 22 vols.
iv. The New Book of Knowledge. Danbury, CT: "Grolier 21 vols.
v. World Book Encyclopedias Chicago: World Book, 22 vols.

II. Dictionaries: Dictionaries give information and define words. There are two major types:
the unabridged and the abridged. Dictionaries can be monolingual, bi-lingual or multi-
lingual. They assist a great deal in the understanding of information and are usually
arranged alphabetically. Dictionary can help its users in the spelling and correct usage of
words, understanding distribution and classification of syllables, parts of speech,
phonetics, pronunciation, antonyms and synonyms.

Subject dictionary is restricted to specific subjects, giving meaning of the words, usages and
syllables. Examples are dictionary of Medicine and Librarian glossary of terms.
General Dictionaries

General dictionaries treat words of a language. Such dictionary is not restricted to any
particular subject.

Examples include,

 The Oxford Advance Learners' Dictionary

 The Oxford American English Dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press
 The Oxford English Dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press. 20 vols.
 Colin English Dictionary
Children Dictionary

• Macmillan Dictionary for Children. New York: Macmillan, 784pp

• Webster's Elementary Dictionary. Springfield, M.A. Merriam-Webster, 600pp
• The World Book Dictionary. Chicago: World book, 2 vols.
There is special purpose dictionary which specializes in class of words which many general
dictionaries omit and may be in a dialectical pronunciation. Examples are dictionary of Slang and
Everyman's dictionary of abbreviation.

Specialized Dictionary
In this type of dictionary, only the terms, which pertain to a particular subject, are treated.
Some give detailed information about a specific topic and therefore function in similar ways as
encyclopedia. It could also be regarded to as subject dictionaries.
• Dictionary of Biochemistry, New York: Wiley
• A Dictionary of Economics, New York: Barness and Noble.
• Dictionary of World History. New York: Two continents.
• Dictionary of Science and Technology, Amsterdam: Elsevier.
 Biographical Dictionary

A dictionary which lists and identifies notable persons by giving important and essential
data about each of them is a biographical dictionary.

 Dictionary of National Biography, London: Oxford University Press, 22 vols.

 Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the EnglishLanguage. Unabridged
with seven language dictionarySpringfield, Mass, Marriam 1961.

III. Directories: Directories are lists of names and addresses of persons, organizations,
corporate bodies, countries, towns, and cities. There are general directories and special directories.

Examples include,

 Telephone directory- Directory of incorporated

 Registered Companies in Nigeria.
 World of Learning Directory.
 Directory of Polytechnic and Colleges of Technology of Higher Institutions in Nigeria.
 Directory of Higher Institution in Nigeria.
 Directory of Approved Industrial Enterprises in Nigeria.
 Medical directory
 Trade directory
 West Africa directory
 Hotels directory

IV. Yearbook: ALA glossary defined a yearbook as “an annual volume of current
information in descriptive and / or statistical form sometimes limited to a special field".
A yearbook is a reference book published annually. It contains information about the
development or events in the previous year in an establishment or a country. Year books are
sometimes called annuals. They are not in all cases published on yearly basis. It could be
on a two or five year's interval

Examples are:
 The Nigerian Yearbook published by the Daily Times of Nigeria
 Nations Statistical Yearbook
 Europe World Yearbook, London: Europe Publications, 1926 to date.
 Statesman's Yearbook, New York: St. Martins Press, 1864 to date.
 Times of India director and yearbook including who's who1914
 Bombay, Times of Indian Press, 1914-annual

V. Almanacs: They are annual publications which contain facts, figures and other vital
information on a wide range of subjects. They include recent discoveries in science
technology, medicine, highlights on entertainment, population figures, important
authors, and reports on sporting events. They are arranged in tables, charts or list for quick
reference. They usually contain an index which serves as a guide to retrieving needed
information.

Examples are:

The World Almanac and Book of Facts, New York: Newspaper

 Enterprises Association, 1868 to date.

 Statistical Abstract of the United States.
 Whitaker's Almanac, London: Whitaker, 1869 to date.

VI. Handbook: A handbook is usually a small book that is conveniently handy containing
concise information, principles, procedures, tables, diagrams and graphs.

 They are often planned around specific subjects or topics.

 They give factual accounts of the history or events, economy, culture and sports of a
country.
 They also provide practical instructions on how things can be done or make them function.
 They serve as tools in any subject areas.
Examples are:

 Training manuals
 Television manuals Handbook of Commerce and Industry in Nigeria
 Nigerian Handbook and Facts.
 Consumers' Resource Handbook, Pueblo, Co: U.S. Consumer Information Centre.
 Librarian's Handbook.
 Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.

VII. Guidebook: This is defined as a handbook for travellers that give information about a
city. A guide book or travel guide seeks to inform the travelers about what to see, where
to stay and how to get there.

VIII. Maps & Atlas: Maps are pictorial or graphic representations of geographical areas while an
atlas is a collection of maps or drawings. They often show different aspects of specific
countries as well as illustrate themes such as historical development. General maps
indicate the positions of towns, political boundaries, mountains, rivers
and other natural features. When, however it is desired to have a full description of a place
by political or physical features then in order to avoid confusion separate maps are often
made. These special maps display such features as climate, vegetation, agriculture,
industry, geology, history; communications, fauna and flora.

An atlas is a volume of maps, plates or charts. It may be issued to supplement or

accompany a text or it may be published independently. The maps in the Atlas provide information
about places with notes, illustrations to show the Climate, Vegetation, Mineral .Agricultural etc.
Examples of atlas are:

 General Atlas e.g. Atlas of West Africa

 Subject Atlas e.g. Atlas of World history
 Time Atlas of the World
IX. Gazetteers: A gazetteer is a geographical dictionary, which provides information and
data about places, towns, villages, rivers, mountains, lakes and other geographical
features, population, tourist area, longitude and latitude, statistics, culture and other
relevant information. Such information is arranged alphabetically and is always detailed.

Examples
Times Index Gazetteer of the World.

The Statesman's Yearbook World Gazetteer, edited by John Paston

London, Macmillan 1975

The Columbia Gazetteers of the world, New York, Columbia University Press 1952
(supplement 1962)

IX. Reviews: The review gives a critical overview of a publication showing the strength and
weakness of such publication, it provides an insight into the state of knowledge in a
particular field. It is not a publication of its own but found as part of other publication.

Examples

• Books review in newspaper or journals.

• Chemical Reviews and Annual Review of Information Science.
X. Treatise: This is a long written work dealing thoroughly with one subject in any area of
study or discipline.

XI. Gazettes: A gazette is a government publication usually devoted to current events

especially within government circles. It provides information about public servants, such as
appointment and promotion, confirmation of appointment, transfer of service, termination of
appointment, resignation, death, decrees, legislation, etc. In Nigeria, as in many parts of the
world, no law can come into effect unless it has first been published in the gazette. The Federal as
well as State governments issue gazettes from time to time.

XII. Index: Index serves as a guide to location of information in a book or journal. The
entries are arranged alphabetically with references to show where each item indexed can
be located, it is not a publication but provides bibliography citations of the article listed
which includes author, title, volume, series, number, and date and page number where
necessary.
 Examples of index are subject index and science citation index. Educational Index, Applied
Science and Technology index. Biological and Agricultural Index, Humanity index to
mention a few.

XIII. Abstract: This is a short summary of a report, speech, or academic paper. It contains
essential contents of a particular publication and indicates the title of the work,'
author, edition and publisher place of publication and date of publication. It is
arranged alphabetically either by subject, author or title.
Etim and Nssien (2007) opined that abstracts are usually short and assist scholars to choose
what they want quickly.

Examples are:

Biological abstract.

Chemical abstract.

Library and Information Science Abstracts (LISA)

XIV. Bibliographies: These are descriptive lists of published documents in a given

subject within a period of time such as articles, books, manuscripts, conference
proceedings, theses and dissertation on a given topic. The bibliographic records will
include author, title of the book, publisher, place and date of publication. I.S.B.N. or
I.S.S.N. Examples are universal bibliography, subject bibliography, national
and trade bibliography. It is systematically listed in a definite order for easy retrieval.
The main purpose is to assist the user in accessing the needed information for research
and general study.

XV. General Fact Books: These contain general facts such as Guinness Book of World
Records. New York:

Facts on File, 1935 to date and The New York Public Library Desks. Reference,
Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Webster’s New World (Prentice-Hall).

3.2 Types of Reference Services to Users

 Libraries are set up to offer a variety of services to its clientele/users in order to meet
their information needs. In order to achieve this, several techniques are put in place such as
cataloging and classification, Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) and reference service to
assist library users to find their information in the library. Reference service is one of the primary
practices besides acquisition, classification, cataloging and physical planning. It has been defined
as a personal assistance provided by trained personal to library users seeking information.
According to Bunge and Bopp (2001), Wikipedia (6) such personal assistance is the essence of
reference services and is the fundamental role of the reference librarian.

Reference services are in variety of forms. Bunge (1999) categorized reference services into
three major groups:

1. Reference Services that may involve either finding the required information on behalf of
the users, or assisting users in finding information.
2. Instruction in the use of library resources and services (information literacy skills) and
3. Guiding users in selecting the most appropriate information resources
There are basically two types of reference service which the library renders to its users.
These include:

(1) Direct reference services and

(2) Indirect reference services

Direct reference service:

This type of personal assistance rendered to the users to get information in the library.
This personal assistance can take any of the following forms according to Chowdhury, and
Margatiti, 2004 & Aman (2004).

(a) Instruction in the use of library and resources which may take the form of

 Explanation on the use of catalogs, bibliographies and reference work

 Demonstration of how fill out a call slip
 Interpreting the content of materials in the library collection
(b) Information service
 It is the type of assistance library renders to users to get the answers to their queries. This
can make the Librarian to contact reference sources, search online databases and collections of
the library. It can also go to the extent of consulting experts to get the needed information.

Indirect reference service:

This involves the development and preparation of catalogs reference and bibliographies
which can help the library users to locate information in the library.

Reference services can be rendered in the following areas

 Readers advisory reference service

 Fact finding reference service
 Catalog information reference service
 Literature search reference service
 Referral service and
 Research and analysis service.

Electronic (E) Reference Service (ERS)

Wikipedia defines Electronic/digital reference service as service which library reference unit
conducts online and reference transaction in a computer mediated communication.

Elements of digital Reference Services

For reference service to be complete, it must compose of the following elements which
include:

 The user (library users)

 The interface (Electronic mail, chat, video etc)
 Digital/Electronic resources (web resources, locally digitized materials or compact disk-
based resources
And skilled information professional

Modes of Digital/Electronic reference service:

 Based on the time frame between receiving and answering the queries, Electronic
reference service can be classified into two types according to Francocur (2002), Berube, (2003)
namely:

(1) Asynchronous

This involves a time delay between the receiving querries and providing answers e.g e-
mail reference service.

(A) E-mail reference service: The use of e-mail is the simplest, cheapest and also cost
effective in reference transaction. It involves sending and receiving information at later
time. The reply from the library can be inform of fax, mail or phone.

Advantages of E- Mail reference transaction include:

 Users can query at his/her convenient time as there is no restriction of working time.
 It is cost-effective due to the mode of receiving and answering quarries.
 Physical boundaries are removed
 It gives room for shy users to express themselves which would not have possible with
face-to-face discussion with the reference personnel.
 It gives the reference librarians more time to think on the query before providing
answers.
Disadvantages

 It will be difficult for the reference library to know the urgency of the query
 Speed of sending the answers to the quarries depends on availability of internet service
and the nature of the librarian.
 It will be difficult for reference librarian to get clarification since there is no face-to-face
discussion.
Examples of the e-mails service provider to the user are:

(a) Info rocket (http://www.inforrocket.com)

This is a fee-based reference service. Usually it is priced per query. The user can send query
which can be answered by experts.
(b) Ask me (htt://www.askme.com)
It is a free-based reference service.

(c) All Experts.

It is a free web-based reference service where users can send their quarries to experts like,
Medical Directors, Engineers, Lawyers for information.

Others include

Question point (http://www.questionpoint.org)

Britanica (htt://www.britanica.com)

Infoplease (http://infoplease.com)

Ask Aunty Nolo (http://www.nolo.com)

(B) Reference via web

Though e-mail reference service is cheap to operate, yet it posses some problems to
libraries, as it is unstructured in form. Such informal structure does not provide enough or
sufficient details about the information needs of users. In order to overcome this problem,
structured web form was developed for users to download and hill from library web page and
then sent via e-mail to the librarian. The web form is useful because it removes ambiguity, clear
doubt of the users quarry.

(1) Synchronous
This is a reference transaction that takes place in real-time with instant response from the
reference librarian handling the users’ queries. Examples of such service are:

(a) Text based chart/instant messaging.

This involves exchange of information between the users and the librarian online as real
time.

Advantages

 Interaction between the user and the librarian is live.

 Time barrier is removed as reference service can be offered as long as both parties want
it.
 The speed of reference service is faster than that of e-mail and clarification can be sought
online.
 It affords the reference librarian to attend to multiple quarries at the same time.
Disadvantages

 It is labor intensive
 Libraries in developing countries may find it difficult to use this medium to deliver
reference service to user because they may not have the technology it entails to do so.
 Urgent questions that need urgent answers may not be attended to the way it should, if
the librarian is handling several questions.
C. Web cam services/video conferencing
This involves visual elements where the user and the reference librarian use text and speed
transactions and can also hear each other as in case of face-to-face discussion.

D. Digital Reference Robots

This is the use of artificial intelligence to perform the work/duty of the reference librarian
example of this is Ask Jeeves.

Evaluation and Future of Digital Reference Service

The basis for evaluating reference service is to ensure reliability, quantity and efficiency
of services as well as users satisfaction. Lanker, R.D. (2000) mentioned what should
characterized, the evaluation process. This includes:

The quality of answers (outcome evaluation)

 How effective or efficient the process is (process evaluation)

 Level of cost effectiveness of the process ( Economic evaluation) and
 Degree of satisfactions of the users (users’ satisfaction evaluation).
4.0 Summary

Attempts have been made under this chapter to explain the concept of study techniques,
types and features of information resources, meanings and types of reference services that
library renders to users. Also that it is only the reference section of the library that stocks
reference books and provides reference services. The librarian who provides reference
services is called a reference librarian and reference collections are usually labeled "FOR
REFERENCE ONLY”.

5.0 Conclusion

It should be noted here that for library to be enrolled among institutions that provide
timely information to users, a combination of face-face and electronic reference services
should be employed.

6.0 Revision Exercise

1. Why are study techniques necessary?

2. mention and explain 5 reference materials in the library
3. explain the various types of reference services to library users
4. What do you understand by Electronic reference services? Explain the various modes by
which it can be offered/provided.

7.0 References:

Adepoju, E.O (1994): “The Problems of Instructional Materials in Some Selected Secondary
Schools in Kano State”. Unpublished B.A, Ed. Project University of Jos, Jos.

Adepoju, E.O (2002) “User Attitudes towards Computer Use for Information
Retrieval in British Council Libraries in Nigeria”. Unpublished M.L.S.
Project. Bayero University, Kano.

Adeyeye, R.O (2004): Simple Guides to the use of library, Ado-Ekiti. Ralph Blessed Printing
Press. Alokun, N.A. Tope, (2004): The use of Library: A text book for students in Tertiary
Institutions.Lagos: NUDEX International Company.

Aina, L.O. (2004): Library and Information Science text for Africa. Ibadan: Third world
Information Services Limited.
Aman, M. (2004). Use of Malaysian academic library websites by University Students.
Information Development, 20 (1): 67 – 71.

Burton P.F and Howard P.1 (1991): Information Management Technology: a

Librarians Guide London: Chapman and hall. Brown, A. (2001). The how to study book:
Essential Survival guide, London Schedule.

Bunge, C.A. and Bopp, R.E. (2001). History and varieties of refernce service. In Bopp, R.E. and
Smith, L.C. eds.(2001). Reference and information services: an introduction 3 rd ed.
Colorado:

Bunge, C.A. (1999). Reference services, Reference librarian vol. 66: 185 – 199 Busayo I.O.
(2004): Library Use and Practices: Ado-Ekiti Onaopemipo Printers.

Clarke, Stephen O. (1997): Fundamentals of Library Science. Warn, COEWA.

Chowdhury, G. and Margarit, S. (2004). Digital reference services: a support of the current
practices in Scothish libraries. Library Review, 53 (1): 50 – 60

Digital Reference service. http://www.eduCRSC edu./resource/Broose/Digital + = service/305.

Reference

Fayose P.O (1995): School Library Result Center for Educational Excellence.
lbadan: AENL.

Ifidon, S.E.(2006): Modern Theory and Practice of Library Collection Development.

Ekpoma: The Department of Library and information Science, Ambrose Alli University.

Kinnell (1992): Learning Resources in Schools Library Association: Guidelines for Schools
Libraries. London: Library Association Publishing.

Krishan, K (2009): Library Manual. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd

Lankes, R.D. (2000). “The birth cries of digital reference: an introduction to this special issue”
Reference and Users services Quarterly, 39 (4): 352 – 354.
Marlamd, M. (1993): A Student Guide to Better Writing, Speaking and Research Skills: -
Chicago, the World Book Encyclopedia.

Ogunmilade, I.O. (1995) College Library Practice for Staff and Students Library Studies.
Patrick Ade press.

Olayinka, F. and Adepoju (2008): Use of Library and Study Skills. Ibadan:-Johnmof
printers limited.

Omilo, A. (2004) Computer Skill at Glance RichwoodVentures Ltd.

Owolabi, K: O. (2001) A handbook on Computer with computer Dictionary Lagos: Divine

Rain Foundations.

Rita, O.D. (2000). Study skills: Managing your learning: A guide for student in Higher
Education: Targeted Initiative Fund of the higher Education authority under the National
Development Plan 2005 – 2006 p.1-32

Ugwuanyi, A. (1977): Use of the Library for Higher Education. Ibadan Wisdom Publishers Limited.

CHAPTER SIX
TYPES OF LIBRARY MATERIALS
OSUNRINDE A. A.
1.0 Introduction
A library is distinguished not just by its collections and beautiful building, but by the information
materials (resources) that it houses. The services that libraries provide through its professional,
Para – professional and support staff cannot be excellent if there are no relevant and up – to date
functional collections in different formats. One of the most important functions a library provides
is the use of its resources to provide information to users on request (Aina, 2004). They are made
available in print, non – print forms to satisfy the needs of the patrons.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
i. define library materials
ii. highlight types of library materials
iii. discuss extensively (with examples),the major types of library materials

3.0 Concept of Library Materials

What is a library material? Library materials or library resources or information bearing
materials are materials carrying tangible or intangible information which exist in varieties of
formats in order to cater for the ever – increasing information needs of various categories of
users. They are also refer to as library collections

3.1 Types of Library Materials

Library information bearing materials exist in variety of forms. They are generally categorized
into Print and Non - Print Materials and are carefully explained below;

3.2 Print Materials

Print materials are printed text that can be read and understood by the readers. They include
books, reference materials, serials, pamphlets, manuscripts, etc. some of these materials are
discussed below:

3.3 NON-PRINT RESOURCES

Non print materials can be classified into:
 Electronic resources
 Audio-visual materials
 Audio materials
  Microforms
 Cartographic materials
 Graphic materials

Electronic Resources
These are information resources held in electronic format. The information resources are in
digitized forms which are accessible through the use of computers and other related technologies.
They include electronic books, electronic journals, electronic databases, internet resources,
digitized sounds, CD – ROM, OPAC, etc.

Audio-visual materials
Audio – visual materials are library materials which can be used to provide information which
appeals to the organs of seeing and hearing. They produce sound as well as images that can be
projected with motion, and can also serve as teaching aids in academic libraries. Examples are
motion pictures, video recordings, compact discs, etc.

Audio materials
These are information materials that have pre – recorded sound vibrations also called sound
recordings such as sound disc, sound cassette, tape reel, gramophone records, compact discs, etc.

Microforms
Microform is a generic term referring to any information storage or communication medium that
is made up of images too small to be read by the naked eye; and they have to be accompanied by
readers or printers. They are of three types, namely: microfilm, micro opaque and microfiche and

Cartographic materials
These are library information materials representing the whole or part of the earth surface or any
celestial body at any scale. They include two – dimensional and three – dimensional objects such
as maps plans, globes, etc.
Graphic materials
These are two – dimensional representation of materials, which can be viewed without a
projector. E.g. photographs, drawings, charts, postcards or those that can be projected without
motion by means of an optical device such as filmstrips, slides and transparencies.

3.4 Acquisition of Library Materials

Acquisition of information materials is a sensitive role played by the acquisition librarian. Due to
the ever – increasing world’s production of information materials, they are to be carefully and
thoroughly selected using the library selection policy as contained in the collection development
policy. Libraries generally acquire materials through purchase, gift, donor agencies, bequeath
and legal deposits. Libraries can purchase information materials through publishers, vendors or
wholesalers and retail booksellers. Internet and online resources can be purchased through
subscription. After selection of relevant and up –to – date information materials, the following
steps are required in acquiring information materials for the library:

 Bibliographic searching or verification

 Preparation of orders
 File maintenance
 Receipts of materials

3.4.1 Bibliographic searching or verification

Materials will be ordered and approved by the selection committee through the recommendation
of the librarians, faculty members and library users. The bibliographic details of each items
ordered will be verified by the acquisition section, in order to ensure that an accurate order is
made and to avoid duplication of purchase. The tools used for bibliographic searching or
verification include national bibliographies, trade bibliographies, publishers’ catalogue, etc.
3.4.2 Preparation of order

When the acquisition librarian is satisfied with the Bibliographic searching or verification,
purchase orders are sent in duplicates to the vendor/publisher/supplier chosen by the library.
Duplicate copies of the ordered forms are placed in the acquisition file.

3.4.3 File maintenance

Once orders have been received, the duplicate copy of each item would be withdrawn from the
file.

3.4.4 Receipts of materials

Materials received must be verified against the order form to ensure that the right materials has
been received. Such materials must be thoroughly checked against any form of damage and
inadequacy. Otherwise, such materialcould be sent back to the vendor for replacement.

3.4.5 Payment for information materials

Payment would be made accordingly.

4.0 Conclusion
Libraries provide support to parent institutions through the provision of access to relevant and up
to date information materials which are made available in variety of forms. Today, libraries exist
virtually (library without walls) to provide information resources to users without direct physical
contact with the library in electronic or online form.

5.0 Summary
This chapter gives an overview of library materials. It expressed the fact that library materials
exist in print and non-print format. Print format include book, reference materials, serial
publications, manuscripts and pamphlet among others while non–print resources include
electronic resources, audio–visual resources, audio materials, microforms, cartographic and
graphic materials.

6.0 Revision Exercises

 What are library materials?

 List and explain the major types of library materials.
 Justify the need for electronic resources in the library.
 Explain the major steps required in acquiring information materials for the library.
7.0 References

Aina, L.O. (2004).Library and Information Science Text for Africa. Ibadan: Third World
Information Services Limited.

Adepoju, E. O.(2013) Serials.In:Olajide, W. (ed.) Use of library and Study Skills. Ado – Ekiti:
Directorate of General Studies, Ekiti State University, Pp.48 – 62.

Anunobi, C.B., & Okoye, I.B. (2008).The role of academic libraries in universal access to print
and electronic resources in developing countries. Library Philosophy and Practice.
Available: http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/anunobi-okoye.htm

Awoyemi, O. (2013) Book Anatomy. In:Olajide, W. (ed.) Use of library and Study Skills. Ado
– Ekiti: Directorate of General Studies, Ekiti State University, Pp.48 – 62.

Ifidon, S. E. (2006). Modern theory and practice of library collection development. 2 nd

ed.Ekpoma: Department of Library and Information Science, Ambrose Alli University.

Udoumoh, C.N., &Okoro, C.C. (2007).The effect of library policies on overdue materials in
university libraries in the South-South Zone, Nigeria.Library Philosophy and Practice.
Available: http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/udoumoh-okoro.htm

Ugah, A.D. (2007). Obstacles to information access and use in developing countries.Library
Philosophy and Practice. Available: http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/ugah3.htm

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (2017) Types of Information Sources in
University Libraries.

Wilkinson, F. C. & Lewis, L.K. (2003).The Complete Guide to Acquisitions Management,

Library and Information Science Text Series. London: Libraries Unlimited.
 CHAPTER SEVEN
SERIALS
N. A. AJAYI & E. B. FAMILUSI

1.0 Introduction
What are Serials?
 Serials are information resources in print and electronic formats that are published in
successive parts without predetermined end. Serials publication is done daily, weekly,
forthnightly, monthly, quarterly, bi-annually and yearly. Some examples of Serials are
Journals, Magazine, Newsletters, Conference, Bulletin and Reports, Newspapers,
Organisational Research, Reports, Academic Research Report, Theses, Dissertations and
Monographic publications. The word “Serials” is synonymous to periodicals because of
its irregularity in publication. Serials are acquired, organized, processed disseminated
and preserved in Research and Bibliographic Department of all academic libraries
established in higher institutions of learning under the supervisions of the Serials
Librarians.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
 develop the idea of reading culture, retrieve information from Journals and other
materials.
 utiliseserials for learning and research purposes.

3.0 Types of Serials

Types of Serials as earlier mentioned include Journals, newspapers, magazine, bulleting,
newsletters, research report, organizational annual reports, seminars, workshops and
conference reports, etc.
i. Journals: Journals are research and academic information resources carried out by
experts in their fields of learning about current and up-to-date development and
discoveries over the existing records to bring about social, economic and physical
development in such field of learning. Journal publications covers all areas of human
endeavourseither humanities and or science and technology. Some examples of journals
are Nigerian Libraries – Journals of the Nigerian Library Association, ASUU Journal of
Social Sciences, African Journal of Economic Policy, African Journal of Education
Developments, etc. Journal are published quarterly, biannually or yearly.
ii. Newspapers: Newspapers are published daily, weekly, forthnighly or monthly.
Newspapers contain information about current happenings in the society. Such
information covers political, economic, education, health, social, autobiography,
biography and other general information. Examples of newspapers include The Punch,
The Nation, Guardian, Tribune, Daily Pilot, Alaroye Yoruba, etc.

iii. Magazine: Magazine are periodicals that are published forthnightly, monthly,
biannually or annually. Magazine are more expensive than newspapers because it carried
salient information that deals with political business and security of high-ranking
government decision-making body of the state, country and global occurrence. Some
magazines include The Time, American Times, Newswatch, The Ebony, The African
Beauty, The Nollywood Stars, etc.

iv. Others:Newsletter, bulletin, conference, seminar, workshop, Thesis, Dissertation, etc.

could be categorized under academic and research information that are useful for further
research. Thesis and dissertations are long essays produced through empirical studies of
postgraduate students in universities.

3.1 Comparative Features of Serials and Books

Serials Books

Serials are published in volume, parts, Books are published permanently ones
issues, on a daily, weekly, forthnightly, except it is reviewed
monthly or yearly

Serials carry ISSN Books carry ISBN

Current information is the hallmark of Books contain permanent information

serials unless reviewed

Serial are published by many contributors Books are authored or edited by authors or
editors

Research and Academic Associations Books are authored by authors or editors

 publish journals regardless his/her qualification

Serials cannot be loaned out of the Library Books could be loaned out to users

Serials after processing are arranged on Books are shelved on shelves

display racks

The format of Call Mark assigned to serials The format of Call Mark assigned to books
differs differs toserials

3.2 Importance of Serials

Serials play cardinal roles in information dissemination and utilization, the information
gap that serials fill in our information society of nowadays cannot be overemphasised.
Among the importance of serials are:
a. Information found in serials are very useful to researchers, academic, artisans, theatre and
media arts, traders, civil servant, farmers, etc.
b. Specialists, experts, professional in all fields or learning utilise information in serials to
develop and discover new findings in there are of discipline.
c. Current Awareness Services (CAS), Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI) is
achievable by the Serial Librarian with the use of Serial information resources.
d. Serials contain original or primary information sources that authenticate research results.
e. Serial encourage knowledge generation, knowledge and promote academic rivalry among
intellectuals.

3.3 Selection of Serial Materials

Selection production and techniques varies from one Library to another due to some
factors like paucity of fund, type of programmes and other logistics. Serials selection in
Ekiti State University Library is almost similar to that of textbooks and e-resources.

The following factors are taken into consideration while selecting:

a. Impact Factor: Such journal for selection should be highly rated professionally and cover
a wide range usage by professionals in that field. High impact factor is the hallmark of
such journal for selection Journals with low impact factors cannot be selected.

b. Availability of Fund: The number and type of journals for selection depend on available
fund. When journals are too expensive, on-line download might be alternative substitute.

c. Relevance to Academic Programme: Journals are selected based on relevance to

programmes in an institution. Selection is based on academic programme in such
University.

d. Experts and Professional Approval: The interest of users is sought first before
embarking on selection. Experts and professionals in faculties and departments are
informed through publishers catalogues to select journals that are relevant to their
discipline before selection.

e. Recency: Currency, recency and up-to-date information are qualities journal should
possess before selection could be. The serials Acquisition Librarians must adhere to
these.

3.4 Organisation and Uses

Acquisition of Serials is majorly through subscription to local and foreign journals.
Although, gifts and donations constitute other source of acquisition. At the point of
receiving copies, purchase copies are audited by internal auditors stamping with
ownership stamp follows. The next process is the description on the 3” x 5” card and
cataloguing is achieved with the use of locally developed classification scheme extracted
from Library of Congress schedule by experts to assign Call mark. The completed
catalogued cards are filled in catalogue boxes or cardex trays for users. Statistics of
acquisition is kept to monitor the rate of subscription or acquisition while statistics of
records of users consultation are equally kept in daily basis. Current issues are
conspicuously displayed on display racks for easu retrieval by users, while back issued
 are organized on the shelves according to each programmes for reference sake or
purpose.

3.5 Storage of Serials

Introduction
The modern day library and information centres are confronted with the challenges of
deterioration resources including serial materials. The collection had degenerated to the
extent of brittleness and peroration. Therefore, it is desirable to organize and preserve for
longevity and continuous usage.

Some simple methods of preserving serial information resources are:

i. Periodical Fumigation of the Library
The Library deserve periodical fumigation to put off micro-organisms in and around the
Library premises. Insects like termites, ants, flies, worms, etc. could be effectively
checked fro invading the Library.

ii. Temperature
The temperature of the Library must fall within 37 0C with the employment of air
condition and electronic fans. This controls the temperature during hot seasons and too
much heat affects the texture of print materials.

iii. Relative Humidity (RH)

The relative humidity of the Library should not be higher than 46RH to prevent
brittleness of paper materials.

iv. e-Information Resource Preservation

Electronic Serials information resources could be preserved in a regulted temperature.
Exposure to excess heat is determined to their life span such include computers and
storage devices like CD-ROM, diskette, flash drive, memory card, computer hardwares
and softwares, microform, etc. The effect of unpreserved Library serials collections can
easily subject the library to loss of seamless information resources.
3.6 Print and Microforms
Serial consists of print and non-print information resources like textbooks. Print
materials are hard copies of paper materials that could be handled physically for reading.
The non-print materials are e-resources; information is uploaded on to computers,
databases and other electronic storage devices. Apart from microform and diskette,
modern storage devices include computers and its software, CD-ROM, flash drive,
MODEM, Memory Card and other on-line free access journals, etc. Serials information
could be stored, retrieved and preserved on them.

3.7 Uses Access Through Abstracts and Indexes

These are quick techniques of meeting users information needs. Abstract are written to
decrease the time and efforts it takes to search the overwhelming output from research
and scholarship around the world. Instead of obtaining and examining a 3,000 word
paper, they can read a 150 word abstract and then either request or forget about it.
Indexing is the listing of keywords either alphabetically arranged or otherwise attached
with pages of locations in an intellectual work to serve the users time. There are two
types of periodicals indexes namely individual indexes and broad indexes. The
individual indexes is carried out on each journal as acquired while the broad indexes is
done on a group of journals acquired within a period of time. Abstracts and indexes are
special methods of information dissemination in serials library.

3.8 Newspaper Clippings

Selective Dissemination of information (SDI) and Current Awareness Services (CAS) are
methods to achieve newspaper clippings. Library users especially in serials benefit a lot
from these services. The Serials Librarian is saddled with the responsibility of creating
various files covering all field of learning and human endeavours. Information on similar
or same field is cut and clipped together for users access when search for information.
 Files are well labeled with the name of discipline boldly written for easy retrieval system.
The method save users time, more economical and provide immediate needed
information.

4.0 Conclusion

The information gap Serials resources are filling cannot be overemphasized. Serials
constitute the raw materials for teaching, learning and research purposes. With serials,
expert professionals and academic in various fields exchange ideas, create new and
additional knowledge to bring about new.

5.0 Summary
Serials publication is continuous year in, year out and its information content becomes
obsolete since experts and professionals publish new ideas on daily basis. Therefore,
new ideas and discoveries unfolds without any limitation. However, much importance is
attached to the subscription, utilization of serial materials especially journals. Journals
with high patronage by experts globally, are ranked wit High Impacts Factor (HIF) rank.
The academic Library like Ekiti State University Library is deeply involved in
subscription, acquisition, organization and dissemination of serial information resources
to its entire community members, the staff and students. The Research and Bibliographic
Library of EKSU custody about 1,000 titles of many volumes in its Library.Serials
comprises of local and international types. Generally, staff and students should utilise
serials for academic research purposes.

6.0 Revision Exercise

i. What is Serials?
ii. Mention two important of Serials
iii. Enumerate five types of Serials
iv. List two example of Serial published daily
v. Mention three features of Serials
 vi. Explain one method of Serials
vii. What is the full meaning of ISSN?
viii. Mention two forms of Serials
ix. How could users utilise Serials in the Library?
x. Which department of EKSU Library manages its Serials?

7.0 Reference
Agboola, I. O. et al… (2015): Perception of Library Staff on the Preservation and conservation
of Library Resources in the Federal University of Agriculture Library, Abeokuta:
Nigerian Libraries Journal of the Nigerian Library Association, 48 (1&2) ISSN
0029-0122
Aina, L. O. (2004): Library and Information Science Text for Africa. Ibadan: Third World
Information Services Limited. Pp. 103-107
Cleveland, D. B. and Cleveland, A. D. (2001): Introduction to Indexing and Abstracting, 3 rd
edition, Colorado: Libraries Unlimited: A Division of Greenwood Publishing Group
Incorporated. Pp. 1-260
E. B. Familusi and N. A. Ajayi (2017): Utilisation of Local Journals by Academic Staff in
Nigeria Universities: A Critical Review; International Journal of Library and
Information Studies: 3(1); 22-35pp.
Olajide, W. (2014): Use of Library and Study Skills. Ado-Ekiti: Ekiti State University, pp. 47-
50
Olajide, W. (2015): Use of Library and Study Skills, Ado-Ekiti: Ekiti State University, pp. 60-62
Tyag, D. (2013): System and Practices of Effective Library. New Delhi: Random Publications,
pp. 92-100

CHAPTER EIGHT
USING LIBRARY RESOURCES INCLUDING E-LEARNING AND
E-MATERIALS
OGBA, O.C & OWOEYE, P. O
1.0. Introduction
Libraries as environment of developmental learning, research and engagement have always
been in existence for the use of mankind. They preserved history at the classical age through
written and drawn information provided by use of clay, reeds, papyrus and other materials
(Encyclopedia.com, 2017). Thus materials found within man’s environment were used in
developing writings which were given different names like “cuneiform” and “hieroglyphics”.
The essence of these developments in writing is to make information communicable and
storable. Thus information contained in these materials became resources that could be used
to satisfy different kinds of needs. This is exactly the basic thing behind libraries and their
existence; whether they are traditional or virtual libraries. They exist to provide data, and
satisfy information need through materials that are accessible.

The usability of library resources is connected to community of users because a resource

which does not reflect their community is not usable. In the classical age or Stone Age,
materials of nature were used to communicate and store data for use. In the middle age, man
showed a reflection of modernism through writing and development of modern library (Wiki
books, 2017). In this technology age that has baby boomers, digital natives, the net generation
and so many other names users are called; libraries and their resources have combined
traditional and electronic resources in order to satisfy needs. Therefore library resources come
in different forms but have only the aim of satisfying needs.

In academic institutions, the provision of libraries is indispensable as they support institution’s

program of studies. Their indispensability is pegged on the fact that learning and teaching are
only made feasible with application of library resources to use. Despite this, studies show that
library resources are many times under used, not used or used inappropriately (Ossai, 2009;
Oyedun, 2011; Ogba, 2013; Quadri, Adetinirin & Idowu 2014).

This chapter looks at library resources with inclusion of tools and materials. It also looks at the
use put into library resources in learning. This chapter is made up of four facets. They are: the
use of library resources, the concepts of e-learning, e-learning tools and e-materials. Under
“the use of library resources”, this chapter looks at the following: library resources and what
they are, sources of library resources with inclusion of: primary, secondary and tertiary
sources. Under the use of library resources, the use put into different types of primary
resources is looked at; and other resources in a library including their uses are also looked at.
Under the use of library resources, sub facets like databases, catalogues, library sections and
human resources were also looked at. This facet further looked at: harmful behaviours
attached to use of library resources and solution.

The concept of e-learning and various e-learning tools available in this digital age are also
extensively treated in this chapter. Electronic learning tools and materials including their
various applications in learning were specifically looked at. This chapter concludes by
showing that libraries; especially academic libraries have provided variety of resources
including human resources; and their rightful application in learning would produce huge
academic result to learners.

2.0. Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

a. promote scholarly and academic engagement with your peers and lecturers.
b. use extensively academic resources in a library.
c. understand the rightful application of resources in any library.
d. understand the rightful application of electronic resources both in a library and the
World Wide Web.
e. promote resource based inquiry, collaboratively carried out with your peers.

3.0 The Use of Library Resources

Library resources and its use can only be understood when there is a proper understanding of a
library. Libraries differ and could be academic, public, private, special, school or National.
The focus of the library in this chapter is an academic library. Understanding an academic
library would lead to its maximum use both traditionally and electronically. A library is an
environment because it encompasses both physical and virtual platform. It has organised
materials, because it is different from a bookstore; its materials are organised using
classification schemes because there is order in a library; professionals manage a library
because it is an academic organisation; non-professionals assist in keeping libraries neat and
organised because there are non-academic services required in a library. These features in
description of a library show that information use in a library is beyond reading of books but is
a synergy between a user and resources in a library. It is an action that shows the harmonious
collaboration of both the user and library resources, not a single directional traffic.

3.1 Library Resources: What are They?

Library materials are information resources in a library. They are materials of different forms,
equipments and software located within a library (virtual or physical) to serve the information
needs of the library community (Hadley School Committee, 2014). Thus they provide information
required to satisfy a need. According to University of Utah (2013), library resources are
information found within any communicable form in a library. Such forms could be electronic, or
physical. This means that any material in library which contains information and holds information
or data is a resource. Therefore databases, CD-Rom, electronic mails, videos, photographs,
digitized information, Grey materials, print textbooks and periodicals, facilities used in
transmitting information, human resources, computer facility and traditional ones that contains
bibliographic information are library resources. However their usage would be best understood
through their classifications into sources.

Library resources have been classified into primary, secondary and tertiary sources (Virginia Tech
University Library, 2017). By this classification is meant that resources in a library fall under
groups and their beneficial uses to learning are better understood through their groups.

3.1.1 Primary Material Sources

Primary materials are sources of authority, originality and legality. By this is meant that they have
not gone through stage of analysis, interpretation, evaluation or modification. They are resources
from empirical research findings, legislations and case laws. In a law library, they are
Statutes/Acts/Decrees, Laws/Edicts, Ordinances, regulations, Law reports and Policies. Research
findings are normally found in journals, dissertations and thesis. These materials could be in print
or electronic.

3.1.2 Use of Primary Sources/Resources

Primary sources which have been described as materials of legal backing are used as authority to
support issues, facts, assertions, arguments and actions. They lend authoritative support to contents
in secondary sources of information. Thus in an academic environment, a primary resource is
indispensable as there must be authoritative backing to every assertion in a research work,
assignment, assessment or examination script. Such authoritative backing makes a difference
between a successful student and one who is not successful. However a scholar must ensure that he
or she uses current primary material and not one that is extinct. This is why it is not advisable to
seek primary contents from secondary sources because they are not constantly updated.

3.1.3 Secondary Material Sources/Resources

Secondary sources are interpretations, evaluations, reviews and analysis of primary resources.
They provide clarifications to primary materials and sometimes review secondary resources. They
treat at in-depth aspect of primary materials; using examples, diagram and illustrations to expatiate
primary contents for proper understanding. The basis behind every secondary material is to
educate; therefore they are scholarly in nature. This is unlike primary materials which are
authoritative and therefore state the law. Thus, secondary materials are mirror for better view of
primary resources and their contents. Secondary resources are textbooks, journals, newsletters,
newspapers and other types of periodicals. They range from textbooks to periodicals (University
of Minnesota, 2017) and could be print or electronic.

Use of Secondary Material Sources/Resources

Secondary resources as have been explained provide explanations for better understanding of every
part of a primary resource; therefore it is good for in-depth study. It is required to gain deeper
knowledge and understanding of any area of academic interest. As a result of this, it is good as a
follow up to lectures. Each area taught in class has to be followed up using secondary resources,
while the primary one which are normally referenced in secondary resource contents could be
looked up for authentication purpose. When the two are combined, information is then transmitted
into knowledge, which is ingrained in a scholar. Thus, a student who intends gaining deep
knowledge of an area of academic interest should always do a back up using secondary resources,
with a look up on primary resources for authentication purposes. Apart from the in-depth nature of
secondary materials, they are also used for teaching. Therefore lecturers use secondary materials to
prepare for their lessons. For educational development of a student, they should be poised to use
secondary resources in order to develop and gain deeper knowledge. Table 1 shows some
secondary resources and their uses.

Table 1: Other Secondary Resources (Apart from textbooks) and their Uses
Resources Uses

Thesis/Dissertation Thesis and dissertations are research end product that contain
academic findings. They are both secondary resource and primary
resource. The findings in them make them primary resource while
the literatures reviewed in them makes them secondary resource.
Many times, they are not published but are received from students
who defended their degrees in any institution. They should be used as
guides and consultation resources because they contain references
that were consulted by owners of research work. They are as well
specimen of facets required in institutional thesis and dissertation so
students researching could use them as guides. However, they should
not be copied and used as a replacement of current research work.
Where used in this manner, they become harmful because findings,
citations in such thesis or dissertations might have become invalid
due to current events. Furthermore, such copying could be
challenged by the rightful owner of the work in a copyright case.
Note to Libraries: Students who intend using thesis or dissertation
should be made to write down their details including the material
they are consulting, date of consultation and the purpose of
consulting it. The number of hours spent consulting such material
should also be noted.

Resources Uses

Journal materials & other periodicals They should be used to get current information on subjects. They are
made up of journals, newspapers, newsletters, and others. Findings in
journals make them both primary and secondary resource.
Newspapers contain current facts which could be used for research
purposes. Thus a researcher should make a habit of using them to get
current information rather than dwelling on textbooks which contents
might no longer be valid. For academic purposes, it is advised that
newspapers and journals be used rather than newsletters. This is
 because many newsletters are not academic but portray images of
organisations.

Reserve Materials Materials reserved in a library are not subject to be loaned. They are
materials that are either rare, few in copies, single copies, used for
courses or very costly. Such materials are reserved so that they would
not get lost, not be used by only student but by all; while they are also
made accessible for lectures. Thus students should consult reserved
materials, especially the ones reserved for courses and study ahead of
time. Other reserved materials should also be consulted by getting
permission of the library officer in charge.

Archived Materials Archived materials are historical materials kept for research purposes.
Materials archived should not be used except if directed and for
historical research. For academic purposes, it is better to use current
materials.

Grey Materials Grey materials are unpublished materials that emanate from one’s
institution or faculty. They are: seminar papers, conference papers,
convocation papers and others. They are good sources of current
information; but they are normally ignored.

3.1.4 Tertiary Material Sources/Resources

Tertiary sources are resources which provide finding tools to secondary and primary materials.
According to Virginia Tech (2017), they provide synthesised data in a convenient form. By
convenience is meant that their arrangement is normally in such ways that subject terms are easily
accessible and known briefly; thus, they are normally arranged in disjointed and alphabetical order.
They are not completely scholarly but are directive, locators and provide summary of any term for
immediate understanding and location; they aid scholarship or learning. They are normally in
reference sections of the library and could be encyclopaedias, indexes, catalogues, directories,
 digest, maps, abstracts, dictionaries and others. A resource of a tertiary nature would provide
information that combines both secondary resources and primary resources.

Use of Tertiary Material Sources/ Resources

Tertiary resources are requisite materials which are read alongside with secondary materials. This is
because of their ability to briefly explain a subject term or direct a scholar to locations of materials on any
subject term. Thus they are needed when a reader or researcher is confused about a term, do not know
how to go about a research, do not know the attributes of a term and do not know the different context of a
term. Depending on the area of need, a right tertiary resource would provide the right solution. Table 2
provides summary of the use of some tertiary resources for academic purposes.

Table 2: Some tertiary resources

Tertiary Resources Uses

Encyclopaedias They could be special or general; however they provide summarised information
and description of subject terms for different disciplines. Thus they are good
sources to consult by a novice in any subject area. They are also a resource to
consult by a novice who is either in a hurry or don’t intend studying a term at in-
depth.

Index An Index provides alphabetical listings of: topics, contents within a book,
legislations, or holdings (bibliographic contents) of a library; and provides brief
information on where to locate them either in a book or place. A student or
researcher who is confused on how to begin a search or locate appropriate
materials should always request for index in any section of a library. For a book
with large contents, a student or scholar should look for index within such book
in order to locate area of interest. An index should also be consulted when a
resource has several volumes and a scholar does not know the volume containing
his or her area of interest. Many books with large volumes normally have a
separate index and are normally shelved alongside with the secondary materials
or textbooks. Examples are: laws, law reports and large textbooks. Any Library
index could be found on a separate book or as OPAC (Online Public Access
Catalogue) or Catalogue of any form. Some libraries provide index for their
 journals, thesis and dissertations.

Abstracts Abstracts provide summaries of materials contained in legal or non legal works.
They are good for research purposes since they could provide summaries of works
on a subject, thus assisting in analytical view of work including showing different
views on a subject term or issue.

Digest Digest is summarised contents of a larger piece of work providing further

references. There could be organisational digest and a legal digest (Merriam
Webster Dictionary, 2017). Digests A legal digest is an index of legal
propositions showing summaries of reported cases arranged by subject and
subdivided by jurisdiction and courts. Thus like cases on areas of law are arranged
together under a subject term.

Tertiary Resources Uses

Glossary A glossary is an alphabetically arranged list of terms/words at the back of a book

explaining the meaning giving to each words that appeared in the contents of such
book.

3.1.5 Other Resources found in a Library and their usage

Databases and facilities which aid learning are also located in a library. They are also library
resources because they contain information. Examples are databases of different disciplines,
software for network, automation and catalogue of both traditional and online types.

Databases
Databases are sets of data representing different disciplines, normally accessible through electronic
means; they could be open sourced or subscription based. Subscription based databases are paid
for while open sourced databases are free. Where their Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is
provided in a library portal, then they are authenticated. Databases that are paid for are readily
available for use either within an institution or outside an institution. Many open sourced databases
are free and owned by academic institutions. Some of them are: Doaj (www.doaj.com): a
multidisciplinary database; Niscair(www.niscaironline.org): a multidisciplinary database;
Jipitec(www.jipitec.eu): a database of intellectual property law (Ogba, 2015). Many of these
subscribed and free databases are normally found on a library or institutional portal; but where
they are not, a scholar should locate them through their website address. This therefore shows a
need to consult library portals during research.

3.1.6 Catalogues
Catalogues both traditional (card catalogue) and electronic (OPAC: Online Public Access
Catalogue) are resources that contain the bibliographic contents of a library. They are meta-data
and also an index showing holdings of a library. They should be the first point of contact for search
of resources in a library. This is because they are arranged in such a way that materials of need are
easily accessed and located. Card catalogues or traditional catalogues are becoming extinct,
however many libraries still use them. They are normally arranged by author, subject, and title.
Some libraries also have union catalogue which is a catalogue that contains all bibliographic
holdings of different sections of library within an organisation or institution.

A catalogue that is arranged by author would provide as main access point or main entry the
surname of authors, as far as they are not more than three in number in which case, the title
becomes the main access point. If it is by subject, then a scholar is free to search using subject
terms used by professionals in such discipline. However if the catalogue is arranged by title, then a
researcher can search bearing in mind the title of a work. Traditional catalogues still stick to
traditional means of access in library profession. However electronic catalogue has gradually
overtaken traditional ones. Electronic catalogues are made user friendly, thus materials are
searched using subject terms; just as is used in search engines. It is important for a researcher to
understand the mechanism of an electronic catalogue; whether it is user friendly or sticks to
traditional catalogue style. However in use of library resources, studies show that students have
consistent behaviour that harm rather than assist them in use of library resources (Ogba, 2013a, b;
Ossai, 2009, 2011).

3.1.7 Harmful Behaviours Attached to Use of Library Resources and Solutions

 Ogba (2013a,b) and Ossai (2009,2011) show that Nigerian undergraduate students exhibit certain
behaviour towards library resources. Table 3 has enumerated them and has shown their harmful
effects as well as solutions.

Table 3: Harmful behaviour towards use of library resources, effects and solutions

Behaviours Harmful Effects Solutions

Browsing library shelves Waste of time, energy; distraction by materials not Use library catalogue,
currently needed; use of inappropriate materials; either OPAC, or Web
getting limited materials or none. OPAC.

Refusal to seek Academics or a scholar would suffer Approach academic

academic help librarians. Ask questions
at reference section or
circulation desk.

Behaviours Harmful Effects Solutions

Use of inappropriate Lack of proper grooming and understanding. Find time to study using
materials for studies. Inability to gain knowledge. appropriate materials,
then jot down what you
understand in order to
avoid repetition.

3.1.8 Library Sections and Resources

Library sections are resources because they contain library holding. There are many of them but the
prominent ones which would aid use of library resource would be shown. Table 4 shows sections in the
library and the types of resource they hold.

Sections Resources held

General reading hall Holds materials of mostly secondary resources, depending on the
organisation of a library, it could hold tertiary and primary materials.
Tertiary and primary materials are not subject to loan services, it is only
 secondary resources that can be borrowed.

Serials section Holds periodicals like journals, newspapers, newsletters and others.
Depending on the organisation of the library, it could hold research
materials. Resources in this section are not subject to loan services.

Reference section Holds reference resources in a library. They are not subject to loan
services.

Circulation desk and These two units of the library have the primary act of providing direct
Reference desk services to users of any category on any subject attached to the library.
Although a reference librarian does more by guiding scholars on the
appropriate materials to use, analysing scholars work and sometimes
providing a literature review for a scholar’s research work. They are
headed by professional librarian, especially reference desk. A circulation
desk is a charging and discharging point. Users borrow books from here
and get discharged when they return their books. A novice in any library
can approach a library’s circulation desk (Big desk immediately at
entrance of any library) to ask questions about anything.

Technical section This is where new books are processed and catalogued. It’s only open for
professionals and staff.

3.2 Concepts of E-Learning

3.2.1 Introduction
The concept of education has widened to include electronic learning with major focus on distance
learning education. Distance learning education is education delivered to virtual students on virtual
platform using virtual lecturers, and library resources. It is just an aspect of electronic learning (e-
learning); as e-learning encompasses other areas of electronic education. Electronic learning (e-
learning) is education delivered through all kinds of electronic platforms involving internet and
computer. It could be offline, online or internet based and no matter the type used, library
resources are the base for its success. Where it is online, it uses local area network (LAN) and may
not be connected to the internet. In this type of e-education, learning materials are already stored
inside the system for learning and are accessible by keywords or any established means. Thus, they
are most time partial electronic education. Where e-learning is offline, learning materials are
stored in mediums of access; and do not require any form of network. However where they are
internet based, then they are accessible globally. This is the type of learning applied in distance
learning education.

Some libraries in trying to reach the Net generation (or students who are only interested in digital
materials) have implemented Web 2.0 into library services. Some web 2.0 is: wiki, blog, and
many others. Through these platforms, libraries provide electronic services, discuss resources,
answer questions, provide learning materials and respond to academic chats of their patrons. They
also go further by getting involved with library patrons on their social sites and tag library
materials, share videos and resources or introduce new services through them. Through this way,
they make it easier to learn whether in traditional platform or electronic one.

3.2.1 E-Learning Tools

Information and communication technology is changing every facet of human endeavour
including teaching and learning processes. Different types of technological tools have been
developed to cater for different categories of learners. One of the important technological
innovations is e-learning which may be described as the application of broadband internet and
computers to assist teaching and learning. In essence, e-learning is a computer based educational
tool or system that enables you to learn anywhere and at any time. Today e-learning is mostly
delivered through the internet, although in the past it was delivered using a blend of computer-
based methods like CD-ROM. Technology has advanced so much that the geographical gap is
bridged with the use of tools that make you feel as if you are inside the classroom. E-learning
offers the ability to share material in all kinds of formats such as videos, slideshows, word
documents and PDFs. Conducting webinars (live online classes) and communicating with
professors via chat and message forums is also an option available to users.
The following are some of the e-learning tools available today:

a. Learning Management System (LMS)

Learning Management System (LMS) is a global term for a computer system specifically
developed for managing online courses, distributing course materials and allowing collaboration
between students and teachers. LMS allows you to manage every aspect of a course, from the
registration of students to the storing of test results. It also makes it possible for one to accept
assignments digitally and keep in touch with peers and lecturers. In essence, LMS is the
backbone of most e-learning activities. LMS are built on various platforms; commonly PHP, Net
or Java and they are hooked up to any database such as PostgreSQL, MySQL or SQL Server.
LMSs could be commercial or open source; and they usually provide management tools
especially for a teacher. Through this platform, one is able to share course material and carry out
communication through emails, electronic noteboards and chats. It is also easy to control the
accessibility of the course material and to restrict the visibility of the discussion, exercises to a
specific target group.
b. Content Development Tools:
These aresoftware packages which developers use to create and package e-learning content
deliverable to end users. These content development tools are used to create multimedia work for
delivery on the World Wide Web. They can be used to create content in file formats in order to
make training able to be delivered on a CD (compact disc) or in other formats. Examples of
content development tools are: HTML, Flash, PowerPoint, Shareable Content Object Reference
Model (SCORM) and TinCan.
c. Blogs:
A blog enables one to disseminate and access information of a specified nature. Students and
instructors can use blogs for instructions and learning. While students and lecturers can use it to
interact academically among themselves through sharing of lecture materials and placement of
educational materials for instruction and access. Blogs allow comments to be put up for
response by students and finally by their lecturer.

d. Wikis:
Wiki is a platform where individuals under the control of an editorial board, can upload contents
or modify existing ones. It is a useful source for getting academic information as it allows
students to read, add or edit materials already put up by any person e.g. a teacher or an instructor.
It creates a platform for interaction and collaboration of different persons interested in a
particular field or topic. The material may consist of text, tabular data, visuals, photographs etc.
A teacher constructs a wiki on any specific area for teaching and interaction; and any material or
information put up can be accessed and reacted to at their convenience.
 e. E-mails:
E-mails as well as e-mail-based discussion forums can be used in delivering contents as well as
e-learning centred communications. Coursework and communications can be delivered via
email; and messages can also be posted on e-mail forums as means of interaction between the
instructors and learners.
f. Internet:
Internet is an e-learning tool which is widely used by students and instructors for teaching and
research purposes. It provides access to relevant information which instructors can consult in
developing their course content and learning. Students make use of the internet to source
information for their assignments and other information needs.

g. Computer:
Computer is an important tool for e-learning. It is used for facilitating development of creative
thinking and problem solving skills. It is also used for evaluation of students’ performance while
e-learning tools have to be run on a computer before e-learning can be feasible.

h. Videos clips:
Videos saved on the local network or accessed from the internet are very useful in e-learning
environment. They help to provide clearer pictures to events for proper understanding. Events
like Second World War, attack on the twin-towers in the United State of America, documentary
of the independence of Nigeria would produce a long lasting impression on learners than mere
verbal descriptions. Video clips of lectures, experiments and scientific protocols can be used to
broaden the knowledge of learners.

i. Audio clips:
Audio clips saved on the network or listened to on the internet can be used for productive
learning. Audio CD/DVDs can be used for listening and comprehension in a language class.

j. Slide Shows:
Power point presentations are extensively used for teaching and seminar presentations.
Animations can be added to slides to make them more fascinating and attractive to learners.

k. Video conferencing:
Video conferencing enables students to talk to experts and their peers around the world in real
time through a video link-up. When connected to classroom package, it uses electronic
whiteboard technology so a teacher in one country can interact with a class in another country
using the same whiteboard.

L. PDAs:
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) are assets to every classroom. Through this platform, a
teacher is able to link with student’s PDA for easy communication and interaction. Here
information regarding homework, assignments, upcoming projects and test are posted.

3.2.2 E-Materials
Libraries in 21st century are required to acquire both print and electronic information resources
to meet the need of users. The word “electronic” means that a device is constructed by the
methods of microchips and electrons and implemented on by means of electric-built
(automated) technologies such as computer. While the word “material” denotes source from
which benefits is derived. Igwe and Uzuegbu (2013) define information materials as information
resources that need computer to access, and be accessed by the use of the internet or local area
networks. Dafiagbor (2012) sees e-materials as information resources that require the use of
electronic devices such as personal computer (PCs), laptops, palm-tops, notebook-laptops, DVD,
VCD, CD-player, projectors, phones, I-pods, I-phones, I-pads, internet, WAN or LAN-networks
amongst others for their usage. The following are the e-materials:

a. E-journals:
E-Journals are primary sources of information published online, at regular interval. E-
journals sometimes may be full text articles or abstract only and can be accessed freely
on the internet or through a subscription based databases.

b. E-book:
Electronic book or digital book consists of texts, images or both text and images readable
through the electronic devices such as the smart phones, computer, I-pads among others. One of
the advantages e-book has over hard copy books is multiple accesses. Many users can access the
same e-book at the same time unlike print resources which must be as many as those using it.
 c. E-databases:
This is an organised collection of information preserved in a standalone computer system, on
CD-ROM or hosted on the internet. There are databases on different subjects such as Hinari for
medicine, Lexis Nexis for Law, Hindawi, AGORA for agriculture among others. These
databases provide access to full-text of different e-journals, e-books and other electronic sources
which are very useful sources of information for research.

d. Online electronic resources:

Advancement in information and communication technology is making accessibility to
information very easy. There is valuable information on the internet which may be accessible
freely or through the payment of prescribed fees. These online resources cover various fields of
studies and may provide qualitative information for research. Users need some competence in
information literacy so as to be able to evaluate electronic information because of many
unauthenticated information on the internet.

E-theses:

Electronic theses are an electronic version of Masters or PhD thesis. One of the criterions
of webometric ranking is the visibility of academic institutions. They want to know how
visible the scholars and the quality of their research work. Hence, Universities now make
theses of their postgraduate student available freely on their institution’s repository in
order to improve the visibility of their scholars and enhance their ranking.

4.0 Conclusion

This chapter looked at the uses attached to library’s information resources and the requisite skills
required to access them. It has shown that every resource in any library has academic uses and
where uses to materials are not known, they tend to be ignored while users who need them suffer.
The possibility of users not getting the best from any academic library is also feasible where
human resources, who are professionals in a library are not utilised. Both human and materials
resources are to be used for learning while electronic materials which are closer to users (through
their mobile devices) are to be adopted for learning. The application of academic websites,
professional websites, World Wide Web and libraries electronic facilities into learning, would
enhance knowledge in any area of study while the knowledge of the right tools and materials to use
for learning would enhance knowledge. Therefore, every library in any academic environment is
basic for consistent developmental learning and progress and thus, cannot be ignored.

5.0 Summary
This chapter extensively discussed the use of library resources, the primary, secondary and
tertiary sources of information and how they can be effectively used. It also discussed
catalogues, harmful behaviours attached to use of library resources and solutions, library
sections and resources, concepts of e-learning, e-learning tools and e-materials.

6.0 Revision Exercises

1. Enumerate library resources?

2. List primary, secondary and tertiary sources of information?

3. What do you understand by a library catalogue?

4. Mention harmful behaviour attached to the use of library resources?

5. What are the sections in the library and the services they are expected to render?

6. What do you understand by e-learning?

7. List e-learning tools known to you?

8. Enumerate e-materials

7.0 References
Bhatia, R. P. (2011) Features and Effectiveness of E-learning Tools. Global Journal of Business
Management and Information Technology.1( 1 ): 1-7

Dafiaghor, F.K. (2012) Problems and prospects of electronic resources usage in Nigerian
academic libraries. Journal of Economic and International Finance, 4(9): 220-225.

Encyclopedia.com. (2017). The development of libraries in the Ancient World. Retrieved

from: http://www.encyclopedia.com
E-learningNC.gov. (2017). What is e-learning? Retrieved from:
http://www.elearningnc.gov
Hadley School Committee. (2014). What are library resources. IJLA.
Retrieved from: http://www.hadleyschools.org
Ibegwam, A. & Obajemu, S.O.(2013) Marketing of electronic resources to users in libraries. In
Igwe, K. N. & Uzuegbu, C. P. (2013) Automation of libraries and information centres.
Lagos: Waltodany Visual Concepts

Koistinen, K (n.d.) New E-Learning Tools And Their Usefulness In Teaching Photogrammetry.

Mangal, S.K. & Mangal, U. (2011) Essentials of educational technology. New Delhi:

PHI Learning Private Limited.

Ogba, O. (2015). Modular Course on Internet and Information Skills. Germany: Lambert
Academic Publishing.

Ogba,O.C.(2013a).Information seeking behaviour of final year law students in South-Western

Nigerian Universities. IISTE: Information and Knowledge Management Journal, 3(5):1-
27.

Ogba,O.C.(2013b).Exploring the information seeking behaviour of final year law students

in Ekiti State University. International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research
[IJSTR], 2(5):300-309.

Oyedum,G.U.(2011).Perceptions by undergraduate students of the Environmental conditions and

research availability in selected University libraries in Nigeria. African Journal of
Library, Archives and Information Science. Retrieved from: http://www.ajol.info

Ossai, N.B. (2009). Library Use Patterns of Law Students at the University of Benin, Benin City,
Nigeria. Simbiosis, 6(1). Retrieved from: www.egcti.upr.edu/
Quadri,G.O; Adetimirin,A.E & Idowu,O.A.(2014). A Study of availability and utilization of
library electronic resources by undergraduate students in private universities in Ogun
State, Nigeria. DOI: 10.5897/IJLIS2013.0423
Selvam, S.K.P. (2013) Teacher and technology. New Delhi: Random Publications
Virtual college. (2017). What is e-learning? Retrieved from:
http://www.virtualcollege.co.uk/what-is-e-learning

Wiki books. (2017). Introduction to library and information science: contextualising libraries, their
history and place in infrastructure. Retrieved from: http://www.en.m.wikibooks.org

CHAPTER NINE
UNDERSTANDING LIBRARY CATALOGUES AND CLASSIFICATION
FAMILUSI, E.B
1.0 Introduction

Organisation of library and information resources began with the emergence of the early
Emperors, kings of empires and other early Philosophers like Socrates, Plato, etc. store keepers
in the arrangement of clay tablets, papyrus scrolls and other remote records. Organisation of
library materials kept on improving when paper was discovered as medium of information
communication. Meville Louis Kossuth graduated from Amherst University in 1874. American
Cataloguing Library (ACL) began the documentation of library organisation using DDC pure
notation for divisions of knowledge into ten broad topics ranges from 000-900, later, the upper
chamber of U.S Washington D.C collections were arranged using alphabets as notation for
identification of division of knowledge. The L.C major classes of knowledge ranges from
alphabets A-Z, but I, O, W, X, Y, were not used. Library information resources processing and
organisation revolves around cataloguing and classification.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to;
 have the basic knowledge of cataloguing and classification.

 retrieve information resources from any library.

 know the various forms and types of catalogue

 understand the advantages of library catalogue

 know the various classification schemes

3.0 Cataloguing

What is Cataloguing?

Cataloguing is the process of entering or recording bibliographic information on library

resources to the library catalogues to assist users in searching, locations, retrieval and utilisation
of information without delay. The information needed on the catalogues are author’s, editor’s
name, title of the work, place of publication, publishers name, date of publication, International
Standard Book Number( ISBN) or International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) for serials,
series statement, using cataloguing tools like DDC, LC, UDC etc. schemes. The chief cataloguer
is saddled with the responsibility of cataloguing work.

3.1 Some Cataloguing Rules.

(a) Textbooks that are authored by one, two or three authors, the main entry card should be
entered under the principal author’s name.
 (b) When an information resource is authored by more than three authors, the main entry
card is under the title.
(c) When an intellectual work is edited by many contributors, its main entry card is under the
title.
(d) The use of uppercase and lowercase letters in cataloguing is guided by cataloguing rules.
(e) Much importance is attached to the use of noun, punctuation marks, and observation of
paragraphs when cataloguing.
Meaning of Catalogue

The concept of catalogue differs from one profession to another. The cataloguing could literarily
mean medium of which a company showcase its products therefore, the catalogues of fashion
designer differs to that of furniture makers.

3.2 The Library Catalogue.

The library catalogue is the medium through which bibliographic information and library
collections are presented to assist the library patrons to search and retrieve information without
any hassle.

3.3 Types and Forms of Library Catalogues

i. Card Catalogue.

Card catalogue, measures 3 x 5 inches or 7.5cm x 12.5cm. The card catalogue could be handled
physically, it is produced from cardboard paper materials and the most famous among library
catalogues, but nowadays, it’s gradually going to extinction with the advent of Online Public
Access Catalogue (OPAC). The catalogue cards are filed in the catalogue box drawer using word
by word or letter by letter filing methods. The cards are held together with a long spring. Card
catalogue could be accessed through author, title, subject or added entry access points to search
and retrieve desired information. The disadvantage is that box is expensive to construct and
difficult to move about in the library.

ii. Shealf Catalogue:

In the shealf catalogue, bibliographic information is entered on ships of 73/4x4 arranged into
loose leaf binders. Each binder contains the range of 500-600 ships. This catalogue is gradually
losing its usage. It is used in special and small libraries but, mobility is very easy.

iii. Book Catalogue:

The book catalogue has bibliographic information on its pages that is banded together in form of
book. The arrangement of the bibliographic information might take the form of a dictionary,
classified or divided catalogue order, book catalogue would be useful in bigger libraries because
it is much easier to duplicate, move and maintained but the major disadvantage is its non-
flexibility.

iv Stripdex Catalogue:
It consists of metal frames for holding catalogue cards. Stripdex catalogue is also known as
visible index because its contents could be seen at a glance. Its bulkiness constitute easy mobility
and expensive to build.

3.4 Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC)

OPAC catalogue is achieved under automated libraries where users can retrieve information with
the aid of library software. OPAC is the electronic format of card catalogue known as 3x5 inches
cards. The library integrated and customised software produces all bibliographic information in
different modules for author, title, editor, place of publication, publishers name, subject tracing,
series statement, ISBN, accession numbers e.t.c. Beside the listed access points, users also have
the opportunity to access the internet for further research purposes.

Example of an entry in OPAC (Online Public Access Catalogue)

Using SLIMS (Seneyan Library Management Software) module in an entry is as follows:

Working multisectorally in nutrition: principles and case studies by Garmet, James L.

 Additional authors:
Natalicchio, Marcela
 Published by: International Food Policy Research Institute, (Washington D.C.)
  Description: xxi, 250p: ill., maps; Bibliography: p, 190-196
 ISBN 9780896291821
 Subjects: Nutrition Policy
Nutrition policy-Senegal-Case studies
Nutrition Policy-Colombia- Antioquia-case.

3.5 Types of Catalogues Arrangements

Arrangement of library catalogues is simple and easy to use by library users provided every
needed bibliographic information is included. Some arrangements of library catalogue are:
(i) Dictionary Format: the dictionary format of catalogue arranged using access points
like authors, joint authors, editors, subject, title, series statement e.t.c. The filing
method is very easy to operate, use, and cheap. Duplication of entries could be easily
detected while some authors, editors works are close to one another.
(ii) Classified Subject Catalogue: This method allow intellectual works that treat similar
subject in same discipline are brought together with the aid of the classification
scheme. The classified catalogue could be employed to compile subject bibliography
of the library. Library patrons utilise classified subject catalogue to promote learning,
teaching and research works.
(iii) Divided Catalogue: Under divided catalogue, the alphabet arrangement of filing
comes into play, that is, instead of filing all entries with one alphabet, the catalogue
may be divided into:

(a)Author/Title Catalogue

(b)Subject Catalogue

Additional information retrieval benefits could be achieved on OPAC.

3.6 Qualities of a Good Catalogue

(a) A good catalogue must contain all bibliographic information for accessing and retrieval
purposes.
(b). It must be readily accessible and easy to use.

(c). It must be subject to update, precise and follow global standard.

(d). Like OPAC, terminals of accessing information should be many.

(f). A good catalogue must contain entries, cross references and filing rules with examples.

3.7 Advantages of Library Catalogue

(i) It saves library users time.
(ii) It removes stress experienced during searching and makes information retrieval
easier.
(iii) It brings about robust research and academic works when exposed to many
publications.
(iv) It reduces the cost of research works.
(v) It serves as a reliable database of the library collections.
(vi) It connects the library clientele to other libraries collections through consortium
arrangements.

3.8 Entries, Cross References and Filing Rules with Examples.

Entries are bibliographic information about how information resource could be searched, located
and retrieved from the library database. The library collections could be presented in two formats
e.g. physical or electronic format. The physical format is in form of card catalogue, sheaf
catalogue, book catalogue while the electronic format is obtainable by Machine Readable
Catalogue (MARC) via the On-Line Public Access Catalogue (OPAC).The style of bibliographic
information representation on physical format using the 3x5 card is the main entry card using the
author/ title or editors name. Other added entries are co-authors, subject, illustrator, compiler,
translator, series statement that could be use as access points for information retrieval.

Some Examples:

A textbook authored by Messer Israel Olamide, Benson Andrew Ayodele and Gabriel Olutayo
Tenibiaje titled Educational Administration for Effective Service Delivery in higher Institutions
of Nigeria, Third edition, published by Heinemann Educational Publishers Plc, Ibadan in year
2016 under Education Series Textbooks. The book has 10 preliminary pages and 469 content
pages, identified with International Standard Book Number (ISBN) 978-978-523-402-2. The
University Library acquired four copies with accession numbers 00321-00324. Catalogue and
classify the above information?

Example of the Main Entry Card or Unit Card

LA Ajayi, I.O.
542 Educational Administration for Effective Service Delivery
of .A3 Higher Institution in Nigeria/by I.O.Ajayi, B.A. - Ayodele and
G.O. 2016 Tenibiaje. -3rd edition.-Ibadan;

x. 469p; 25cm;(Education Series Textbooks)

ISBN: 978-978-523-402-2

1. Educational Administration - Universities, colleges etc.

2. School Management.
(i) Ayodele, B.A. (ii) Tenibiaje, G.O. (iii) Title (iv)
Series

C1/4: 00321 - 00324

LA Educational Administration – Universities, Colleges, etc.

542 Ajayi, I.O.
.A3 Educational Administration for Effective Service Delivery of
2016 Higher Institution in Nigeria/by I.O.Ajayi, B.A. Ayodele and G.O.
Tenibiaje.-3rd edition.-Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Publishers
Plc;2016.
Added Entries Cards
X; 469p; 25cm;(Education Series Textbooks)
ISBN: 978-978-523-402-2
1. Educational Administration - Universities, colleges etc.
2.School Management.
(i)Ayodele, B.A. (ii) Tenibiaje, G.O. (iii) Title (iv) Series

C1/4: 00321 - 00324

LA School Management
542 Ajayi, I.O.
.A3 Educational Administration for Effective Service Delivery of
2016 Higher Institution in Nigeria/by I.O.Ajayi, B.A. Ayodele and G.O.
Tenibiaje.-3rd edition.-Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Publishers
Plc;2016.
X; 469p; 25cm;(Education Series Textbooks)
ISBN: 978-978-523-402-2
1. Educational Administration - Universities, colleges etc.
2.School Management.
(i)Ayodele, B.A. (ii) Tenibiaje, G.O. (iii) Title (iv) Series

C1/4: 00321 - 00324

LA Ayodele B.A
542 Ajayi, I.O.
.A3 Educational Administration for Effective Service Delivery of
2016 Higher Institution in Nigeria/by I.O.Ajayi, B.A. Ayodele and G.O.
Tenibiaje.-3rd edition.-Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Publishers
Plc;2016.
X; 469p; 25cm;(Education Series Textbooks)
ISBN: 978-978-523-402-2
1. Educational Administration - Universities, colleges etc.
2.School Management.
(i)Ayodele, B.A. (ii) Tenibiaje, G.O. (iii) Title (iv) Series

C1/4: 00321 - 00324

LA Tenibiaje, G.O
542 Ajayi, I.O.
.A3 Educational Administration for Effective Service Delivery of
2016 Higher Institution in Nigeria/by I.O.Ajayi, B.A. Ayodele and G.O.
Tenibiaje.-3rd edition.-Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Publishers
Plc;2016.
X; 469p; 25cm;(Education Series Textbooks)
ISBN: 978-978-523-402-2
1. Educational Administration - Universities, colleges etc.
2.School Management.
(i)Ayodele, B.A. (ii) Tenibiaje, G.O. (iii) Title (iv) Series

C1/4: 00321 - 00324

LA Educational Administration for Effective Service Delivery of

542 Higher Institution in Nigeria
.A3 Ajayi, I.O.
2016 Educational Administration for Effective Service Delivery
of Higher Institution in Nigeria/by I.O.Ajayi, B.A. Ayodele and
G.O.Tenibiaje.-3rdedition.-Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Publishers
Plc;2016.
X; 469p; 25cm;(Education Series Textbooks)
ISBN: 978-978-523-402-2
1. Educational Administration - Universities, colleges etc.
2.School Management.
(i)Ayodele, B.A. (ii) Tenibiaje, G.O. (iii) Title (iv) Series

C1/4: 00321 - 00324

 LA Education Series Textbooks
542 Ajayi, I.O.
.A3 Educational Administration for Effective Service Delivery of
2016 Higher Institution in Nigeria/by I.O.Ajayi, B.A. Ayodele and G.O.
Tenibiaje.-3rd edition.-Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Publishers
Plc;2016.
X; 469p; 25cm;(Education Series Textbooks)
ISBN: 978-978-523-402-2
1. Educational Administration - Universities, colleges etc.
2.School Management.
(i)Ayodele, B.A. (ii) Tenibiaje, G.O. (iii) Title (iv) Series

C1/4: 00321 - 00324

3.9 Classification

What is Classification?
Classification process follows cataloguing. Immediately an information resource or textbook is
catalogued, classification complete the process of classifying such work to the subject treated in
a discipline. Classification is the professional skills of grouping, or organising and assigning of
identification codes called call number or callmark to catalogued information resources.
Classification tools include DDC, LC, UDC, colon classification scheme, thesaurus e.t.c. among
others. The cataloguers and other library staff carry out cataloguing and classification in the
library.

Prospects of cataloguing and classification

 It constitutes the data base of library collections.

 It is a road map for library users to retrieve information.
 It arrests chaos and promote orderliness of library collections.
 It moderates and checkmate duplication of titles during acquisition.
 It promotes free access to information for library users.

Classification started with the early man where he organised his farm produce into same groups
e.g. tuber crops consisting of cocoyam, white yam, yellow yam, water yam in each group. So
also, women from time immemorial arranged their wardrobe into native attaires, shoe rack,
necklace, english dress apart, the cosmetics unit e.t.c. The classification of library information
resources are organised based on related fields with the use of cataloguing and classification
schemes. Precisely kitchen utensils are arranged in the kitchen cabinet away from the wardrobe.
Prajapati (2015) asserted that classification means the groping together of items or people
according to the feature they have in common.

Access Points.
The bibliographic information available on any of the library catalogues discussed earlier in this
text could be used to access information resources from the library. Such bibliographic
information are: authors name(s), statement of responsibility or title, place of publication,
publisher’s name, ISBN, Series statement, subject, call mark, etc
Cross References.
 Cross reference are mode of alternative link from one heading or entry to another. Cross
referencing provides library clientele to meet information needs. There are two types of cross
referencing, they are:
(a) See reference
(b) See also reference
(a) See reference: the instruction used to direct library clients from a name heading no longer
in use to the current heading in the library catalogue

Federal University, Oye-Ekiti

See:

Adeyinka Adebayo University, Oye-

Ekiti.

General Muhammadu Buhari(GCFR)

See:

President Muhammadu Buhari(GCFR)

See Also Reference: it is designed to direct library patrons/users/readers from a named heading of the
uniform heading to another related heading. See Also reference indicates that the two headings are
simultaneously used in the catalogues. i.e

Yorubas.

See also:

Afenifere group

Professors
See also:

University Dons.

Filing Methods.
Card filing methods by cataloguers could be ascertained with two styles namely letter-by-letter and
word-by-word.
1. Letter-by-letter: in this arrangement, spaces between words aae ignored and the entries are
alphabetized as one long word. Each letter will compete for positions alphabetically.
2. Word-by-word: using word by word arrangement, spaces between words are recognized, the
first word of each heading are made to compete for positions in alphabetical order

Letter-by-letter Word-by-word

Portal Port Haccourt

Port Harcourt PortNovo

Portival Port Pricing

Port Novo Port Statistics

Port Pricing Portal

Port Statistics Portival

Portvino Portvino

Card Filing and Books Arrangement on the Shelves

Exactly the way cards are filed in the catalogue boxes is the same as catalogued and classified
textbooks are arranged on the shelves. To avoid confusion, users are advised to search the catalogue
boxes or the OPAC if available to ascertain the bibliographic information of the resource needed
and copy to retrieve the information resource on the shelve. Examples
(a)
L L LA LA LB LB LC LC LC

65 65.1 22 22.1 99 99.2 15 15.1 16

.A3 .A2 .T73 .A2 .B4 .A2 .F2 .A2 .B2

(b)

HA HA HA HB HB HB HB

35.1 35.1 35.1 20 24 24.1 24.2

.B53 .B6 .B62 .S74 .A2 .A22 .A3

9.10 Types of Classification Schemes (Emphasis on Library of Congress Classification

Scheme, (LC).

There are many types of classification schemes that cataloguers employ globally in discharging
cataloguing and classification practices, some examples are:

(i) Benard Classification Scheme

(ii) Bibliographic Classification Scheme
(iii) Bliss Classification Scheme
(iv) Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme
(v) Colon Classification Scheme
(vi) Library of Congress Classification Scheme
(vii) Moys Classification Scheme
(viii) Superintendent Document Classification Scheme
(ix) Universal Decimal Classification Scheme

Example of major divisions on Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme (DDC)

These 10 main groups are the subdivided again and again to provide more specific subject
groups.
000-GENERALITIES

100- PHILOSOPHY AND RELATED DISCIPLINES

200- RELIGION

300-SOCIAL SCIENCE

400-LANGUAGE

500-PURE SCIENCES

600-TECHNOLOGY

700-ARTS

800-LITERATURE

900-GENERAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY.

Furthermore, much emphasis would be laid on the library of congress classification

scheme because academic libraries globally employ the scheme in cataloguing and
classification of information resources.

A- General Works
B- BJ- PHILOSOPHY, PSYCHOLOGY

BL-BX- Religion

C- Auxillary Sciences of History(General)

D- History; General
E- F- History; United States

G – Geography, Anthropology, Recreation

H-HJ – Social Sciences: Economics

HM- HX- Social Sciences: Sociology

J – Political Sciences
K-Law

M- Music

N- Fine Arts

P- Languages and Literature

Q- Sciences

R- Medicine

S- Agriculture

T- Technology

U- Military Science

V- Naval Science

Z- Library Science and bibliography.

Further examples for sub-divisions are as follows

A- General Works

AC- Collections

AE- Encyclopaedia

AG- Dictionaries

AL- Indexes

AM- Museums

AN- Newspapers

AP-Periodicals

AS- Academic and Learned Societies.

AY- Yearbooks, Almanacs, Directories

AZ- History of Scholarship, the Humanities.

B- Philosophy, Psychology, Religion

B – Philosophy(general)

BC- Logic

BD- Speculative Philosophy

BF- Psychology

BH- Aesthetics

BJ- Ethics

BL- Religion, Mythology, Rationalism

BM- Judaism

BP- Islam, Baha’ism, Theosophy.

BQ- Buddhism

BR- Christianity

BS- The Bible

BT- Doctrinal Theology

BV- Practical Theology

BX- Christian Denominations

C- Auxiliary Science of History(General)

L- Education( General)

LA- History of Education

LB- Theory and Practices of Education

LC- Special Aspects of Education

LD- Individual Institutions- United States

LE- Individual Institutions- America( Except United States)

LF Individual Institutions –Europe

LG Individual Institutions- Asia, Africa, Oceania

LH- College and School Magazines and Papers

LJ- Student Fraternities and Societies, United States

LT- Textbooks

M. Music

M. Musical Works

ML. Literature on Music

MT. Musical Instructions

S- Agriculture

S- Agriculture(General)

SB- Plant Culture

SD- Forestry

SF- Animal Culture

SH- Aquaculture, Fisheries, Angling

SK- Hunting Sports

4.0 Conclusion:

Cataloguing and Classification is the key to access with ease information available in EKSU
libraries. The accrue of knowledge in this topic is for continuous usage beyond EKSU
community because the skill will assist the student to access virtual libraries globally.

5.0 Summary

Cataloguing and classification are Siamese twins since one does not substitute the other. The
Chief Cataloguer as the Head of Department Technical Services ensure that cataloguing and
Classification processes follow international standard with the use of library of congress
classification scheme with other Cataloguing tools.

6.0 Revision Exercises.

(i) What is Cataloguing?

(ii) What is Classification?
(iii) List five access points to retrieving information from EKSU library
(iv) Explain how DDC divided the field of knowledge
(v) Write the full meaning of these acronyms: OPAC, ISBN, MARC?
(vi) List the divided catalogue?

7.0 References

Afolabi, M.(1985) A Cataloguing Manual for Library Science Students 2nded. Zaria: Ahmadu
Bello University, Department of Library and Information Science, pp1-47.

Busayo, I.O. et.al(2008) Organisation of Library Materials: Cataloguing and Classification .

The Use of Library and Study Skills, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti-State University General Studies
Unit, Ekiti State, Pp1- 30.

Fayose, O.(2002). LSE304-School Libraries: Ibadan Centre for External Studies, University of
Ibadan, pp54-61.
Mallaiah, T.Y., Kumber, S.S., and Patil, D.B., (2008) An Assessment of Users Satisfaction
With Library Services and Facilities; Study of Mangalore University Library. Pp133-
152.

Prajapati, B.G.(2015) Library Classification, New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House PVT.
Limited, pp1-295.

Olajide, W. (2015) Use of Library and Study Skills, Ado-Ekiti: Directorate of General
Studies, Ekiti-State University, Nigeria, pp1-129.

Tyagi, D(2013) Systems and Practices of Effective Library, New Delhi: Random Publications,
pp1-260.

Omoniyi, J.O. et.al, (2013), Effective Communication in Higher Education: The Use of Library,
Ilorin. University of Ilorin Press, 1-81pp.

The Library of Congress Classification Scheme, 24th Edition; Washington D.C. Subject
Headings and Classification Scheme. 35th Edition.

The Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules 2 (AACR2).

The Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme.

(OCLC) Ohio College Library Catalogue, New York 1989.

 CHAPTER TEN

LIBRARY AUTOMATION

OWOEYE, P. O. & ODEYEMI, S.O.

1.0 Introduction

Advancement in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has revolutionalised every

facet of human endeavour ranging from banking, telecommunication, education, business and
even religion. Over the years, library was the only major information gateway and librarians then
can afford the luxury of sitting behind their desk and be expecting their users to come and access
the information materials. Today libraries are facing challenges posed by diverse and rapidly
expanding information and communication technology which has led to information explosion,
increased user expectations for faster and easier access to relevant information go hand in hand
with institutional demands for increased operational efficiency. Hence the need for library to
adopt modern technology to remain relevant and meet the information needs of users even at
their remote location. Library automation is the mechanization of library routine activities called
housekeeping operations by deployingthe integrated library system which provides libraries with
the efficient, user-friendly tools and workflow support they need to meet the increasing
requirements of the library users. As a result of technology and organizational development the
role of librarians’ are no longer just those of preservation and circulation but more importantly of
offering Information Services. The automation of library routines enable delivery of excellent
services as well as an enhanced user experience.

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

f. Know what is called library automation.

g. explain the evolutionary trend of library automation
h. expain system analysis for library automation
i. mention the procedure for acquiring library automation system
j. identify library automation subsystems and various library software
k. know the development of the library networks.
3.0 Historical Contest and Overview of Library Automation

3.1 Overview of Library Automation and Historical Context

The history of library automation can be traced to 1936 when Ralph Hasted Parker of the
University of Texas developed a circulation control system using 80 column “Hollerith punch
cards”. In 1945, Vannevar Bush envisioned anautomated system that would store information,
including books,personal records and articles. He wrote about a hypothetical"memex" system
which he described as a mechanical library that wouldallow a user to view stored information
from several different accesspoints and look at several items simultaneously.
In the early 1960s library automation began especially in the U.S.A. after the World War
II. During this period, many libraries in North America and in the U.K began to experiment
processing of information by using computers.Most of these systems were developed locally,
either in an academic library, special library or public library. In this phase focus was mostly on
acquisition, cataloguing and circulation process. During this phase, OPAC i.e. Online Public
Access Catalogue was in an experimental stage in the U.S.A. During thisphase, Machine
Readable Catalogue i.e. MARC came into existence in year 1963 at the Library of Congress,
U.S.A for providing standardization in automation. In 1967, the Ohio College Library Centre
(OCLC) was set up which is an online system which marked the beginning of cooperative
systems and union catalogue. In 1969, the Library of Congress started distribution of records in
the new MARC II format. At this developmental stage vendors concentrated on supplying a
solution for a specific functional task. Some of them concentrated on circulation while others
concentrated on acquisitions and serial control functions until 1980’s when the whole thing
shifted to integrated automation systems.
In 1980’s, there were some important developments in the history of library automation
among which are: size of computers decreased, at the same time,technology provided faster
chips, additional RAM and greater storage capacity, the use of microcomputers increased most
especially in America in homes, schools and librarians took advantage of that to integrate it into
library operations by using it for word processing, reference, circulation and serials
operations.On-line Public Access Catalogs began to be used extensively the1980's. Various
software became available to librarians, such as spreadsheets and databases to aid library
administration and informationdissemination. CD-ROMs technology was also introduced and
databases were made available on CD-ROMs thereby making information more accessible.The
last development which took place in the late 1980's was the introduction of the Internet's World
Wide Web (WWW or Web). This method of communication on the Internet was first proposed
by Tim Berners-Lee at the European Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN). Linking of
documents by clicking on anchors in a text and now in any media has completely revolutionized
how people communicate and do business. This latest development is also apparent in automated
systems as most vendors offer a Web-based online public access catalog (WebOPAC).

The 1990s brought some changes in library automation. The use of networks for e-mail,
ftp, telnet, Internet, and connections to on-line commercial systems has grown. It is now possible
for users to connect to the libraries from their home or office. Since the 1990's there has been the
shift to a client/server model. The new technology was driven by the revolution of personal
computer (PC) and the introduction of the graphical user interface (GUI) software for the
personal computer. The ability of the user to open multiple windows, use pull-down menus and
point a mouse and by "clicking" on icons to accomplish tasks changed the scene of computing.
Of course this development would not have occurred without the increased computing power of
the personal computer, which is still advancing at a tremendous rate today.

Today, Library automation has reached a very mature level of functionality. The set of
features, such as a database and modules for every library function, expected in an integrated
library system are well defined and almost universally implemented. The differentiating factors
today involve interconnectivity, architecture and interfaces. It is a must that library systems be
able to communicate with other systems through Z39.50 and must be accessible by Web
browsers. A library's OPAC is no longer a stand-alone entity. Libraries must not only continue to
provide access to their own holdings through their online catalogs, but will be expected to deliver
a myriad of other information sources. These include electronic serials, online publications,
Web-enabled databases, and real-time news resources. Any online catalog lacking the ability to
integrate into this electronic information environment will not be adequate to meet the needs of
the library and its users.

3.2 System Analysis for Library Automation

The word system is taken from the original Greek word “systema” which means organized
relationship amongst working units or components. A system owes its existence to one or more
objectives all of which lead to the main or central objective that the system is out to achieve.
Take for example electricity system, computer system, library system among others. These
systems have various components which are working together in a proper coordination and
cooperation to achieve the set goals.Capron (1990) defined a system as an organized set of
related components established to accomplish a certain task.

Characteristics of a System

The following are the characteristics of a system:

Organization

Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that helps to
achieve objectives. In a typical university library system, the hierarchical relationship starts with
the University Librarian to the Deputy University Librarian down to professionals and para-
professionals, the technical staff down to the library assistants and attendants. This structure is
organisedto achieve set goals. Likewise, a computer system is designed around an input device,
a central processing unit, an output device and one or more storage units. When linked together
they work as a whole system for producing information.

Interaction

Interaction refers to the manner in which each component functions with other components of
the system. Interaction enables the system to function effectively. In a computer system, the
central processing unit must interact with the input device to solve a problem. In turn, the main
memory holds programs and data that the arithmetic unit uses for computation. The
interrelationship between these components enables the computer to perform.

Interdependence

Interdependence means that the components that made up the whole system depends on one
another to function optimally. The components cannot work in isolation, they are coordinated
and linked together according to plan which made an output of one subsystem to automatically
become the input of another subsystem until the final required result is achieved.
Integration

Integration refers to the holism of systems. Synthesis follows analysis to achieve the central
objective of the organization. Integration is concerned with how a system istied together. It is
more than sharing a physical part or location. It means that parts of thesystem work together
within the system even though each part performs a uniquefunction. Successful integration will
typically produce a synergistic effect and greatertotal impact than if each component works
separately.
Central objective

Objective is what the entire system wants to achieve. Every system must have a definite
objective in which all the subsystem work together to achieve. For example a university library is
a system with the central objectives of meeting the information needs of students and staff
together with helping the entire University to fulfill the mission of teaching, research and
community services through the provision of timely, relevant and up-to-date information
resources in any format.
3.2.1 System Analysis

This isthe process of gathering and interpreting facts, diagnosing problems, and using the
information to recommend improvements to the system. The essence of system analysis is to
evaluate the existing system either manual or automated with a view of identifying its strength
and weakness and recommend ways of improving it. This is the responsibility of a system
analyst who has the requisite skills and training in system analysis and development. A
traditional library that wants to migrate to automated library system needs to understand the
flaws of the existing system and specify what the new system should accomplish. Systems
analysis describes in detail “what” a system must do to satisfy the need or to solve the problem.

3.2.2 Stages of System Analysis for Library Automation

Library automation is capital intensive and time consuming; it cannot be approached without
proper planning, management support and adequate budgetary provision for hardware, software
and human ware requirements; hence there is a need for proper planning and implementation.
Stage 1: Planning
Plan for development of Library Automation system are created during this stage and it involves
three main activities.
1. Define the system to be developed: You must identify and select the library automation
system to be developed, you must be able to identify which automation system that will
meet the strategic goal of the organization.
2. Set the project scope: You define the scope of the library automation system at this stage,
written project scope helps you to avoid scope creep and feature creep. Scope creep occurs
when the scope of the project increases beyond its original intentions. Feature creep occurs
when developer and end users add extra features that were not part of the initial
requirement.
3. Develop project plan: You must develop a detailed project plan for entire library
automation efforts
Phase 2: Analysis
After the library automation system to be developed has been decided, then you move to the
analysis stage which involves end users and IT specialists working together to gather,
understand and document the requirement for the proposed system. The following are the two
primary activities at this stage.
1 Gather the library services requirements: These are the detailed set of end-user requests
that the system must meet to be successful.
2 Prioritize the requirements: Once the requirements are defined, the next thing is to
prioritize them in other of importance and put them in formal comprehensive documents
called the requirement definition document.

Stage 3: Design
The goal at this stage of system development is to build a technical blueprint of how the
proposed library automation system will work. The end users and IT specialist work together to
develop the library requirements for the proposed system from the logical point of view. The
analysis stage, you look into the requirements without considering the technology or the
technology infrastructure that will support the system, at this stage you take the library
requirement generated at the analysis stage and define the supporting technical architecture in the
design stage.Two primary activities are to be performed at this stage:
1 Design the technical architecture: The technical architecture define the
hardware and the software and the networking equipment required to run the
proposed library automation system
2 Design the system model: This is a graphical representation of a system
design. You are to model everything including screens, reports, software and
databases
Stage 4: Development
During this stage you take all your detailed design documents from the design phase and
transform them into an actual system. At this stage, you graduate from physical design to
physical implementation. The following are the two main activities at this stage.
1. Build the technical architecture: You build the platform on which the system is going to
operate. In the development stage, you purchase and implement equipment necessary to
support the technical architecture you design during the design phase.
2. Build the database and programmes: Once the technical architecture is built, you initiate
and complete the creation of supporting databases and writing the software required for
the system.
Stage 5: Testing
The testing stage of this system development, the library automation system is tested to ensure
that it works and actually meeting the library requirements. The following are the primary
activities to be performed during this test stage.
1 Write the test conditions: You must have a detailed test conditions which will enable you
to compare the actual performances of the system with the expected results
2 Perform the testing of the system: you must perform the following tests:
Unit testing: test individual unit of the system.
System testing: Verify that the units or pieces of code written for a system function
correctly when integrated into the total system.
Integration testing: verify that the separate systems can work together.
Stage 6: Implementation
During this stage the users begins to use the new library automation system to perform their daily
jobs. The following are the two primary activities you perform during implementation stage.
1 Write detailed user documentation: After installation, the library staff must be provided
with user documentation that highlight how to use the system
2 Provide training for the system users: People who are to use the system must be well
trained to enable them make a maximum use of the new system.
When you implement the new system, there are four implementation methods
(a) Parallel implementation: use both old and new system until you are sure of the new
system.
(b) Plunge implementation: discard the old and completely adopt the new system.
(c) Pilot implementation: Small group using the system until you are sure it works correctly
before everybody starts using it
(d) Phase implementation: install the new system in phase until you are sure it works
perfectly and then the remaining phases are implemented.
Stage 7: Maintenance
Maintaining the system is the final stage of system development effort. During this stage, you
monitor the support the new system to ensure it continues to meet the library goals. Once a
system is in place, it must change as the library system changes, constant monitoring and
supporting the new system involves making minor changes and reviewing the system to be sure
that it continues to move your organization towards its strategic goals.

3.3 Acquisition of Library Automation System

Selection of suitable software for library automation requires proper investigation and
carefulness. This is because of the technical parameters associated with the selection of the
software, such as the shape of network, computing platform, type of operating systems and
various standards. Library software to be acquired can either be an open source or commercial
software. Open Source is a software-licensing model where the source code of the software is
typically made available royalty-free to the users of the software, under terms allowing
redistribution, modification and addition, often with certain restrictions. An open system is a
design philosophy antithetical to solutions designed to be proprietary. Some open source library
software are; Emilda , Evergreen, FireFly, Koha, PhpMylibrary, SLIM and OpenBiblio while
Commercial Software is the model where the software developed by a commercial entity is
typically licensed for a fee to a customer, either directly or through channels in object, binary or
executable code. The commercial entity often provides support, training, updates and other
similar services needed by customers to efficiently use that software. Examples of commercial
software are: ALICE, Virtua, SOUL, SLAM among others.

Steps in Acquisition of Library Automation System

1. Analysing the needs: There is a need to clearly examine what is expected in a software
which must be in line with the objectives of the library.
2. Specification of the requirement: The specification of the required software to be
acquired must be determined by the library
3. Reading relevant literature: This is very important to gather and process relevant
information before the acquisition of the software. This will enable the library to know
about the strength and weakness of different library automation software.
4. Networking: Library automation is very costly, therefore system librarian should be able
to network with libraries using the proposed software together with the community of
users to obtain practical information about the software so that it can meet the library
requirements.
5. Software Selection: The following must be considered in selecting library automation
software:
1 Cost of the software
2 The integrity of the software developer
3 Availability of revisions time period
4 Available modules
5 Capacity to facilitate no of bibliographic records
6 Compatible Z39.50 to retrieve & import data from other databases.
7 Compatible with MARC 21 to import or export MARC records.
 8 Whether the software has the facility to import bibliographic data
available in ISO 2709 format and at the same time export data in this
format.
9 User friendly for customization.
10 Menu driven to easy access.
11 Easy upgrade facility with new versions.
12 Support from developers
13 Availability of customizable OPAC
6. Preview the software with the intended user group: The developer or vendor should
be invited to preview the proposed software with the user group so that they will be
acquitted with the strength and weakness of the system and likely areas of improvements
7. Recommendation:After previewing the software with the intended user group, the
software can be recommended for purchase if there is assurance that it will meet the
library objectives.
8. Feedback: This is the stage whereby one needs to determine the compliance or
discrepancy between the library objectives and the actual user performance. The post use
feedback can be of significance to a library’s systematic process of software selection,
purchase and use.

3.4 Overview of Major Library Automation Subsystems

Most Library Automation Systems separate software functions into discrete programs called
subsystems or modules, each of them integrated with a unified interface. This is therefore called
Integrated Library System (ILS), also known as a library management system (LMS). An ILS
usually comprises a relational database, software to interact with that database, and two graphical
user interfaces (one for patrons, one for staff).

Larger libraries use an ILS to order and acquire, receive and invoice, catalog, circulate, track and
shelve materials. Smaller libraries, such as those in private homes or non-profit organizations
often forgo the expense and maintenance required to run an ILS, and instead use a library
computer system.

Examples of Library Automation subsystems or modules are:

Acquisition Management
Acquisition module on ILS is mainly used to accept/receive library materials, record how
materials were received, record who brought them, record the cost implications, record if no cost
is incurred and record every detail about each transaction. Summarily, it is for ordering,
receiving, and invoicing materials.

Barcode Scanning

Barcode Scanning system comprises of reader and the operating system (software) that is driving
it. Barcode scanner is an electronic device that can read and output printed barcodes to a
computer. It works like a flatbed scanner, with a light source, a lens and a light sensor translating
optical impulses into electrical ones. Most all barcode scanning systems contain decoder
circuitry analyzing the barcode's image data provided by the sensor and sending the barcode's
content to the scanner's output port.

Catalogue Management

It catalogue and organise all library collections (books, CDs, video tapes, DVDs, documents,
equipments) as well print library labels (spine labels, barcode labels, ID cards). This could be
done by auto cataloguing of ISBN/ISSN number or can even automatically download book
details like author, title, publisher, class, subjects & cover art image. In other words, it is for
classifying and indexing materials in the library parlance.

Circulation Management

It is simply for lending materials to patrons and receiving them back by processing reservation
transactions and as well manages fee collection and fine transactions. It incorporates online
public access catalogue (OPAC) as public interface for users with simple and complex search of
library holding. The patron, reserve shelf and self check-in/check-out management are parts of
circulation module in today’s library automation system.

Serials Management

This module is used for tracking magazine, journals, and newspaper holdings in the library. It
can monitor the delivery and cataloging of newspapers, magazines, and other periodicals. It
could tracks receipt of periodicals and subscription information to help libraries monitor
materials. When an issue is late, it does create a customized claims notice to send to the supplier.
The notice can be printed, or e-mail the letter to the address the user indicates. It also generates
vendor history report to shows which vendors most effectively deliver issues on time and alerts
library managers to those with poor delivery performance.

Digital Library Management System

Digital library management system makes it possible to satisfy the demand of a cost-effective
digital library creation and operational model. Also known as E-library system and it is
concerned with that body of knowledge relating to the collection, organization, storage,
distribution, retrieval, and utilization of digital information. Digital libraries basically store
materials in electronic format and manipulate large collections of those materials effectively.
Format would be a combination of text, imaging, sound, video, audio and animation and
Collection could be e-journals, e-books, electronic databases of newspapers full-text articles, and
reference materials. The system does converts from printed/analog materials to digital formats
using digital camera, scanner and images/video editing software.

3.5 Library Software

Software cannot be touched but it instructs the computer what to do in a particular situation. Any
type of computer programme designed to perform some kind of library activities is known as
library software. It may be a simple programme to perform the job of acquisition or cataloguing
or integrated library management software that will perform nearly all the jobs in the library.In
other words, library software is the complete library management and automation solution that
enables information providers, information managers, resource managers & librarians to manage
& disseminate information available in various kind of resources including print and non-print
materials.

Library Automation Software Products/Packages

There are different library software packages, and each of them has different function abilities.
The amalgamation of features adds a lot of difficulties in categorizing the library software
packages. However for the purpose of this study, an attempt is made to categorize the library
software packages into the following:

1. Based on Function Performed:

a. Database Creation Software: These are software that is designed forcreating
databases and managing the information stored in them (e.g CDS/ISIS)
b. Library House Keeping/Management Software Packages: These have been clearly
defined above (e.gLibsys, OASIS, Sanjay, SLIMS)
c. Institutional Repository Software Packages: These are software designed as an archive
for collecting, preserving, and disseminating digital copies of the intellectual output of an
institution (CDSWare, Dspace, E-prints, Fedora, Ganesha digital library, Greenstone)
2. Based on Source Code Availability
a. Proprietary Software: This is a software that is owned by an individual or a company
(usually the one that developed it). There are restrictions on its use, and its source code is
not available for modification and re-distribution. (e.g SOUL)
b. Open Source Software Packages: Software with its source code made available with a
license in which the copyright holder provides the rights to study, change, and distributes
the software to anyone and for any purpose. (e.g Koha)
 3. Deployment
a. Web-Based: This is software that you use over the internet with a web browser. You
don't have to install any CDs, download any software, or worry about upgrades.
b. Installed: This is software that must be installed and licensed on a computer or computing
devices bought from an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) before usage and
modification.

Examples of Products/Packages from Various Vendors

Lucidea Integrated Handy Library Insignia Library Destiny Library

Library Systems Manager System Manager

L4UCDSWare OPALS LIBSYS7 All My Books

Dspace LIBERO Auto Librarian Aura Online

E-prints Access-It Library Genesis G4 Autolyb

Fedora, G Koha SoutronGLOBAL Bibliotheca

Anesha digital MODERNLIB VERSO Boopsie for Libraries

library,

Greenstone Atriuum LIBRARIAN BrowseCollection.com

Aleph, Readerware LPT:One Compleat

Lucidea Integrated Handy Library LIBERO Aleph

Library Systems Manager

Lib-Portal Lexwin Library.Solution Schookee

Deeksha Library CyberTools for LiBRARYSOFT Series-M

Management System Libraries

EPrints LibAnswers LIBSOFT SignUp

Evergreen ILS Libdata M2L SirsiDynix Symphony

FIRST LMS Liberty Millennium SLiMS

FlashScan-MAX LibGuru MindLibrary WorldShare

Management Services

Journal Finder LIBMAN NOTEbookS PC Card Catalog

KLAS Library Vision OpenText Library Progen Lib Junior

 Management

Reademption Library ROVAN LMS PC Card Catalog

EcoSystem

Source:Top Library Automation Software Products http://www.capterra.com/library-automation-software/

3.6 Development of Library Networks

A network is developed when a groupof libraries and information centershave common interest
to exchangeinformation through computer andcommunication technology. It is also a collective
or cooperativeactivity of linkingmembers/users to the resourceshosted on computers by means
oftelecommunication connections.

The major reason for networking is because it is not possiblefor a single library to procure the
full range of libraryresources required by their users, increasing cost andavoiding duplication,
Therefore institutions having similar subjectareas could come together and develop a networked
environment. Such network could be in the following categories:

Internal network

Internal network of an institution couldbe based on internet technology (such as hypertext and
TCP/IP protocols) and accessed over the internet. It could also be a private network that uses
private IP address space. Therefore, when this technology is applied to library, there is provision
of network to internal users with access to a large number of electronicjournals of educational
and scientific interest within the internal network.

External networks

External networks are designed to enable institutions to extend collaboration capabilities to their
partners, suppliers, agents, sister and other institutions or distance learners/workers. It provides
the interface to the Internet for virtual connections to external networks especiallydocument
delivery and interlibrary loan services, through an exchange network that encompasses the most
important libraries outside their geographical locations.

Functions of Library Networks

The main function of library network is to sharing resources so that unnecessary wastage of
limited finance with them can be avoided and this might fall into the following three categories:

i. Information services to users e.g. Inter-library loan service, reference and referral, access
to databases
 ii. Technical services to member libraries: co-operative collection development programme,
technical processing involved in acquisition, cataloguing and circulation control system
iii. Management service to the network administration in terms of training and capacity
building

The digital/electronic library system

Information and Communication Technology has revolutionized the concept of libraries. Each
and every library is slowly getting digitized. A 'digital library' comprises digital collections,
services and infrastructure to support lifelong learning, research, scholarly communication as
well as preservation and conservation of our recorded knowledge.

The term Digital Library has a variety of potential meanings, ranging from a digitized collection
of material that one might find in a traditional library through the collection of all digital
information along with the services that make that information useful to all possible users. As
there are many definitions of a “digital library,” terms such as “electronic library” and “virtual
library” are often used synonymously.

A digital library is nothing but a large database for the people who are working on hypertext
environment. It is an environment, which supports the full life cycle of creation, storage,
preservation, dissemination and use of data, information and knowledge.

Virtual libraryis acollection of electronic resources (full-text materials, databases, media, and
catalogues),also provisions of user assistance services such as reference, interlibrary loan,
technical assistance made available and accessible via the Internet. The content may come from
different providers aggregated and federated for users and it’s also borderless (accessible
anywhere through internet).

Automated libraryrefers to the use of computer technology to automate the typical procedures
of libraries such as cataloging and circulation. Automation is a process of using the machinery
and technology for easy operation and saving the human power and time.

4.0 Conclusion
Library Automation has become the order of the day and library operation embedded with
technology is therefore a necessity. An automated library can provide better library services to
their users and can maintain the library more properly which a manual library can’t do. The
record keeping activities and various report generation becomes very easy in an automated
library system. For a Library automation system to be adjudged successful, planning,
deployment and sustainability must be ensure.
5.0 Summary
The overview and history of library automation has been traced and highlighted in this chapter.
This was followed by system analysis for library automation where hardware, software, networks
and relevant technical standards were put into considerations. Procedures to be followed in
acquisition of library automation systems were also itemized.
Overview was given on major library automation subsystems/modules and library software was
categorized accordingly. Development of library networks was explained under internal and
external networks with the main purpose of networking within the library context. Finally, an
attempt was made to define digital/electronic, virtual and automated libraries.

6.0 Revision exercises

1. Trace the history of library automation
2. Enumerate the step by step procedure of system analysis
3. Mention different library software known to you
4. What are the differences between open source software and commercial software
5. What do you know by library network

7.0 References

Boss, R. W.(1997) The Library Administrator’s Automation handbook .Medford. NJ :

Information Today.Inc.

Breeding. M. (1997)"Technology Update from the National Online Meeting & IOlS'97,"
Computers in Libraries, 17 (7): 20-30.

Bush, V. (1945).As we may think. Atlantic Monthly.176(1), 101-8.

Das, D.&Chatterjee, P. (2015) Library Automation: An Overview. International Journal of
Research in Library ScienceVol 1(1), http://www.ijrls.in/wp-
content/uploads/2015/07/Library-Automation.pdf
Goyal, A. (2011) Systems analysis and design. New Delhi : PHI Learning Private Ltd
Green, D. J. (1996) "INNOPAC Millennium: Preparing libraries for the 21st century: A
perspective and commitment," Library Hi Tech, 14 (4): 45-56.

Haag, S & Cummings, M (2008) Management information system for the information age.7th
edition. New York: McGraw Hill.
Laxminarayan, I. (1986). Computer Applications in Libraries.Paper presented at the seminar of
Madras Library Association on Library Automation, Madras, June 19.

Olajide, W.(2015). Use of library and study skills. Ado-Ekiti: Directorate of General Studies
Ekiti State University.

Pratheepan, T. (n.d.)Integrated Library Management Systems (ILMS) - Open Source and

Commercial Software: An assessment of the merits and demerits.Retrieved July,
20thfrom http://www.libraryinfo.org/articles html

Sauers, M (2014) Library 2.0: Creating a Borderless Library. Technical Innovation Librarian,
Nebraska Library Commission
http://www.library.illinois.edu/mortenson/book/21_sauers.pdf

Shelley, G. B. & Rosenblatt, H, J. (2011) System analysis and design.8th edition. Boston: Course
Technology Cengage Learning.

Tedd, L.A., (1977). An Introduction to computer based library systems. London:

Heyden International.129-131.
Vasupongayya, S.etal. (2011) Open source library management ystem software: a Review
International Journal of Computer, Electrical, Automation, Control and Information
Engineering 5,(5): 509-514

Verbeek, O & Rowe, C.(2000) "The Future of Automated Systems in the Academic Library"
Faculty and Staff - Articles &Papers.Paper 1. Retrieved
fromhttp://digitalcommons.salve.edu/fac_staff_pub/1
 CHAPTER ELEVEN
INFORMATION SHARING AND SECURITY
OGBA O. C.
1.0. Introduction
Information sharing and security is an integral part of the fundamental right to freedom of
expression, opinion and association; including right to privacy. The Universal Declaration of
Human Right(UDHR), International Covenant on Civil and Political Right(ICCPR), African
Charter on Human and People’s Rights and European Court of Human Rights including
constitutions of different countries support the fundamental right to freedom of expression
including its integral part which is information sharing (Matheson, 2008). The same law that
provide for freedom of expression, opinion and association also supports sharing of information as
would be seen in Freedom of Information Act (FOI) of different countries (Ogba, 2014). Nigerian
FOI and the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria provide for sharing of information as
well as information security. Nigerian constitution states in S. 39 that everyone has freedom of
expression, including freedom to hold opinions, receive information and impart ideas and
information to others. Thus this section provides for information sharing. It is however also
provided that everyone has a right to their privacy; thus their conversations, correspondence, their
homes and communications are not to be shared without their consent (Constitution of Federal
Republic of Nigeria, S.37).

The essence of applying security measures in information sharing therefore is to ensure that the
privacy of people is not breached in the process of exercising the right to freedom of expression
and association, which is the basis for information sharing. It is also to ensure that information
been shared is accurate and does not do any harm. Thus showing that there is a thin line between
ones freedom to share information and another’s human right to privacy, fair treatment and dignity.
The right to information sharing embedded in freedom of expression is therefore not an unlimited
right but one that is limited by others fundamental right as enshrined in the constitution of Nigeria
and other countries. It is solely because of this that information security becomes an important
topic to merge with information sharing.
This chapter discusses information sharing and security by looking at the facets viz: information
sharing and techniques; legal issues in data sharing, privacy and accuracy of information; cyber
security; principles of information security and awareness; and freedom of information act (FOI).
Under information sharing and techniques, the chapter looked at: precautions to exercise for the
purpose of information sharing; channels and skills required for information sharing. Under the
facet: legal issues in data sharing, privacy and accuracy of information, this chapter looked at legal
provisions regarding data and information sharing with focus on: how data was collected, right to
privacy, general promises in consent forms, inaccurate information, and sensitive data. Under
cyber security, this chapter looked at: instances where cyber security is required and protective
mechanism; with a look at cyber cookies. Under principles of information security and awareness,
this chapter looked at the four main principles of: confidentiality, Integrity, Availability and Non-
repudiation. The final topic looked at is: Freedom of Information Act (FOI). Under this facet, some
provisions of FOI that relates to information sharing were looked at.

2.0. Objectives
At the end of this chapter, we should be able to:
i. promote scholarship and academic engagement among undergraduate students.
ii. train students who are cyber wise on the internet.
iii. enrich and support General studies program with respect to teaching of library, study
skills and information science.
iv. promote resource based inquiry with no harm.
v. train students who understand the power within information and who would
apply safety in giving and receiving it.

3.0. Main Contents

3.1. Information sharing techniques
Information sharing is the distribution of information along a well defined channel (Michelis,
2017). Information is normally shared and received through different channels, but requires skills
for ease and effectiveness. Such skills and channels become techniques for sharing of information.
Therefore information sharing techniques are the skills, channels and behaviour to be adhered to
for the purpose of sharing information. If personal and acquired information is to be shared, then
precaution is required as every human being is protected by human right. Depending on the origin
of information, any of the pre caution below should be applied (Foster, 2015).

Precautions to be exercised when sharing information

a. Informed consent: information or data obtained for research purposes or any other purpose
should be accompanied with a consent form or letter where the respondents or originator of
information would voluntarily consent to provide needed information. The consent should also
include mode of using or sharing information.
b. Regulation of access: Personal and sensitive information when obtained should not be shared.
However, where there is consent to share them, then access should be regulated in order to
ensure that it does not become global. Regulating access would also ensure that it is used for
the intended purpose and only by specified persons or group. Access could be controlled by
attaching passwords, making the contents to be a “read only” or using any other software to
restrict. The number of time attached to reading such restricted information could be limited.
By so doing, it would be difficult to copy or download the material; and thus difficult to share.
Where such information is to be used for presentation or academic purpose, it could be ensured
that audience do not have access to the full contents of the material. Depending on how
sensitive the information is, the audience could have access to only key points in the
presentation. The essence of precaution is because of the nature of information. A nature
which makes it to be distortable, sharable, convertible, destructible, indestructible (Susskind,
2017), transformable and storable. Therefore caution must be applied when handling any item
of information.
c. Protection of identities: This normally goes along side with obtaining informed consent. A
researcher or scholar is to ensure as part of research ethics that identities of providers of data
are protected. Where a researcher is using technology tool to obtain data, the voice of the
person could be distorted, his or her image not shown or the face protected. Such protection is
required in order to maintain the right to privacy of such person and his or her security.
d. Security of data: information obtained for a purpose, in order to ensure it is used specifically
for such purpose must be handled with care. Therefore, information obtained is not to be
exposed but stored in such a way that it would be kept away from public access.
Other techniques for sharing information are treated below.
 Skills and channels for information sharing

Information sharing skills is the basis for good and safe information exchange; without which a
scholar makes him or her vulnerable to cyber attacks, litigation or loss of information. The essence
of knowing techniques for information sharing is to stay safe while doing so. The skill and
channels required for sharing information are summarised in table 4.

Table 4: The Skills and channels for information sharing

Channels Skills

Chat rooms: chat rooms are normally used by organisations or The skills required in a chat room
groups to communicate to one another in a virtual platform. It could are: the ability to use a computer of
be for academic discussions or to ask questions from academic staff. any type like phone, laptop, palm top
It provides a learning community on the internet (Nortland and etc. Ability to communicate in
Johannesen, & Vavik, 2001). Examples of chat rooms are: Today’s used language. Ability to write fast as
Meet Room, Schoology, and Canvass. information shared are normally
verbal. Ability to understand topic of
discussion; and confidence in asking
questions when confused.

Personal contact: In personal contact, information is shared by face Ability to inter relate and confidence.
to face. For scholars, it could be through discussion. Students are Students with these skills are able to
advised to take advantage of this medium or channel as inter approach their peers, lecturers and
relationship or connectedness is the basis for academic engagement ask questions or seek clarifications.
and development. Information shared through personal contact
(whether in the classroom or outside the classroom) provides
possibility of safety as its sharing ability is limited to only one party.
It is possible to trace such information unlike one shared in an
internet environment.

Channels Skills
Discussion forums: Discussion forums are like chat rooms. It is also Ability to use a computer, internet
a virtual platform where information is communicated and shared. connectivity, member of profession
The difference between the two is that members are not required to that makes up the forum and a smart
be in the platform at the same time to chat. A topic of interest is phone.
introduced and members log in and respond to them at their
convenient time. However chat rooms are like live virtual platform
where communication is pari passu with the chat session and every
member is present at the same time. Discussion forum is a good
platform for community of practice (COP) as students can discuss
issues of academic concern. Discussion forums can be created in
“Whatsapp” and other platforms.

Telephone and e-mails: Telephone and emails are normally used for Ability to use a computer, phone or
sharing and exchanging information. hand mobile.

Storage devices: these are devices that would first store information Students should have skills to use
or data before sharing them. Here, information shared is already them. Flash drives should be put in
retained in a channel. Some of them are: Flash drives, USB port and located through my
CD-Rom/DVD, External hard drive, blue tooth transfer devices of computer”. CD-Rom/DVD should
computers and phones, e-mails, social sites, blog sites, etc. also be used through CD drive and
should be formatted as a USB in
order to store more information on it
or make changes. The same thing
should be done with External hard
drive. Blue tooth transfer is required
with a computer that has Bluetooth in
sharing information. Information
could also be saved in emails, social
sites and blog sites. Information
saved in these channels becomes
backups for those in other devices.
 3.2. Legal Issues in Data Sharing: Privacy and Accuracy of Information
Data sharing in this technological age has made access to information easy as information can be
shared just within seconds to billions of people all over the world. This ability to share information
to people in different parts of the world has made it necessary for provisions of laws that would
protect owners of information. In many countries like United States and Europe, mismanagement of
information is a criminal act (Technopedia, 2017), the same thing in Nigeria as would be seen later
in Nigerian Freedom of Information Act (FOI). Countries which make information misuses a
criminal act have also domesticated cyber law. Nigeria has cyber law (Cybercrimes (prohibition,
prevention, etc) Act, 2015) and thus, makes it a criminal act to mismanage information. This means
that there are legal provisions for punishment where information is shared in contradiction of laid
down laws. Scholars therefore need to understand the legal issue associated with data collection and
sharing in order to stay safe, avoid infringing other people’s rights, avoid embarrassing oneself and
protect oneself from going to prison. This is exactly the reason why awareness of legal issues in
data sharing becomes paramount.

The legal issues regarding data sharing are enumerated in table 5.

Table 5: Legal Provisions regarding data and information sharing

Issues Legality

How data was Data collected through illegal means and shared, could incur legal punishment. An
collected instance where this occurs is where information or data is obtained through hacking,
identity theft, wire tapping or intercepted (Westby, 2011). Such information has
infringed on someone’s privacy and so breached the fundamental human rights of
such person. The person who incurs punishment is the one who stole the information
and shared it, not the receivers except if they worked as a team (Nigerian Cyber
crimes Act, 2015, Ss.6, 7, 9, 12, 13, and 16). For the unrequested receiver, the
sensitive nature of such information is enough to show that it was not obtained
legally, and thus should not be shared. The unrequested receiver who makes it his or
her duty to share such information could be liable to causing harm. Examples of
information which could cause harm are: pornographic films, nude pictures, hate
recordings and others. If they are open sourced and open accessed by their licence,
 then there is no legal liability but where they are not, then there is legal liability.
Note: ensure that information you share on social sites are mostly those that
originate from you and are not sensitive or private to others.

Right to Privacy Almost all countries have enshrined as human right the privacy of persons. Thus
every information that attaches to humans is protected by their right to privacy.
Therefore information not belonging to one, if it must be shared, must be done with
permissions obtained. Note: Where information is stumbled on, it is better to delete
them or keep them from being shared. Where they are legally obtained, then use only
for the exact reasons in which permission was given. Where they are sensitive data
(data regarding ones health records, criminal proceedings, race or ethnic group or
anything that such person intends keeping away from the public), then do not share it
unless if it is in the interest of the public’s safety (Foster, 2015; Nigerian Freedom of
Information Act, 2011).

General The internet environment and its ability to provide scholars with diverse information
promises in also open them up to fraudulent persons. Some information may come with
consent forms conditions of consent to contracts. Many of these contracts are most of the

Issues Legality

time not read; however when they are signed, the signatory is subject to it and bound
by it. The signatory by signing it also gives power to the other party, to use his or her
private information as stated in the contract. Many of the information in the contract
might not be specific but made open to further interpretation by the other party.
Thus it is advisable that one cultivates the habit of always going through contracts
whether they seem serious or not before signing or better still, avoids them; the
information you need from their sites can still be obtained from other sites without
divulging your private information. Many people have made themselves naked on
the internet through this means.

Inaccurate UK Data protection Act, 1998(Foster, 2015) makes it criminal to give inaccurate
information information against someone. The Nigerian Penal code provides punishment for
publication of false news which causes alarm to the public and affects public peace
(Penal Code Act, S.418). In S 419, there is punishment for possession of any
publication (print or multimedia) which could incite disaffection against the
government and amount to disruption of public peace. These provisions are
replicated in sections 59 and 60 of Nigerian criminal code (Criminal Code Act, S.
59, 60). Internationally, there are also legal provisions for “Slander”. Therefore
caution must be applied per time.

Sensitive Sensitive information is information that the owner intends keeping away from the
data/information public eyes. If they must be shared, a consent letter must be obtained and a duty of
confidentiality statement provided. Duty of Confidentiality statement would show
that the original owner would be protected and that one is responsible if information
exposes the owner or is shared in a way that exposes him or her to harm.

3.3. Cyber Security

Cyber security is security on the internet. It is preventative methods created and applied to protect
oneself while on the internet. According to Technopedia (2017), it is preventative method applied
to protect information from being stolen, compromised or attacked. This definition is not complete
as it does not include protection from being duped of ones information through carelessness or
trickery. Nigerian cyber law makes provisions for prohibition, detection and punishment to
offenders. Under S. 6, gaining unlawful access to a computer or network is punishable. Unlawful
access to network includes obtaining internet connection access of telecommunication companies.
Gaining access unlawfully to other’s electronic mails or exchanging information through such
mails is punishable by 2 years imprisonment or payment of 5million naira. It is also criminal to
delete e mails or gain illegal access to others computer. Under S. 12, information or money sent in
error, where hidden and taken, is criminal and could be punishable with 1 year imprisonment or
250, 000 fine and any type of computer related forgery could lead one to prison (S. 13). Thus many
actions that are taken with levity actually infringe on cyber security laws. Below are instances
where cyber security is needed.

Instances where cyber security is needed and protective mechanisms to use

Cookies: Cookies are electronic identification cards attached to a user who visit an internet site.
Such identification card identifies that person each time he or she logs into a site or visits such site
(Blakemore, 2017). It is like accession number which identifies a book and differentiates it from
other books. Many websites use cookies to trace and monitor users, the information they are
interested in and the length of time they spend on a subject. By so doing, a record regarding each
user is obtained and kept. An example is the Market Mogul website which on mere show of
interest on a paper would state: “the market mogul uses cookies, by continuing to browse you
agree to our use of cookies”. The same thing is seen in “We Live Security website which would
also state: “Our website uses cookies. By continuing to browse the site, you are agreeing to our
use of cookies...” Many websites like Microsoft use cookies, although they are projected as an
item that is not as malicious as a virus since they do not directly attack; however the fact that they
infringe on privacy of an individual who is interested in their information is malicious. These
websites use cookies to obtain private information either by consent or fraudulent means. Many of
them obtain, keep and possibly transfer private information to third parties; and state so in their
contract. Despite this, people who are gullible still consent by clicking “yes” in order to have
access to academic paper. Scholars should learn to use their institution’s academic databases or go
to professional sites that do not require cookies, instead of continually giving out private
information on almost every website.

Websites that use cookies give impression that it is done to provide optimum service to people.
They impress that the records obtained make it easy for people to research faster and easier as their
needs are foreknown and provided. However almost all the websites using cookies make it
mandatory to consent to use of cookies or lose access to needed information or paper on their
website. They give the indirect threat: “Consent or don’t use” (quotation is mine). Therefore many
scholars that consent to use of cookies do so involuntarily.

Cookies are also seen in social sites and search engines (Lambert, 2017). Sites which use cookies
save the history of search so that they are accessible by anyone, thereby exposing such person. The
longer and more often one uses such sites, the more records is gathered about one. Thus by using
information from these social sites, a resume about one or a scholar can easily be gathered; and
with pieces of evidence. Apart from cookies, many scholars provide security threat by making
themselves bare or exposed on internet sites. They provide full details of themselves, their
location, the time they do different things, their race, religion and every single data about them.
Such information is made global for all to see and use to harm or overlook.

Protective mechanism/cyber security to apply

Protective mechanisms are security measures to apply when on the internet environment. They are
important because information recorded about someone might not be used by such website against
such person, however it could be hacked or acquired or transferred; it could also be traded
alongside with others to a third party. So please do not consent to use of cookies when asked
(bolded for emphasis). If you are denied access to your needed information, seek it from other
websites. If you must, then do not constantly use such site and especially for sensitive
information. Always clear all cookies in order not to be tracked or to prevent someone else
opening sites visited. Do this by clearing “history” from the menu bar, pick a time range. It could
be sites opened that day, an hour, a month. It’s important to select time range especially if a
scholar intends going back to search history. Always block websites from storing cookies. Do
this by going to the menu, privacy setting and adjust them to your preference. However you can
clear all cookies by clearing everything under “Time range” by going to menu and clicking
history (Support. Mozilla, 2017).

This preventive mechanism are not exhaustive, you could adjust as you get into your privacy
panel. There are also other protective mechanisms below.

Other protective mechanisms

Continually update your antivirus: antivirus are protective software applied to protect ones
information and computer from viruses that could attack. This becomes important because there
are consistently new viruses that keep attacking.
Use of strong pass words: endeavour to use passwords that are difficult to configure or detect. It is
also important to develop behaviour of not sharing any password with anyone. This is because
most passwords could be access tool to other sites. Some people have a habit of merging their birth
dates, children, husband into their passwords. Thus when one is known, it s easy to detect others.

Setting: always develop a habit of adjusting the setting of your phone, devices or browser, or any
site including social sites. Always go to privacy site to adjust what access others have to your
information and the extent of information they can see. By adjusting access to your privacy, you
can also know when someone is trying to access your private information illegally.

Keeping personal information to oneself: It is wise not to divulge all information on the social site.
Certain information is sensitive; they are traceable information and thus must be kept to oneself.
One must always be alert and think like a criminal in relation to personal information. Providing
information that has possibility of being used against one is a security threat against one. Sensitive
information like where you work, children schools, photo of children on their school uniform, your
location, when you normally go for holiday and where, pictures showing the countries you visited
and others should be kept to yourself. Be as discreet as you can and know that you are on the social
site to relate with people you know, not to make new friends with those you don’t know. Part of a
security measure in social site, especially on “Face book” is to “be inoff line mode” sometimes.
You can also try to use other search engines or sites that could make your search a bit private. Try
using academic databases or alternative to Google. Such alternatives like “Duck Duck Go”
(Technopedia, 2017). You can also learn to share information one on one or use private
messaging instead of sharing publicly for all to see and respond. Face book has developed its
site to include “Messenger”, a private messaging platform. According to the Guardian (2014), it is
advisable not to consent to storing of data in the cloud. This is normally portrayed in such ways
that one feels one is being done a favour. Request that ask if your messages and pictures could be
saved so that when you lose phone or device, you would still locate them. Such requests are
dangerous as your information is being stored permanently on the cloud. A scholar might consent
and would totally forget such consent, whereas such consent has made it possible to store all
messages, photos and every information on a device on the cloud. Thus deleting them on one’s
phone does not actually delete them. As a result, hackers can easily access them and use them for
or against such person.

3.4. Principles of Information Security and Awareness

The principles of information security are fundamental standards applied to protect one, one’s
information, organisation or organisation’s information from any harm on the internet. Where
information principles are known, they can be applied. However if people or scholars are not
aware of the standards to apply for their protection, then they become open for consistent attack on
the internet.

The principles of information are based on four ethical standards which are: Confidentiality,
integrity, availability and Non repudiation (Study.com, 2017; Technopedia, 2017). They are
expatiated below.

Confidentiality: confidentiality is the art of securing information in such a way that it is only
accessible by the owner, their representatives or those who have legal authority to access them for
purposes known to the owner of such information. In this way, the owner of such information is
protected from public eyes and he or she is ensured of the safety of such information.

Integrity: integrity of information means that the information is as accurate as provided by the
owner or original source and has not been hampered. It also means that security measures are put
in place to ensure that no unauthorised changes are done.

Availability: information availability is the accessible nature of information; especially when it is

needed by those with legal authority to access them. The access to such information must not be
hampered.

Non repudiation: Non repudiation shows the person with access to your information. Your
information should belong to you and seen by only you except you give access to persons to see
them. Thus without your access, your information is not supposed to be accessed. It is a security
measure put in place to monitor per time anyone that accesses one’s information or try to’ and to
know if such person has the authority to do so. Software or security cameras are normally used for
this purpose.

Creating awareness based on these principles is important as it would make a scholar not to fall
prey to predators. Predators that use papers and academic materials to trade a person’s private and
confidential information, hackers or information thieves. Many sites try to take private information
by trickery. An instance is where one is allowed a free trial of a site in order to have access to an
academic material, however he or she is told to fill up a form. At the end of such form, the person
is asked to fill in credit card details. If it is a free trial, then what do they require your credit card
details for, do they want to keep it for you? Where such person refuses, he or she would not have
access to the free trial and thus would have no access to the paper or material. This is seen in many
sites like: “Study.com”. Many scholars are gullible and believe that such organisations would not
use their credit card details without their consent. This could be true; however someone else could
hack into their record and use it. It could also not be true as they could further interpret a contract
signed by you to your own detriment and thus, use your card details to take money they feel is due
to them. Besides, one’s credit card details are personal and should not be shared.

3.5. Freedom of Information Act

Freedom of Information Act (FOI) is an act that provides and supports freedom of expression. It
is an international law domesticated by different countries to lend support to Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR) and the African Charter on Human and People's Rights. These laws make provisions
for information sharing. Article 19 of the United Nations UDHR makes provision for freedom to
render and get opinion, to seek and receive information (Arogundade, 2013). Nigerian FOI came
into existence in 2011 and has the semblance of FOI from United States of America (Ogba,
2014). Its sole aim is to make provision for information sharing, especially from public
authorities to the people. According to Robert, cited in Afolayan (2012), Freedom of Information
Act (FOIA) is an act which makes provision, publishes on demand and provides information
held by public authorities or by persons providing services to them. According to Chaba, Subodh
and Kaira(n.d), provision of access to information held by public institutions enhances the
responsiveness of government to community needs as the grievances of the people are expressed
easily to the government who in turn clarifies issues and improves his administration. Thus, apart
from information being free, FOI makes provisions for open government which could aid life
and living.

Section 1(3) of the Nigerian Freedom of Information Act provides that requesters have a right
to institute proceedings in court pursuant to refusal of public authorities to provide requested
information. By section 3(3) of Freedom of information Act (FOIA) there is social inclusion for
 illiterates and the disabled who can apply for access to information through 3rd parties (Ogba,
2014).

Nigerian FOI in providing for access to information also makes provision for protection of
clients, patients and their personal privacy. Thus information which is sensitive and private to
individuals shall not be shared under FOI except if it passes the "public interest" test. Public
interest test states that any information which would serve the greater good of the public shall be
given access to despite the fact that infringes on someone’s right to privacy. Thus scholars and
everyone is given right to request for information on him or her held in any public institution,
including private institutions that provides services for the public. They also have a right to
request for any information from any public establishment as far as they are not information
private to such establishment; subject to the public interest test.

4.0. Conclusion
This chapter has looked at information security and the essence of creating awareness around it.
It has shown that there is a fundamental right attached to information access and sharing. It has
shown more that there are legal limits attached to sharing of information as information shared
could infringe on someone else’s fundamental right to privacy. Apart from this, it could also
infringe the dignity of such person or affect the peace of the populace. Thus while information
sharing is backed up constitutionally, it is also limited by the same constitution. Its limits has
also been enshrined by freedom of information act (FOI) which prevents sharing of personal and
sensitive information except if such information is needed for protection of majority of people.
Conclusively, this chapter has shown that there is need to know what goes around our personal
information especially on the internet. One’s personal information is one’s image and life; and
therefore should not be divulged easily or traded for academic materials on the internet. More so,
everyone has the power of choice to adjust private settings to his or her device and prevent his or
her personal information to be made bare. In conclusion, information sharing especially on the
internet has been shown to be a double edged sword that could make or mar, thus caution should
always be applied.

5.0. Summary
 FOI

1. Information sharable under FOI is non-confidential information which is accurate.

2. Owners of personal information under FOI can request to see information stored about
them by any public official (including tertiary institutions and banks).
3. Anybody can make request irrespective of age and does not need to proffer explanation.
4. Response to request is to be given within 7 days.
5. FOI provides punishment for destruction or falsification of records. Thus where one’s
records held by a public official is destroyed or falsified; it becomes a felony punishable by
1 year imprisonment or 500,000 fines.
6. Public officials are mandated to keep proper records and not allow them to get lost.

Information Sharing Techniques

Precautions to sharing information are:

1. Apply informed consent.

2. Regulate access to information.

3. Protect identities of owners of information.

4. Ensure security of data.

Some channels of information sharing are:

Chat rooms, personal contact, discussion rooms, telephone, e-mails and through technology
devices.

Legal Issues in data sharing

In sharing data or information, it is important to note the following issues:

1. How data was obtained.

2. Right to privacy of individuals.

 3. General promises of consent or internet contracts: they could have loopholes.

4. Inaccurate information.

5. Sensitive data

Cyber Security

To ensure cyber security, be aware of cookies and the following protective mechanisms:

1. Do not consent to use of cookies.

2. Clear all cookies regularly.

3. Block websites from storing cookies.

Other protective mechanisms are:

4. Update anti- virus.

5. Use strong passwords.

6. Don’t use the same passwords for so many sites.

7. Always adjust your privacy settings.

8. Keep your personal information to yourself.

6.0. Revision Exercises

1. Try deleting cookies to your search history and explain what you observed in the process of
doing so.

2. Write a consent letter for permission to use information from a health record, show this to your
lecturer.

3. Explain differences in sharing information at different channels on the internet.

4. Explain 3 legal provisions to sharing information on the internet.

 5. Explain 3 instances of cyber attacks and how to stay safe.

6. Explain how to apply the 4 principles of information security and awareness during
information sharing.

7. Explain the essence of FOI to information sharing.

7.0 References

Afolayan.(2012). A Critical analysis of freedom of information act in Nigeria, Odinakadotnet

Retrieved from: http://www.odinakadotnet.wordpress.com/.../

Arogundade,L. (2013). FOI and the society. International Press Centre with the support of IFJ

and LO/TCO,Ikeja. Retrieved from http://www.ipcng.org/freedom%2520%

Blakemore, E. (2017). What is a cookie? Microsoft. Retrieved from:

http://blogsmicrosoft.com/microsoftsecure/2007/02/12/what-is-a-cookie

Chhaba, A; Subodh, S & Kaira,S. (n.d). Right to information: step towards transparent

governance. National Information Centre, Government of India. Retrieved from:

http://www.ac.gov.in/../Arunachaba-01.htm

Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Law of the Federation of Nigeria, 2004, Ss37,

39 & 42.Nigeria: Federal Government of Nigeria.

Cyber Crimes (Prohibition, prevention, etc) Act, 2015

Criminal Code Act,, Cap.C38, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria 2004, vol.4, 59 & 60.

The Guardian.(2014). How to protect your digital photos from hackers. Retrieved from:

http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/sep/03/how-to-protect-your-digital-

photos-from-hackers
 Foster, B.L. (2015). Facilitating Open science training for Europe research. Research data

management and Open Data, 6-7 October,2015, University of Manchester, UK.

Retrieved from: http://1drv.ms/1JM68W5

Lambert, L. (2017). Cyber security-attacks, effects and the role of the law. Retrieved from:

http://www.themarketmogul.com/cyber-security-attack-effects-role-law/

Mathieson, K. (2008).Access to information as a human right. SSRN. Retrieved from:

http://www.scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=

Mendoza, M.A.(2017). Challenges and implications of cyber security legislation. We Live

Security. Retrieved from: http://www.welivesecurity.com/2017/03/13/challenge-

implication-cybersecurtiy-legislation/

Michelis , D. (2017). Information sharing. Open Organisation . Retrieved from:

http://10innovations.alumniportal.com/open-organisation/information-sharing.html

Nortland, M; Johannesen, J & vavik, L. (2001). A case study of ICT and school improvement

at Royse Elementary schools hole. Oecd/Ceri Ict Programme. Retrieved from:

http://intradev.oecd.org/els/ict/NO/NO02.htm

The Nest.(2017). Effective ways to share information in the work place. Retrieved from:

http://woman.thenest.com/effective-ways-share-information-work-place-5170.html

Ogba, O.C & Odeyemi, O.S. (2014). Information society and digital divide: A critic on the

inclusion of internet access as a human right. International Journal of Research in IT,

Management and Engineering, 6(7), 1-6. Retrieved from: http://www.indusedu.org

Ogba, O.C.(2014). A comparative analysis of Nigerian freedom of information act. Ife

 Journal of International and Comparative Law(IJICL), 2(1), 459-470.

Penal Code Act, Cap.P3, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria 2004, vol.13, S.418.

Technopedia.(2007). What is information sharing? Retrieved from:

http://www.technopedia.com/definition/...

Technopedia.(2017). How to stay safe. Retrieved from:

http://www.technopedia.com/definition/...

Susskind, L. (2017). Leonard Susskind said Inofmration is indestructible, what kind of

information does he mean. Quora. http://www.quora.com/leonard-susskind-said-

information-is-indestructible-what-kind-of-information-deos-he-mean

Support .Mozilla. (2017). Delete cookies to remove the information websites have stored on

your computer. Retrieved from: http://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/delete-cookies-

remove-info-website-stored

Westby, J.R. (2011). Legal issues associated with data collection and sharing. Global Cyber

Risk LLC.Retrieved from: http://www.global.cyberrisk.com

 CHAPTER TWELVE
COPYRIGHT AND ITS IMPLICATIONS
AWOYEMI O.O.
1.0 Introduction
From time immemorial, man has been seeking to protect his own property from interference by
others. The copyright law has made it possible for the originator or author of works of art or the
others, who are involved in intellectual works, to control the use and exploitation of such works.
This is done with a view to reducing, if not totally eradicating the activities of pirates (Awoyemi,
2013). Copyright law in Nigeria is presently governed by the Copyright Act Cap C28 LFN 2004.

Fundamentally, copyright law exists to prevent others from taking unfair advantage of a person’s
creative efforts. The courts have displayed very little sympathy for plagiarists and frequently
have demonstrated that copyright law ought to be interpreted in such a way as to protect the
interest of a copyright owner (Bainbridge, 2009)
Copyright is a property right that subsists in certain specified types of work provided for by the
Copyright Act, 2004. Examples of the works in which copyright subsists areliterary
worksmusical works; artistic works; cinematograph works; sound recording; and broadcasts.
Material which does not fall within one of these categories will have no copyright protection.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
 know the meaning of copyright
 identify a copyright owner
 know what constitutes plagiarism
 know the implications of copyright law
 mention what constitutes copyright infringement
3.0 Copyright

Copyright is a legal right assigned to the author or creator of a work in order to protect his
intellectual product till such a time as fixed by the law within which he is to enjoy a sole right to
make pecuniary gains or advantage from his intellectual exploits.

As the name implies copyright is literally a right to prevent other people from copying an
original work. It should be noted that it must be an original work, not an original idea. At this
juncture, one can suggest that copyright is technically the right protected by law, a national law
to make and sell copies of creative works or to perform or display them. It is a property right
which subsists (exists) in various “works” such as, literary works, artistic works, musical works,
sound recordings, films, and broadcast. It is a right conferred on authors and owners of creative
works to control the doings of certain acts in relation to those works.
The Copyright Act, CAP. C28, Laws of the Federation 2004 does not give a clear definition of
copyright, It however recognises it as a right to stop or restrains others from doing something. It
restrains others from printing or interfering with others’ work.

3.1 Copyright Owner

Under the Nigerian law, copyright ownership is not automatic. Generally, copyright of a work
belongs to its author i.e the person who originates the language employed in the work and so is
the owner of the copyright. Generally, the creator of a work has a copyright in that work, along
with the various exclusive rights that copyright law provides. A copyright is ordinarily obtained
by the creator of a work such as novelist, musicians and composers of music, authors, publishers,
photographers, producers of computer systems, laptops and their numerous software. The author
owns the rights associated with an original work of authorship. The “author” is usually the
person who creates the copyrightable expression and actually fixes it in a tangible medium.

Copyright gives the owner an original work of authorship six exclusive rights:

 The right to reproduce and make copies of an original work;

 The right to prepare derivative works based on the original work such as translations,
abridgement, or adaptations;
  The right to distribute copies to the public by sale or another form of transfer, such as
rental or lending;

 The right to publicly perform the work;

 The right to publicly display the work, and

 The right to perform sound recordings publicly through digital audio transmission.

The categories of things that count as an original work of authorship include literature, computer
programs, dramatic scripts, choreographed or pantomimed work, motion pictures, video art,
graphics, sculptures, and architectural plans. Each of these categories is broadly construed. When
any of these rights are infringed with regard to an original work of authorship, the holder of the
rights may bring a copyright lawsuit to enforce those rights.

Under the Nigerian law, copyright ownership is not automatic. For example, if you are not a
citizen of Nigeria or domiciled in Nigeria you cannot lay claim to copyright ownership, unless
the work was first published in Nigeria or being sound recording made in Nigeria. Again, if by
your contract of employment, you have transferred the copyright in your ‘work’ to your
employer, you cannot also lay claim to copyright ownership.

The copyright Act provides a guide as to who may claim copyright and the duration within
which such copyright ownership will last. The statutory provisions also define the extent of the
right of the copyright owner and the limits to this right.

The person who makes the work is normally the first owner of the copyright in the work,
provided he has not created the work in the course of his employment, in which case his
employer will normally be the first owner of the copyright.

The Copyright Act 2004, Sec.9 (1) states the basic rule that the author of a work is the first
owner of the copyright. This will apply in so many good number of cases if the work is created
solely by the author not employed under a contract of employment and even to employed
persons, if the work has not been created in the course of their employment.
The copyright Act provides that in respect of literary, musical or artistic work other than
photographs, copyright claim will expire after seventy years of the death of the author. However,
in the case of a government or a body corporate, copyright in literary, musical or artistic work
will expire seventy years after the end of the year in which the work was first published.

In the case of cinematography films and photographs the copyright will expire fifty years after
end of the year in which the recording was first made whilst in the case of broadcast, the
copyright will expire 50 years after the end of the year in which the broadcast first took place.
There are also special provisions in the case of anonymous or pseudonymous literary, musical or
artistic works (Babafemi, 2007)

3.2 Copyright Infringement

Isiakpona (2012) defines the infringement of copyright as an unauthorised use of copyrighted
materials in a manner that violates one of the copyright owner‘s exclusive right to produce or
perform the copyrighted work, or to make derivative that build upon it. Copyright infringement
according to WIPO (2008) is the unauthorized use of works under copyright, infringing on the
holder‘s sole rights, such as the right to reproduce, distribute, display or perform the copyrighted
work, spread the information contained within a copyrighted works, or to make derivative works.
WIPO further said that infringement is often referred to as copying intellectual property without
written permission from the copyright holder.

Copyright infringement is the use of works protected by copyright law without

permission, infringing certain exclusive rights granted to the copyright holder, such as the right
to reproduce, distribute, display or perform the protected work, or to make derivative works.

The copyright owner has under the Copy right Act (2004), the exclusive right to:

 copy the work

 Issue copies of the work to the public;

 Rent or lend the work to the public;

 Perform, show or play the work in public

  Communicate the work to the public

 Make an adaptation of the work or do any of the above in relation to an adaptation

The copyright subsisting in a work is infringed by any person who does or authorises another to
do any of these acts restricted by copyright without the licence (that is, without permission,
contractual or otherwise) of the copyright owner.

Copyright may be infringed if the act complained of relates to only a part of the work for, under
Section 14 the doing of an act restricted by copyright includes doing it to any substantial part of
the work.

Copying: The word copying seems clear enough on the face of it, but some elaboration is
required in relation to the application of this restricted act to each of the types of work.

Section 17 elaborates on the meaning of this restricted act:

Copying in relation to a literary, dramatic, musical work means reproducing the work in any
material form. To avoid doubt, the section makes it clear that storing such a work in any medium
by electronic means is covered by the word ‘copying’. Although it is necessary to show that the
person committing the infringement has actually copied the original work and is therefore aware
of the original, innocent copying is nevertheless infringement.

Infringements of copyright are actionable at the suit of the copyright owner, and that in any
action for such infringement all such relief by way of damages, injunction, accounts or otherwise
shall be available to the copyright owner as it is available in respect of infringements of other
proprietary rights.

3.3 Plagiarism
The word plagiarism comes from a Latin word plagiarus meaning “kidnapping”. In a simple
language, plagiarism is stealing a person’s ideas or writing.
In writing papers, non-adherence to proper or correct documentation procedures leads to
plagiarism. The Webster’s dictionary describes a plagiarist as copier or counterfeit and a lifter. In
the academia, plagiarism is described as any form of adaptation of another author’s ideas, even if
they were paraphrased and no matter how brief, so long as the origin is not mentioned. In other
words, if a phrase not to talk of a paragraph, it proved to have been originated from an earlier
author, it amounts to plagiarism. Many professors and members of the academic community
have over time suffered disgrace for this simple omission.

According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, to “plagiarize” means:

 to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one’s own
 to use (another’s production) without crediting the source

 to commit literary theft

 to present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source

Plagiarism is the act of taking another person’s writing, conversation, song, or even idea and
passing it off as your own. This includes information from web pages, books, songs, television
shows, email messages, interviews, articles, artworks or any other medium. Whenever you
paraphrase, summarize, or take words, phrases, or sentences from another person’s work, it is
necessary to indicate the source of the information within your paper using an internal citation. It
is not enough to just list the source in a bibliography at the end of your paper. Failing to properly
quote, cite or acknowledge someone else’s words or ideas with an internal citation is plagiarism.

Plagiarism is the presentation of the work of another person, in whatever form, as one’s own or
without proper acknowledgement. Plagiarism involves copying material, either word from word
or as a paraphrase, from anything ranging from books, to internet sites, course notes, oral or
visual presentations, lab reports, computer assignments, or artistic works.

Plagiarism does not refer to words alone - it can also refer to copying images, graphs, algorithms,
tables, and ideas. A “presentation” means more than written work, even translating the work of
another person into another language without citation is plagiarism.
Plagiarism is an act of copying another person‘s ideas, words or works and pretends that they are
your own (Hornby, 2000). It is described by Isiakpona (2012) as the violation of copyright law to
use all or part of A‘s document, either verbatim or with trivial changes, in a document written by
B. Copying another‘s ideas, words, expressions and passing it off as yours can be regarded as
stealing. Plagiarism is the use of someone else‘s ideas or words without properly crediting the
source (Osman, 2013).

Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own, with or without their
consent, by incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement. All published and
unpublished material, whether in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this
definition. Plagiarism is a breach of academic integrity. It is a principle of intellectual honesty
that all members of the academic community should acknowledge their debt to the originators of
the ideas, words, and data which form the basis for their own work.

3.4 Implications of Copyright Law

Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In law, despite the protections provided,
the Copyright Act Chapter C28, LFN 2004 allows a number of uses of copyright works without
the permission of the copyright owner in specific circumstances. There are two distinct types of
permitted acts, fair dealing and exceptions.
A) Fair Use and Fair Dealing

The fair dealing exceptions are fairly limited and exist for the purposes of:

• Non-commercial research and private study

• Criticism and review

• Reporting current events

It is not an infringement of copyright to make short quotations from a work for purposes of
criticism, comment, teaching, scholarship, or research. Nevertheless, the name of the author and
the source of the quotation must be acknowledged duly.

Fair dealing acts differ from other exceptions to copyright in that these involve an assessment as
to whether the dealing is fair.
 B) Exceptions

There are also a number of general exceptions in the Copyright Act for a variety of purposes.
Broadly these are:

• Educational exceptions. These are exceptions in relation to specific acts taking place in
teaching and educational establishments. For example, the use of copyrighted works by
educational institutions as primary instructional materials, if those materials are not made readily
available by copyright holders at reasonable prices.

Also, the use of excerpts, selections, and quotations from copyrighted works for purposes of
explanation and illustration in connection with not-for-profit teaching and scholarship.

• Library and archiving exceptions. These are exceptions relating to various aspects of libraries
and archiving, such as; libraries making copies for use in non-commercial research, or for
archiving material.

• Public administration. These would be exceptions relating to various parliamentary/judicial

functions and public information, such as reporting legal cases.

• Incidental inclusion of the copyright work. This exception relates to the situation where for
example a documentary is being filmed and incidentally includes a passing car playing copyright
music or a building or sculpture which is a copyright work. These incidental inclusions would be
exempted from copyright liability.

However, the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 2004 provides that where music is in fact
deliberately included, it will not be possible for a person to claim incidental inclusion.

• Lawful use of a computer program/database. A person who is lawfully using a computer

program or database is allowed to make back-up copies and in certain circumstances de-compile
programs. However, it must be noted this is only where the initial use is lawful.

• Time shifting. A limited exception is allowed so that a person in private and domestic
circumstances can copy a broadcast (and the copyright works embodied in it) to watch or listen
to at a more convenient time.
3.5 Library Practices and Copyright Law
Libraries occupy a strategic position in the provision of information in any society. This is
because libraries are places where large volumes of literary works are kept and used. Librarians
by virtue of their profession are the custodian of these volumes of literary work held in libraries.
They owe it as a duty to ensure that these works are organized in such a way that users will be
able to have easy access to them whenever they desire to, satisfy their information needs
Igbeneghu (2005). Librarians go about this by:
i. Lending literary works to users under specific conditions.
ii. Permitting the users to make photocopies of literary works that cannot be loaned out. With
respect to photocopying, the library is exempted from copyright control and so could have a
reprographic section where photocopying services could be rendered to users under the fair use.

4.0 Conclusion
In a country such as Nigeria, the importance of the law of Copyright can hardly be over-
emphasised. This is a country where book piracy, film piracy and music piracy still reign
supreme, with attendant losses of income to authors, publishers, film makers, musicians and
many other copyright owners. Effective laws to combat these and other copyright problems are
therefore very imperative.

The fundamental purpose of copyright law is to provide an incentive for authors, to create
expression by recognizing that expression is a kind of property, and that the property has to be
protected adequately for the specified numbers of years that the work will enjoy before taking to
the public domain.
Economic recession has actually aggravated the violation of the copyright law. Since the
Government has been pre-occupied with revamping the economy and since the result does not
come over night, the only measure to arrest the further exploitation of the literary works of others
is to reactivate the few paper industries in the Country. More funds should be allocated to them
to encourage greater productivity and this will minimize the prevailing scarcity of paper.
It also advocated that copyright owner in Nigeria must take more practical steps to protect their
rights and institute Court action when necessary so that the process of adjudication can be
developed.

The Nigerian Copyright Commission should also establish an effective working relationship with
the office of the Attorney General of the Federation with regard to he prosecution of copyright
cases in court (Emefiele, 2011). Copyright cases should also be tried with minimum delay, all
High Courts in Nigeria should also have jurisdiction over all copyright matters. The pirates
should be tried like armed robbers in the nearest High Courts.

Apart from damages, other sanctions like prison sentences, seizures, delivery up and destruction
of infringing copies and equipments for making them should be enforced to deter hard core
pirates. To this extent, copyright laws will therefore, like the ten commandments be enforced to
the letter: on pains of hell and eternal damnation (Copyright news, 2007)

In conclusion, the rightful authors of original works and those that use them under the auspices
of “fair use” should work in harmony and abide with the law according to the dictates of their
country’s copyright law.

5.0 Summary
Copyright law is not designed to limit public access to information but to ensure that the public
has access to it by protecting the economic and moral rights of authors. Copyright law is based
on the assumption that an author is more likely to be motivated to embark on continuous
production of intellectual products, if there is an assurance that another individual can claim
neither the credit nor the economically benefits from the author’s efforts. The chapter
demonstrated that the privileges granted to libraries under the fair dealing principle is to make
information free, accessible and available to users who are in dire need but not to make
economic profit from the work eligible for copyright as provided by Copyright Act.

6.0 Revision Exercises

What is copyright?
Who is a copyright owner?
 Who are the people eligible for copyright as provided by Copyright Act?
What constitutes copyright infringement?

7.0 References

Babafemi, J (2007) Intellectual Property: The Law and Practice of Copyright, Trademarks,
Patents and Industrial Designs in Nigeria. Ibadan: Justinian Books Limited.

Bainbridge, D (2009) Intellectual Property Law. 7th ed. England: Pearson Education Limited.

Black’s Law Dictionary (1999) ed. By Bryan A Garner St. Paul MN: West Group.

Clarke, Roger (2006). Plagiarism by Academics: More Complex Than it Seems. Journal of the
Association for Information Systems7 (1): 91–121.

Copyright Act Chapter C28, Laws of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004

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Oxford University Press.

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authors of library works in Nigeria. Ife Journal of curriculum studiesand development,
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909.pdf.
 CHAPTER THIRTEEN
DATABASE RESOURCES
BAMIDELE, OLAWALE
1.0 Introduction
The advent of computers with fast internet connections is driving the development of complex e-
learning modalities in research and learning. Electronic information resources, popularly known
as e-resources have become a major element of today’s libraries collections nationwide.
Technology has penetrated all areas of human endeavour and the use of electronic information
resources has a great significance in research and learning process. Libraries use database
resources for better services and satisfying numerous needs of its users. Libraries of today, are
transforming into digital and virtual libraries where books, journals and magazines have changed
into e-books, e-journals, and e-magazines. This has increased the global dissemination of
information. Database resources are more up-to-date, and can be accessed anywhere, crossing all
geographical boundaries. Such electronic databases are very valuable and time-saving while
conducting research.

A large, regularly updated file of digitised information i.e. (bibliographic records, abstracts, full-
text documents, directory entries, images, statistics, etc.) related to a specific subject or field,
consisting of records of uniform format organised for ease and speed of search and retrieval and
managed with the aid of database management system (DBMS) software that provide electronic
access to the data after it has been converted to machine-readable form, usually on CD-ROM or
online via the Internet, using proprietary search software. The content of an electronic database is
revised and augmented, usually on a regular basis, to provide current information on recently
published sources and also designs to provide information about a very specific topic, usually for
a specific audience. These resources are leased annually under licensing agreements that limit
access to registered institutions and users.

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

  Understand what database resources are
 Know the types of database resources
 Know the use of Database
 Understand search tips and tricks
 Compare between Subscription Databases and Open Access resources
 Know what Search Engines are
 Know the Types of search engines
 Understand the Benefits and shortcomings of Using a Library Database

3.0 What is a Library Database?

A library database is an organised collection of electronic information that allows a user to

search for a particular topic, article, or book in a variety of ways (e.g., keyword, subject, author,
title). Some databases must contain full-text articles from journals, magazines, and newspapers,
as well as books.

Most of the information found by using Internet search engines, such as Google, is free. Library
databases contain copyrighted, licensed, and proprietary information. EKSU Library for instance,
pays for access to databases so that students can access the information for free.

Most information retrieved from Google hasn't been evaluated. It could be inaccurate, biased, or
it might not be current. You will need to carefully evaluate information. Articles found in the
library databases have already been evaluated for accuracy and credibility by discipline-specific
experts and publishers.

All databases consist of data (records) described in fields and a means by which to search these
fields, (search engine). Databases may look different on screen but the underlying principles for
searching and formulating search strategies are common to all.

Electronic Databases (e-databases) have become an established component of many academic

libraries’ collection. These databases often contain journal articles, or references to such articles,
e-books, reference sources, conference papers and reports among others. There are various types
of these databases such as bibliographic, full-text, directory, numeric and multimedia. E-
databases are widely available and can be accessed from anywhere and by many users at the
same time. It is therefore convenient to use. University libraries, therefore, spend large amounts
of money on these resources to satisfy the teaching, learning and research needs of its faculty and
students. As universities spend substantial amount of money on subscription to these databases,
it is only appropriate and economical that these databases are optimally utilized to contribute to
the academic development of students and also to get value for money.

3.1 Types of Databases

Bibliographic databases: provide publication details of an item, but the item itself is not
provided in the database. Information such as author(s), title, subject(s) and publisher is
provided. The information provided is called a reference (or citation) and with this information
you should be able to locate the item within the Library.

Bibliographic with some full text content: these popular databases are indexes of journal
articles with abstracts and often, but not always, include the full text of an article.

Full textdatabases basically means that you will be able to get the entire article you are looking
for. Databases on their most basic level, are indexes that help you find sources of information.
But, that does not necessarily mean that you will be able to get the entire article you are looking
for in a particular database. The database you are using may only provide information such as the
citation, abstract, and keywords.

Full text databases became common about 1990 when computer storage technology made them
economic and technologically possible. There are two main classes: An extension of the classical
bibliographical databases into full text databases (e.g. on hosts such as BRS, Dialog, LexisNexis
and Westlaw) and Internet based full text databases (based on search engines or XML).

Full-text databases are subscribes to by college and university libraries to save their students and
staff. Full-text databases are ideally suited to online courses of study, where the student remains
at home and obtains course materials by downloading them from the Internet. Access to these
databases is normally restricted to registered personnel or to people who pay a specified fee per
viewed item.
An abstract database gives a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review,
conferenceproceeding, or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject and is often used to help
the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose. When used, an abstract always appears at the
beginning of a manuscript or typescript, acting as the point-of-entry for any given academic
paper or patent application. Abstracting and indexing services for various academic disciplines
are aimed at compiling a body of literature for that particular subject.

Academic literature uses the abstract to succinctly communicate complex research. An abstract
may act as a stand-alone entity instead of a full paper. As such, an abstract is used by many
organisations as the basis for selecting research that is proposed for presentation in the form of a
poster, platform/oral presentation or workshop presentation at an academic conference. Most
database search engines index only abstracts rather than providing the entire text of the paper.
Full texts of scientific papers must often be purchased because of copyright and/or publisher fees
and therefore the abstract is a significant selling point for the reprint or electronic form of the full
text.

The abstract can convey the main results and conclusions of a scientific article but the full text
article must be consulted for details of the methodology, the full experimental results, and a
critical discussion of the interpretations and conclusions. Consulting the abstract alone is
inadequate for scholarship and may lead to inappropriate decisions.

An abstract allows one to search through copious amounts of papers for which the researcher can
have more confidence that they will be relevant to his or her research. Once papers are chosen
based on the abstract, they must be read carefully to be evaluated for relevance. It is generally
agreed that one must not rely on reference citations in the abstract alone, but the content of an
entire paper.

Examples of library online Databases

The following are some of the library online databases, the list is endless.

1. EBSCOhost Multiple databases from EBSCOhost. Academic Search Complete is a good

choice for university level research. Other databases related specifically to health,
business, and education are available.
2. EBSCO eBooks Provides access to a collection of about 150,000 eBooks from over 60
publishers, including Springer, Taylor & Francis and Wiley InterScience. The collection
covers a variety of subjects, and allows users to search, cite, browse, and read the full text
of the eBooks online, and in some cases (when permission is available) download eBooks
for offline reading.
3. ERIC, the Educational Resource Information Centre contains more than 2,200 digests
along with references for additional information and citations and abstracts from over 980
educational and education related journals.
4. JSTOR Provides image and full-text online access to back issues of selected scholarly
journals in history, economics, political science, demography, mathematics, and other
fields of the humanities and social sciences.
5. Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts (LISTA) indexes more than
600 periodicals, plus books, research reports and proceedings. Subject coverage includes
librarianship, classification, cataloguing, bibliometrics, online information retrieval,
information management and more. Coverage in the database extends back as far as the
mid-1960s.
6. MasterFILE was designed specifically for public libraries, this multidisciplinary
database provides full text for nearly 1,950 general reference publications with full text
information dating as far back as 1975. Covering virtually every subject area of general
interest, MasterFILE Premier also includes 316 full text reference books, 88,000
biographies, 83,500 primary source documents, and an image collection of 107,000
photos, maps and flags. This database is updated daily via EBSCOhost.
7. MEDLine (medical journal index) MEDLINE provides authoritative medical
information on medicine, nursing, dentistry, veterinary medicine, the health care system,
pre-clinical sciences, and much more. Created by the National Library of Medicine,
MEDLINE allows users to search abstracts from over 4,600 current biomedical journals.
8. PsycINFO contains more than 1.8 million citations and summaries of journal articles,
book chapters, books, dissertations and technical reports, all in the field of psychology.
Journal coverage, which dates back to the 1800s, includes international materials selected
from more than 1,700 periodicals in over 30 languages. More than 60,000 records are
added each year.
 9. AGORA the AGORA programme was set up by the Food and Agriculture Organisation
of the UN together with major publishers to enable developing countries to gain access to
an outstanding digital collection in the field of food, agriculture, environmental science
and related social sciences. AGORA provides a collection of more than 3500 key journals
and 3300 books to over 2500 institutions in 116 countries.
10. DOAJ services cover free, full text, quality controlled scientific and scholarly journals. It
covers all subjects and languages and there are over 5306 journals in the directory.
11. HINARI programme was set up by WHO together with major publishers, enable low and
middle income countries to gain access to one of the world’s largest collections of
biomedical and health literature. Up to 13,000 journals in 30 different languages and up
to 29,000 e-books, up to 70 other information resources are available to health
institutions in more than 100 countries.
12. OARE is an online access to research in the environment (OARE) an international
public-private consortium coordinated by the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), enabling developing nations to gain access to one of the world’s largest
collections of environment science research.

Why Use a Database?

 Information is organised: Articles and other types of information are collected,

organised and made available by the database provider. You may search for information
by keyword, subject heading, author, title, and more. Results can be very relevant.
 Reliability: Most of the information included in a database has gone through the editorial
process, it has been checked for accuracy and reliability.
 Ease of access: Databases provided by the library are available 24/7. You have access to
thousands of high quality, full text magazines, journals, newspapers etc.
 Bottom line: If you are looking for credible, scholarly information that is carefully
organised and easily accessible, use an appropriate database.
3.2 Library Subscription Databases Vs. The Open Access - A Comparison

Subscription Databases The Open Access

When to Use

 Best for university level research.  Good for finding statistics.

 Best for credible information.  Good place to find background
 Best for full-text, scholarly articles. information
 Best for shopping and entertainment.

Reliability

 Articles and books written by  No standards in place. Anyone can

journalists or experts in a professional publish their opinions and ideas on
field. the Internet.
 All materials in database are  Much of the information found on the
evaluated for accuracy and credibility free Web is NOT evaluated for
by subject experts. accuracy and reliability.
 Reviewed and updated regularly.  Use the ABCD’s checklist to evaluate
resources (authority, bias, content,
design).

Accessibility

 Library database subscriptions are  Information is often free.

paid for by the University, and access  When information does come from a
is free to all users. legitimate source or publisher the user
 To access the EKSU Library usually has to pay to access it.
databases within the campus, you
will need to logon with username and
password.

Usability

 User can specify advanced search  Lack of subject focus results in

 criteria; full text, date, format, etc. irrelevant results.
 Results can be further filtered for  Users must wade through thousands
precision. to millions of results.
 Databases usually include a citation  Most web sites found on the Internet
tool to automatically create a citation do not have a citation tool.
for the article.

Stability

 Published content from journals,  Web site content can often change.
magazines, newspapers and books  Web pages and sites may disappear
does not change. for a number of reasons.
 Most materials remain in database for  May not be able to retrieve the same
a significant length of time and can content at a later time.
be easily retrieved again.

3.3 Database Search Tips and Tricks

To make the records in a database searchable, the information contained within it must be
indexed. There are variations in the way in which different database producers index their
particular product, but the underlying principles are similar. In general terms, the procedure
involves taking all the useful words from a field or part of a record and storing them in an index
belonging to that field. Usually, individual words form the article title; author’s name, subject
terms (also known as keywords/subject headings), abstract and the full text of the article are
indexed. These fields may be searched individually or in a ‘keyword’ search, across more than
one ‘field’. Phrases that combine two or sometimes three words may also be used e.g. heart
attack/myocardial infraction etc.

Creating a ‘Search Strategy’

Before you can search for any information, you should first develop a search strategy. Think
about the concepts that form the basic issues of your topic. Think about the keywords you will
use. Consider possible synonyms e.g. car /automobile; alternative spellings e.g. labour/labor,
organization/organisation and paediatric/pediatric; plurals and other endings.

1. Define the search topic(s) and break it down into its component parts
2. What terms, words or phrases do you use to describe the topic?
3. What other terms might be used for this topic?

The following tips can be applied when you search in most databases, including library
catalogues, periodical indexes/databases, and even web search engines. Each database may have
its own unique search rules. The following may seem obvious, but what you type into the
database search box directly affects the outcome of the search.

 Spell all words correctly

 Don’t capitalise proper nouns
 Don’t use punctuation
 Don’t use natural language phrases; in other words, as you would speak. (See “Phrase
Searching” later)

Keyword Searching. A computer programme indexes "significant" words used within the title,
summary, or text of an article. All of these words are “searchable.” When you type in one or
more of these significant words into a search box, this is called Keyword Searching.

Advantages:

 You can find articles containing new terms, distinctive words or jargons.
Examples: e-commerce, hip-hop, jazzed, hyped, bummed out

Disadvantages:

 You must search under a variety of words and word variations. Example: enter child,
children, kids, boys, or girls for information on children
 You may get incorrect results or FALSE DROPS. Example: if you are searching for the
psychological aspects of depression in children, you may retrieve records that have
 nothing to do with your topic such as this title “American Lives: Looking Back at the
Children of the Great Depression”

Ways to Make Your Searches More Precise

1. Use Boolean Operators

Boolean operators are words (connectors) placed between search terms to narrow or expand a
search. Always use Boolean operators when you search using more than one word or phrase at a
time.

AND: Helps to Narrow a Search

The and operator tells the computer that both terms must be present in the record. The terms may
or may not be in a phrase. The more terms that are linked with an and operator, the smaller the
results will be.

Example: children and depression, children and depression and medication, children and
depression and medication and Prozac

OR: Helps to Broaden a Search the or operator is used for like or synonymous terms. Using it
tells the computer that either (any) term must be present in the record. The more terms connected
with the or operator, the larger the results will be. Example: children or adolescents or teens or
kids (children or adolescents or teens or kids) and depression (children or adolescents or teens
or kids) and (depression or antidepressants)

NOT: Helps to Narrow a Search The not operator eliminates an unwanted search term or group
of search terms from the search results. Example: children not teens (children not teens) and
depression (children not teens) and depression not antidepressants.

Boolean Operators - Danger! Warning! When you enter two search terms without using a
connector (AND, OR, NOT), be aware that the database may automatically be set up to do one of
three things.

 Implied AND: Searches for records containing all of the terms. Example: typing in
ozone layer depletion may really mean ozone AND layer AND depletion
  Implied OR: Searches for items containing any of the terms. (Often employed by Web
search engines resulting in thousands of records.) Example: typing in ozone layer
depletion may really mean ozone OR layer OR depletion
 Implied Phrase Searching: Searches for a phrase, i.e., two or more words that are
adjacent and in the exact order. Example: typing in ozone layer depletion may actually
mean ozone layer depletion. If in doubt, use a Boolean operator!

2. Try Truncation!

Truncation allows you to search the "root" form of a word with all its different endings by
adding a symbol to the end of a word. Using truncation saves time, as you don’t have to repeat
searches with multiple variations of the same word. Truncation helps to broaden a search.
Example: typing in bank* will retrieve results with these words: bank, banks, banking, bankers,
bankruptcy the most common truncation symbol is the asterisk * but databases vary. The
database help section can give the correct truncation symbol. Example: bank* bank! bank#
bank?

3. Try Phrase Searching: Phrase searching is a powerful way to retrieve specific information
containing commonly used phrases. Phrase searching tells the computer to search for two or
more words in the exact order in which they are entered. Different databases and search engines
treat phrase searching in different ways. There are generally two ways to conduct a phrase
search using a database:

 Use quotations marks to enclose the phrase Example: “attention deficit disorder”, “spirit
of St. Louis”
 Use a pull down menu or a check box in a database that has that option and choose the
phrase search option.

3.4 Search Engines

Information on the web is not collected and organised in any meaningful way, it is a vast
reservouir of articles, propaganda, opinions of every variety, full text books, government
documents, and so much more. A search engine will allow you to search for information found
on the web using simple keywords, but they lack the advanced search capabilities provided by
most databases. Also, most information found on the web has not gone through the editorial
process, anyone can "publish" whatever they like on the web. Consequently, there is no
guarantee that information found on the web is credible or reliable.

Search engines use software called "spiders" and "crawlers" to routinely search the web to
identify and index web pages. The software used by each search engine works a bit differently.
The same search conducted with different search engines will yield different results. You may
want to try your search in more than one search engine and compare results. Also keep in mind
that information on the web is very dynamic as information is constantly added, deleted, moved,
and changed. There is no guarantee that what you find today will be there tomorrow.

Why Use a Search Engine:

 When you are looking for information about an organisation (American Medical
Association), a city/country/state/ agency, or other specialised information.
 When you are looking for very specific or obscure information (dates, statistics, etc.).
 When you are seeking information for personal uses: how much is my 2004 Toyota
Corolla worth?
 Caution: Critically evaluate any information you use for academic purposes, especially
information found on the web.

Types of search engines

When people mention the term "search engine", it is often used generically to describe both
crawler-based search engines and human-powered directories. In fact, these two types of search
engines gather their listings in radically different ways and therefore are inherently different.

Crawler-based search engines, such as Google, AllTheWeb and AltaVista, create their listings
automatically by using a piece of software to “crawl” or “spider” the web and then index what it
finds to build the search base. Web page changes can be dynamically caught by crawler-based
search engines and will affect how these web pages get listed in the search results.
Crawler-based search engines are good when you have a specific search topic in mind and can be
very efficient in finding relevant information in this situation. However, when the search topic is
general, crawler-base search engines may return hundreds of thousands of irrelevant responses to
simple search requests, including lengthy documents in which your keyword appears only once.

Human-powered directories, such as the Yahoo directory, Open Directory and LookSmart,
depend on human editors to create their listings. Typically, webmasters submit a short
description to the directory for their websites, or editors write one for the sites they review, and
these manually edited descriptions will form the search base. Therefore, changes made to
individual web pages will have no effect on how these pages get listed in the search results.

Human-powered directories are good when you are interested in a general topic of search. In this
situation, a directory can guide and help you narrow your search and get refined results.
Therefore, search results found in a human-powered directory are usually more relevant to the
search topic and more accurate. the following are some examples of search engines.

Table 2 summarises the different types of the major search engines.

Search Engines Types

Google Crawler-based search engine

AllTheWeb Crawler-based search engine

Teoma Crawler-based search engine

Inktomi Crawler-based search engine

AltaVista Crawler-based search engine

LookSmart Human-Powered Directory

 Open Directory Human-Powered Directory

Human-Powered Directory, also provide

Yahoo crawler-based search results powered by
Google

Human-Powered Directory powered by

MSN Search LookSmart, also provide crawler-based
search results powered by Inktomi

Provide crawler-based search results

AOL Search
powered by Google

Provide crawler-based search results

AskJeeves
powered by Teoma

Provide crawler-based search results

HotBot powered by AllTheWeb, Google, Inktomi
and Teoma, “4-in-1” search engine

Provide crawler-based search results

Lycos
powered by AllTheWeb

Provide crawler-based search results

Netscape Search
powered by Google

From the table above we can see that some search engines like Yahoo and MSN Search provide
both crawler-based results and human-powered listings, therefore become hybrid search engines.
A hybrid search engine will still favour one type of listings over another as its type of main
results.
There is another type of search engines that is called meta-search engines.

Meta-search engines, such as Dogpile, Mamma, and Metacrawler, transmit user-supplied

keywords simultaneously to several individual search engines to actually carry out the search.
Search results returned from all the search engines can be integrated, duplicates can be
eliminated and additional features such as clustering by subjects within the search results can be
implemented by meta-search engines.

Meta-search engines are good for saving time by searching only in one place and sparing the
need to use and learn several separate search engines. But since meta-search engines do not
allow for input of many search variables, their best use is to find obscure items or to see if
something can be found using the Internet.

3.5 Benefits of Using a Database

Databases store information in electronic records that may be searched, retrieved and organised
in countless ways. Having your information in a database, instead of on paper or in spread
sheets, not only saves you time and preserves vital information, it allows you to see patterns in
your operations that are visible in no other way.

Substantial Time Savings

Databases save time. Retrieving a single record, which may take several minutes of digging in a
paper-based filing system, can be done with just a few clicks in a computerised database.
Merging database records with documents makes producing paper reports almost instantaneous,
eliminating hours of retyping. Data entry screens can be designed to let you see related records
as you create a new one, so you don't have to spend time wading through other records to check
spellings, addresses, historical data, such as previous sales.

More Accessible Information

Databases give different ways to look at data. A request for a specific answer or list from your
database called a "query" can take just a minute or two to write, as opposed to hand-collating
data records or sorting and re-sorting a spread sheet. Also, you can write standing queries to
answer the questions asked frequently, so an up-to-date answer is just seconds away.
Ability to Link Data

Databases allow link to different sources of information together. For example, Linking your
sales records and your expense reimbursement accounts, for instance, lets you see whether an
increase in client entertainment really does result in more closed deals. Connecting professional
development and production data lets you see which training courses actually increase your
productivity. Information sources that have traditionally been sequestered in separate
departments can come together in a database to reveal surprising and profitable insights.

Ability to Drive Mail, Email and Social Networks

Mass customisation, the ability to provide an individualised response to thousands or even

millions of potential customers depends on electronic databases to analyse customer information
and generate tailored messaging. Data records can drive and direct mail and email campaigns to
your customers, and can even help you stay abreast of who is saying what about your product on
social networks like Twitter and Facebook.

3.6 Shortcomings of Databases

No electronic database contains all the information that you need for your research.
Considerations such as subject coverage, publication coverage, date coverage, updates and
timeliness, are considered as some of the limitations of databases.

Subject Coverage

Some databases cover specific subjects, such as the Canadian Research Index which includes
only Canadian government documents. Other databases are more general and cover a wide range
of subjects, such as Carl UnCover which includes 17,000 journals from almost every possible
discipline. PsycINFO covers the psychological and psychiatric aspects of subjects. In order to
choose the most appropriate database for your research, you need to review what subjects are
covered in a particular database.

Publication Coverage
Electronic databases do not necessarily index (i.e. cover) every type of publication available.
Some only index journal articles, whereas others might also index government documents,
dissertations, conference proceedings, book chapters, etc. In order to ensure that retrieving the
type of information required, it is necessary to know the publication coverage. Usually by
clicking on the Help Button on the main search screen of a database, such information will be
provided.

Date Coverage

It is necessary to review the date coverage of the database to ensure that searching within the
time range that is required. Many electronic databases are fairly recent and do not index
published information. Most databases will indicate date coverage on the first screen.

Updates and Timeliness

A database may be updated daily, monthly, quarterly or yearly. Updates can affect the retrieval
of results. Usually, the more the updates, the more recent the information. However, recency of
information is also affected by timeliness. For example, if you require an article that has been
published in the last two months, a database such as PsycINFO, although updated monthly, will
not be useful as records indexed in PsycINFO usually have a four month to a year time lag from
the time they are published in the journal to the time they are indexed in the database. When you
require very recent information, search a current awareness database like Carl UnCover which
indexes tables of contents of journals recently published.

4.0 Conclusion

The educational institutions around the world are experiencing global change in the ways in
which they produce, disseminate and share academic information. The Internet age has changed
the internal structure of the educational institutions by influencing the way knowledge is shared.
In today's globalised world, knowledge becomes increasingly important as one of the main
factors for building knowledge based economies.

However, due to the advancement in technologies, university libraries are moving from
traditional to digital environment. To meet the ever increasing demands of users, libraries are
now subscribing a large number of e-databases. The database resources movement has gained
considerable recognition in the last decade. A database resource is a very new and dynamic
channel of access to scholarly information. The main force behind the emergence of database
resources is to ensure access to scholarly publications all over the world which has a lot of
benefits within and outside the university environment.

5.0 Summary

In this chapter, you have learnt about the different dimensions of database resources particularly
its types, uses, database search tips, search engines, types of search engines and the inherent
benefits and shortcomings. Libraries of all sizes and types are embracing digital collections,
although most libraries will continue to offer both print and digital collections for many years to
come. New purchases of journals, magazines, and abstracting and indexing services are heavily
weighted towards digital resources.

Libraries prefer digital collections for many reasons, including, but not limited to, the following:
digital journals can be linked from and to indexing and abstracting databases; access can be from
the user’s home or office, whether or not the physical library is open; the library can get usage
statistics that are not available for print collections; and digital collections save space and are
relatively easy to maintain. When total processing and space costs are taken into account,
database resources may also result in some overall reductions in library costs.

Different stakeholders of the knowledge societies, particularly those who are involved in the
production of knowledge, creation, dissemination and consumption of scholarly contents, have
supported global and local database resources movements for making research literature
available globally to researchers.

6.0 Revision Exercises

1. What do you understand by database resources?
2. Mention the types of database resources
3. What are the uses a Database?
4. How can search strategies be created?
5. How can subscription databases and open access resources be differentiated?
6. Briefly discuss search engines?
7. Mention the types of search engines
 8. Briefly itemise the benefits and shortcomings of using a database
9. List five example of library online databases

7.0 References

Bamidele, O and Samuel, O. (2012) Methods and Approaches of Virtual Library

Development in Nigeria: University of Ado Ekiti Experience. Owena Journal of Library
and Information Studies. 4, (1) (Nigeria)

Carol Tenopir, (2003) Use and Users of Electronic Library Resources: An Overview and

Analysis of Recent Research Studies. Council on Library and Information Resources

Washington, D.C.

Coombs, K. A. (2005). Lessons learned from analyzing library database usage data. Library

Hi Tech.

David, Mockler. (2005) Databases and Search Strategies.

Dukic, D. (2013). Online databases as research support and the role of librarians in their

promotion: the case of Croatia. Library Collections, Acquisitions, & Technical Services.

Hamza Ukashatu Musa, Aliyu Ahmad, Maryam Bello Yunusa and Abbas Hamisu. (2015)

Use of Electronic Databases by the Academics of Faculty of Sciences Umaru Musa

Yar’adua University, Katsina-Nigeria. Journal Of Humanities And Social Science,

Introduction to Search Engines." Kansas City Public Library. Available online

http://www.kclibrary.org/resources/search/intro.cfm

Kris, Johnson. (2002) Database Search Tips and Tricks

Poposki, Dimitar. (2010) Open Educational Resources and Open Access in Higher Education

in Macedonia. The Information Manager

Singh, Anil and Gautam, J.N. (2004), “Electronic databases: The Indian scenario”, The

Eiectronic Library.

Tanveer Haider Naqvi (2012) Use of Electronic Databases by Postgraduage Students and

Research Scholars at GBPUAT Library, India. Library philosophy and practice

Tomaiuolo, Nicholas G. (2001). Deconstructing Questia: The Usability of a Subscription to a

Digital Library.

Zhang, Zhongdong. (1998). User’s Information Behaviour when Using an Electronic Journal.

In Electronic Publishing ‘98: Towards The Information-Rich Society, Washington, D.C.:

ICCC Press.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATIONS AND REFERENCES

FABUNMI F.A & FOLORUNSO, O

1.0 Introduction
 The roles of referencing styles and bibliographic citation play in researches cannot be
overemphasized. A research study, no matter the kind of problems it tends to solve, is not
complete, and therefore cannot be applauded without standardized and thorough referencing and
bibliographic citations. Any researcher that fails to do a thorough and expected referencing and
bibliographic citation to his/her work has not only committed blunders but plagiarism (stealing
of intellectual property) as well, which is punishable under the law.
In view of this, referencing styles and bibliographic citations has occupied a whole of this
chapter.
2.0 Objectives
1. for students to know the importance of referencing styles and bibliographic citation to
research
2. for students to know and identify types of referencing styles and citations and be able to
differentiate among them.
3. for students to know the type of referencing styles and citation suitable for a particular
research
4. for students to be able to do, on their own a thorough and acceptable referencing and
bibliographic citation of their research works.
3.0 Main Contents
Why reference?
From reading academic articles and books, you should be familiar with the scholarly
practice of making references in the text to other people’s work and providing listings of
relevant source material at the end of the text. Why is this done, and why should you
adopt this approach in your own work? There are several reasons:
 To enable someone reading the document to find the material you have referred to or
consulted;
 To demonstrate your width of reading and knowledge about a subject
 To support and/or develop points made in the text;
 To avoid accusations of plagiarism: using somebody else’s work without acknowledging
the fact; and
 Because you may be required to do so by your department.
Terminology
In discussing this topic, reference is variously made to “citations”, to “references lists” and to
“bibliographies”. Strictly speaking, these terms mean and require different things.
Citation: a reference made in the text to a source of information. This can be in the form of a
direct quotation, summarizing or paraphrasing.
References list: an organized listing of the works cited in the text, placed at the end of the
document.
Bibliography: a full listing of all material consulted in relation to the research, including any
source material not directly cited in the text, placed at the end of the document.
It is therefore important, in any formal piece of work, that you find out and know the
requirements for referencing and citations.

Organizing references
In carrying out any academic research, the process can be viewed in two main stages:
1. Searching for, finding and reading relevant source material.
2. Using and citing material in the final project/ results, which may require the inclusion of
a references list and/or a bibliography.
Note that, when reaching stage two, it is much easier and less effort to compile a bibliography or
references list if you have recorded details of the material consulted in an organized way during
the first stage, than if you have not.
The following guidance provides worked examples and templates showing how to apply the two
most widely used referencing styles – the Harvard and the Numeric schemes – to the resources
you are most likely to use and need to reference in academic work.
These examples are indicative rather than prescriptive. In referencing, slight variations from
accepted styles are generally less important than consistency of approach. In circumstances
where you are told, for instance by a University department, to use a certain style and how to
apply it, you should use the specified style in that way and apply it consistently.
Harvard Style
Citations
Harvard style citations consist of author or editor family names and the date of publication of an
item. One of two forms may be used:
Gray (1989) considers how to run a …
One commentator (Gray 1989) has looked at ….
Where a work has more than three authors or editors, cite the name of the first named author or
editor only, followed by, et al.:
e.g. A study of flora in Kenya (Stadler, J., etal. 2000) suggests.
If you refer to two or more sources by the same person from the same year, distinguish them by
adding a lower-case letter after the year, as follows:
Collins (2001a), Collins (2001b), Collins (2001c) etc.
Where quoting directly from a work, or referring to particular pages, provide the page number(s)
after the date:
“How well you select your professional and business advisers will have a direct bearing on your
business success”. (Gray 1989, p.118)

References lists and bibliographies

General points
In the Harvard scheme, the material in a reference list or bibliography is listed in alphabetical
order by author’s family name. If an author has written more than one work, the works for that
author should be listed in date order, oldest first. Where more than one work by the same author
from a single year is referenced, put them in the alphabetical order of the additional lower-case
notation. Thus (2000a) would go above (2000b) in the list.
In the Harvard scheme, the date of publication of an item immediately follows the details of the
authors or editors, in parentheses (). If no reliable information is provided about the date, use
the ? symbol to show the fact, such as (200?) or (1986?).
Where an item has more than three authors or editors, state the name of the first named author or
editor only, followed by, et al.
If a work is a second or subsequent edition, the edition number should be noted after the title in
the form 2nd ed., as appropriate.
Instructions on how to compose Harvard references for specific item types are given below, with
examples. All of the sources used as examples are available through the University Library or on
the Web, and it may help you in understanding how the references are constructed to look at
these items.
It is customary to put the titles of books and journals in italics. An alternative is to underline
them. Whichever method you use, use it throughout. The examples below all use italics.
1. Book :- Author(s) – family name, initials. (year). Title of book. Edition. Place of
publication: Publisher.
Examples
 Anthony, G. (2002). UK Public law and European law. Oxford: Hart.
 Cohen, H., Rogers, G.F.C. and Saravanamuttoo, H.I.H. (1996). Gas turbine theory. 4th ed.
Harlow: Longman.
2. Work in edited book
Where a work from an edited collection is cited, references to both the individual work
and to the collection as a whole should be given.
Author(s) – Family name, initials. (year). Title of chapter. In: Editor(s) – family name, initials,
ed(s). title of book. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher, chapter or page numbers.
Examples
 Luck, M. (1991). Gender and library work: the limitations of dual labour market theory.
In: Redclift, N. and Sinclair, M.T., eds. Working women: international perspectives on
labour and gender ideology. London: Routledge, Ch. 2.
 Nustad, K.g. and Sending, O.J. (2000). The instrumentalisation of development
knowledge. In: Stone, D., ed. Banking on knowledge: the genesis of the global
development network. London: Routledge, pp. 44-66
3. Edited book
Editor(s)-family name, initials, ed(s). (year). Title of book. Edition. Place of publication:
Publisher.
Examples
 Redclift, N and Sinclair, M.T., eds (1991). Working women: International perspectives
on labour and gender ideology. London: Routledge.
 Stone, D., ed (2000). Banking on knowledge: the genesis of the global development
network. London: Routledge.
4. Conference paper
Where a paper from conference proceedings is cited, references to both the individual paper and
the proceedings as a whole should be given.
Author(s)- family name, initials. (year). Title of paper. In: Editor(s) – family name, initials, ed(s).
title of conference, location, date held. Place of publication: publisher, page number(s).
Example
 Micelle, F., Myers, J.J. and Murthy, S.S. (2002?). Performance of FRP confined concrete
subjected to accelerate environmental conditioning. In: Benmokrane B. and El-Salakawy,
E., eds. Durability of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites for construction:
proceedings of the second International Conference (CDCC02), Montreal, May 29-31
2002. Sherbrooke: Universite de Sherbrooke, pp. 87-98

5. Conference proceedings
Editor(s)-family name, initials, ed(s). (year). Title of book. Edition. Place of publication:
Publisher.
Examples
 Benmokrane B. and El-Salakawy, E., eds. Durability of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
composites for construction: proceedings of the second International Conference
(CDCC02), Montreal, May 29-31 2002. Sherbrooke: Universite de Sherbrooke.
6. Report
It is important to be able to identify the body on whose behalf research was carried out. For this
reason, if a research report is part of a series, the title for the series and the volume/number of the
report should be given at the end of the reference.
Author(s)- family name, initials. (year). Title of report. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher.
(Series and vol./no)

Example
 Chang, D., etal. (2001). Modernizing service delivery: the better government for older
people prototypes. Leeds: Corporate Document Services. (Department of Social Security
research report no. 136).
7. Academic thesis
Author – family name, initials. (year). Title of thesis. Type of thesis. Institution.
Example
 Maloney, D.R. (1996). An investigation into the mechanism of catalytic chain transfer
polymerization. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Warwick.
8. Journal article (use for print journal and electronic reproductions of print)
Author(s) – family name, initials. (Year). Title of article. Journal title, volume (issue
number), Page number(s).
Examples
 Metcalfe, A., Diaz, V. and Wagoner, R. (2003). Academe, technology, society, and the
market: four frames of reference for copyright and fair use. Portal: Libraries and the
Academy, 3(2), pp. 191-206
 Stadler, J., et al. (2000). Exotic plant species invade diversity hot spots: the alien flora of
northwestern Kenya. Ecography, 23(2), pp. 169-176
Electronic document
As yet, no precise standards have been developed for referencing electronic documents.
However, the Harvard style can by adapted to accommodate these materials, noting the
electronic format in square brackets.
9. Online Journal article
(Web-based journals only; for online versions of print journals, give a reference to the print
format).
Author(s) – family name, initials. (year). Title of article. [Online]. (URL) Title of online journal,
volume (issue). (Date accessed).
Example
 Gad, E. Oppenheim, C. and Probets, S. (003). The RoMEO project: protecting metadata
in an open access environment. [Online]. (URL
http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue36/romeo/). Ariadne, (36). (Accessed 12 February 2004).
10. Web site (excluding online journals)
Include in the reference as much of the following detail that is available from the Web page and
related home page. Where a web site has no identifiable author, and is not the work of an
organization, leave out the author details, beginning the reference with the title of the web page.
Author(s) – family name, initials. (year, month day). Title of document. (Online). (URL). Place
of publication: Publisher. (Date accessed).
Example
 Benn, T. (2002, June 21). Recognition in a democracy, (Online). (URL
htt://www.tonybenn.com/reco.html). (Accessed 12 February 2004).
Note that the Web site for this document contains no publication details, so these are not
included in the reference.
11. CD-ROM
Example
Title of product, (Year). [CD-ROM]. Place of publication: Publisher.
 World development indicators. (2003). (CD-ROM). Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Citing foreign books and journals
1. Citing a foreign book or journal
If you are referencing a book in a foreign language, there are two ways to do it.
Either:
1. Give the title exactly as it appears in the book or article
e.g. Remarque, E.M. (1974). Im Westen nichts Neues. Berlin: ulistein
Or:
2. Provide the English translation of the title, together with details of the language the book
or article was originally written in.
e.g. Remarque, E.M. (1974). All Quiet on the Western Front (In German). Berlin: Ullstein
it does not matter which of these methods you choose- the important thing is to be consistent and
use the same one throughout your research.

2. Citing a translation
When referencing a foreign language item which has been translated, use the following format:
Remarque, E.M. (1996). All Quiet on the Western Front. Translated from the German by B.
Murdoch. London: Vintage.
3. Quoting a foreign book or journal
When quoting from a foreign language work in the main body of the text, the quote should
always be provided in English. The item should then be referenced in your bibliography using
the format above.
Numeric (Vancouver) Style
There are three main differences between the Numeric (sometimes called Vancouver) style and
the Harvard style:
1. The way material is cited in the text
2. The position of the publication date in a reference
3. The way the references list is ordered

Citations

Material cited in the Numeric style is identified by a number, beginning with 1 for the first
citation and continuing in sequence. One of three forms of noting the number may be used:
Gray1 considers how to run a …
Gray [1] considers how to run a …
Gray (1) considers how to run a …
Where a work has more than three authors or editors, cite the name of the first named author or
editor only, followed by, et al.:
Stadler, J., et al. (2) suggest in a study of flora …
Where quoting directly from, or referring to particular pages, in a work, the relevant page
number(s) can be stated after the citation number in the following way:
“How well you select our professional and business advisers will have a direct bearing on your
business success.” [1,p.118]
Where you refer to the same work on more than one occasion, two options are recommended.
Either:
 Re-use the same number as the first citation to the document
Or
 Continue the numeric sequence, providing an abbreviated reference to the document in
the references list for the second and any subsequent citations (see below “abbreviated
reference”)

References
General points
The general points made in relation to the Harvard scheme about items with more than three
authors or editors, second or subsequent editions and putting titles in italics, apply to references
in the Numeric scheme as well.
The key difference between references in the two schemes is the treatment of the date of
publication. In the Numeric scheme, this usually follows the place of publication. If no reliable
information is provided about the date, use the? symbol to show the fact, such as (200?) or
(1986?).
Instructions on composing Numeric references for specific formats of item are given below,
using the examples referenced under the Harvard scheme.
References lists and bibliographies
A references list should be provided at the end of the text, listed in numerical order, 1 onwards,
to match the numerical citations in the text.
Any source material you wish or are required to refer to, but which is not cited in the text, should
be contained in a separate bibliography after the references list. For a bibliography – as opposed
to references list – the references should follow the alphabetical order of the author’s family
names.
1. Book
When referring to a particular part of a book, the relevant page or chapter number(s) can be
given at the end of the reference, as an alternative to recording it in the citation. This also applies
to references to reports and theses.
Author(s) – family name, initials. Title book. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher, Year, Page
or chapter number(s).
Examples
[1]Anthony, G. UK public law and European law. Oxford: Hart, 2002. [2] Cohen, H., Rogers,
G.F.C. and Saravanamutoo, H.I.H. Gas turbine theory. 4th ed. Harlow: Longman, 1996. [3]
Anthony (ref. 1, p. 25).
Abbreviated reference – reference [3] is an example of an abbreviated reference. This method
should only be used where one source is quoted twice and you have cited the source in the text
using different numbers.
2. Work in edited book
Where a work from an edited collection is cited, references to both the individual work and to the
collection as a whole should be given.
Author(s)- family name, initials. Title of chapter. In: Editor(s) – family name, initials, ed(s). Title
of book. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher, Year, Chapter or page number(s).
Examples
[4] Luck, M. Gender and library work: the limitations of dual labour market theory. In: Redclift,
N. and Sinclair, M.T., eds. Working women: International perspectives on labour and gender
Ideology. London: Routledge, 2002, Ch.2. (5) Nustad, K.G. and Sending, O.J. The
instrumentalisation of development knowledge. In:Sone, D., ed. Banking on knowledge: the
genesis of the global development network. London: Routledge, 2000, pp. 44-62.
3. Edited book
Editor(s) – family name, initials, ed(s). Title of book. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher,
Year.
[6]Redclift, N. and Sinclair, M.T., eds. Working women: international perspectives on labour
and gender ideology. London: Routledge, 1991. [7] Stone, D., ed. Banking on knowledge: the
genesis of the global development network. London: Routledge, 2000.
4. Conference paper
Where a paper from conference proceedings is cited, references to both the individual paper and
to the proceedings as a whole should be given.
Author(s) – family name, initials. Title of paper. In: Editor(s)- family name, initials, ed(s). Title
of conference, location, date held. Place of publication: Publisher, Year, Page number(s).
[8]Micelli, F., Myers, J.J. and Murthy, S.S. Performance of FRP confined concrete subjected to
accelerated environmental conditioning. In: Benmokrane, B. and El-Slakawy, E., eds. Durability
of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites for construction: proceedings of the second
International Conference (CDCC 02), Montreal, May 29-31 2002. Sherbrooke: Universite de
Sherbrooke, 2002?, pp. 87-98.
5. Conference proceedings
Editor(s) – family name, initials, ed(s). Title of conference, location, date held. Place of
publication: Publisher, Year.
Example
[9] Benmokrane, B. and El-Salakawy, E., eds. Durability of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
composites for construction: proceedings of the second International Conference (CDCC 02),
Montreal, May 29-31 2002. Sherbrooke: Universite de Sherbrooke, 2002?.
6. Report
It is important to be able to identify the body on whose behalf research was carried out. For this
reason, if a research report is part of a series, the title for the series and the volume/number of the
report should be given at the end of the reference.
Author(s)- family name, initials. (year). Title of report. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher,
Year, Page number(s). (Series and vol./no).
Example
[10] Chang, D., etal, Modernising service delivery: the better government for older people
prototypes. Leads: Corporate Document Services, 2001. (Department of Social Security research
report no. 136).
7. Academic thesis
Author – family name, initials. Title of thesis. Type of thesis. Institution, Year.
Example
[11] Maloney, D.R. An investigation into the mechanism of catalytic chain transfer
polymerization. Ph.D. thesis. University of Warwick, 1996.
8. Journal article
(use of print journal and electronic reproductions of print)
Author(s)- family name, initials. Title of article. Journal title, volume (issue number), Year, Page
number(s).
Examples
[12] Metcalfe, A., Diaz, V. and Wagoner, R. Academe, technology, society, and the market: four
frames for reference for copyright and fair use. Portal: Libraries and the Academy, 3(2), 2003,
pp. 191-206. [13] Stadler, J., et al. Exotic plant species invade diversity hot spots: the alien flora
of northwestern Kenya. Ecography. 23(2), 2000, pp. 169-176.
As yet, no precise standards have been developed for referencing electronic documents.
However, the Numeric style can be adapted to accommodate these materials, noting the
electronic format in square brackets.
9. Online journal article
(Web-based journals only; for online versions of print journals, give a reference to the print
format).
Author(s) –family name, initials. Title of article. [Online]. (URL) Title of online journal, volume
(issue), Year. (Date accessed).
Example
[14] Gadd, E., Oppenheim, C. and Probets, S. The RoMEO project: protecting metadata in an
open access environment. [Online]. (URL
http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue36/romeo/). Ariadne, (36), 2003. (Accessed 12 February 2004).
10. Web site (excluding online journals)
Include in the reference as much of the following detail that is available from the Web page and
related home page. Where a Web site has no identifiable author, and is not the work of an
organization, leave out the author details, beginning the reference with the title of the Web page.
Author(s)-family name, initials. Title of document. [Online]. (URL). Place of publication:
Publisher, Year, month day. (Date accessed).
Example
[15] Benn, T. Recognition in a democracy. [Online]. (URL http://www.tonybenn.com/reco.htm).
2002, June 21. (Accessed 12 February 2004).
Note that the Web site for this document contains no publication details, so these are not
included in the reference.
11. CD-ROM
Example
Title of product. [CD-ROM]. City of publication: Publisher, Year
[16]world development indicators. [CD-ROM]. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2003.
These guidance sheets provide examples of how to construct Harvard and Numeric citations and
references for the most common types of material you are likely to consult in carrying out
research in the academic environment and beyond.
A wide range of material is available offering further guidance on the Harvard and Numeric
schemes, and recommended resources are listed in the bibliography below. Note that there may
be differences in some of the guidance offered by these resources. As has been stressed, it is
essential that:
 Where you are instructed to use a particular style, you use that style
 If you have a choice as to style, you select one style and use it consistently

4.0 Conclusion
In this chapter efforts have been made to dig dip into the significance of referencing and
bibliographic citations in researches.
From the foregoing, conclusions reached are that referencing and bibliographic citations
are integral part of research works which should be given its deserved attention in researches and
that referencing and bibliographic citation should be painstakingly done to make a research
complete, viable and acceptable.

5.0 Summary

The chapter exposes the importance of referencing styles and bibliographic citations in
researches, types of referencing and citations and how to reference and cite different types of
information materials or resources, with explicit examples.

6.0 Revision Exercises

i. Briefly discuss the significance of referencing styles and bibliographic citations to

researches

ii. What are the types of referencing styles you were taught in this course?

iii. Differentiate between references and bibliographies.

7.0 References
Anglia Ruskin University. (2011) Harvard System of Referencing Guide. [Online].
(URLhttp://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/referencing/harvard.htm).Cambridge: Anglia Ruskin
University. (Accessed 19 December 2011).
British Standards Institution. (1990). BS 5605:1990: recommendations for citing and referencing
published material. Milton Keynes: BSI.
Gibaldi, J. (2003). MLA handbook for writers of research papers. 6th ed. New York: MLA.
Leeds University Library. (2009). Referencing. [Online]. (URL
http://library.leeds.ac.uk/info/200232/referencing). Leeds: University of Leeds. (Accessed
6 May 2011).
Lia, X. and Crane, N.B. (1996). Electronic styles: a guide to citing electronic information. 2nd
ed. Medford, N.J.: Information Today.
University of Glamorgan. (2011) The University of Glamorgan Guide to Harvard Referencing.
[Online]. (URL

http://lcss.glam.ac.uk/media/files/documents/2011-10-21/Harvard_Referencing_revised_
Oct_11.pdf). Glamorgan: University of Glamorgan. (Accessed 30 November 2011).
University of Sterling Library. (2009). Writing references [Online]. (URL
http://www.is.stir.ac.uk/research/citing/index.php). Stirling: University of Stiring.
(Accessed 6 May 2011).
University of Birmingham Information Services. (2004?). i-cite:guide to citing references.
[Online]. (URL http://www.i-cite.bham.ac.uk/). Birmingham: University of Birmingham.
(Accessed 6 May 2011).