ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING LAB

3rd SEMESTER

Lab Instructor: Engr. Ali Hassan

Session: ME-14 Section: B Workstation No:
Group Details
Names Registration No. Lab Performance Listen
Lab Report Total
(4) Learnt/
(4) (10)
Viva (2)
Saaim Ahmed 417524
Muhammad 403628
Waris Ali
Muhammad Ali 406356
Arshad

School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

 OBJECTIVES
The fundamental objectives of the lab include;
• Fundamentals of Resistors.
• Color coding in Resistors.
• Parallel and Series combination of Resistors.
• Resistance in different combinations.

COMPONENTS USED
The following components were used;
• Resistors (680,1900,2200,680 ohms)
• Connecting wires

EQUIPMENT
The equipment is;
• Breadboard
• Multimeter
• Tinkercad Software

PROCEDURE

A.SIMULATIONS

i. Resistors and their Resistances

1) Open Tinkercad.
2) Select Four Resistors and input their
resistance values according to their prefixes
i.e K, M etc.
3) Then select a breadboard and a multimeter.
4) Set the multimeter to read resistance.

ii. Series Combinations

5) Now to make our first combination that is a
series combination of three resistors
6) To do that we will connect three resistors between different lines of wires
on the breadboard as shown below:

Figure 1 (Sim by M Waris Ali)

7) We will join the ends of the combination to the multimeter to measure the
resistance.
8) To make another series combination we will only connect two of the
resistors and read its resistance in a similar manner.

iii. Parallel Combinations

9) Now for the parallel combination we will connect the three resistors on the
same two lines of wires/connections on the breadboard as shown below:

Figure 2 (Sim by M Waris Ali)

10) We will join the ends of the combination to the multimeter to measure the
resistance.
11) To make another parallel combination we will do the same as above but
with two resistors only.

iv. Series-Parallel Combination

12) For the last combination that is Series-Parallel combination we will
connect two resistors in parallel using the same method as step 9 and then
connect the end of this parallel combination to a series combination of two
resistors using the same method in step 6.
13) It will look something like this:

Figure 3 (Sim by M Waris ali)

14) For another Series-Parallel combination we will connect two parallel
combinations in series.
15) We will make two independent parallel combinations and connect them
with a connecting wire.
16) It will look something like this:
 Figure 4(Sim by M Waris Ali)

B. HARDWARE
In the hardware part of the lab, we made all of the above-mentioned circuits which
we had done in the form of simulations on TinkerCad, practically on a
breadboard using real resistors. First, we measured the individual resistances of
the four resistances. We made the following connections of resistors:
1. Two Series Connections
2. Two Parallel Connections
3. Two Series and Parallel Connections

1) Series Connections

a) Two Resistors Connected in Series

1) We took two resistors namely R1 and R2.
2) Next, we connected one end of R1 in the second set of rows of the
breadboard in the B-15. We connected the second end of R1 in the slot H-
18.
3) Now, we connected the first end of R2 in H-17. If we take a look at the
breadboard we will see that the slots of Row H, in the second set of rows,
are all connected to each other internally.
4) Next, we connected the second end of R2 in the slot A-18 of the next set
of rows. This means that the two resistors were now connected in series to
each other, as can be seen in the figure-1a.
5) Once, we had properly connected the resistors, we touched the probes of
the multi-meter with the two ends of the two resistors thus checking the
resistance of the entire connection

Figure 6-a
Figure 5-a
b) Three Resistors Connected In Series
1) We did this one in a similar way as the two resistors in series. We took three
resistors. R1, R2 and R3.
2) We connected one end of R1 in the second set of rows of the breadboard in
the B-15. We connected the second end of R1 in the slot H-18.
3) Now, we connected the first end of R2 in H-17. Next, we connected the
second end of R2 in the slot A-18 of the next set of rows same as the two
resistors.
4) Next, we connected one end R3 in the slot A-17 and the other end in slot
J-18 of the next set of rows.
5) Taking a look at the breadboard as shown in figure 1-b, we can see that the
three resistors are connected in series with each other.
6) Next, we checked the total resistance of the entire series connection of
resistors by touching the probes of the multi-meter with the ends of the two
end resistors.

Figure 1-b
2) Parallel Connections

a) Two Resistors Connected in Parallel

1) We took two resistors, R1 and R2.
2) We connected one end of R1 in the left most column of the breadboard. We
connected the other end of R1 to the row at the right of row, so that these
two ends were not connected internally in the breadboard.
3) Next, we connected one end of R2 in the same row as the first end of R1
as shown in figure 2-a. Then, we connected the second end of R2 in the
same row in which we connected the second end of R1.
4) By looking at the breadboard, we can see that the respective ends of R1
and R2 are connected internally. This makes the entire connection a
parallel connection of two resistances.
5) Next, we measure the total resistance across this parallel connection by
touching the two probes of the multi-meter with the ends of the connection.

Figure 2-a
b) Three Resistors Connected in Parallel
1) We took three resistors, R1, R2 and R3 and connected them in parallel in
a similar manner as we did with the two resistors.
2) We connected the first ends of R1, R2 and R3 in slots along the same left
most row of the breadboard as shown in figure 2-b. As a result, all the first
ends of the three resistors are connected internally.
3) Next, we connected the other ends of the three resistors to slots in the row
to the right of the left most row as shown in figure 2-b.
4) This means that the other ends of the three resistors were also connected
internally, however there was no internal connection between the
respective ends of the resistors, only through the resistors themselves.
5) Looking at the complete connection, we can see that the three resistors
were connected in parallel with each other.
6) Then, we measured the total resistance across this connection by touching
the two probes of the multi-meter with the ends of the connection.

Figure 2-b
3) Parallel and Series Connections

a) Two Parallel and One Series Connection

1) We took three resistors R1, R2 and R3. We connected two of these resistors
i.e. R1 and R2 in parallel with each other and then connected the third
resistor R3 in series with the parallel connection.
2) We took the first ends of R1, R2 and connected them in slots of the row to
the right of the leftmost row of the breadboard. This means that these ends
were connected internally through the breadboard as shown in figure 3-a.
3) Next, we connected the other end of the resistors in slots of the leftmost
row of the breadboard, thus connecting these ends internally as well. We
can see that this makes these two resistors connected in parallel to each
other.
4) Next, we connected both ends of R3 in the leftmost row thus connecting it
in series with the parallel connection of the first two resistors.
5) Then, we measured the total resistance across this connection by touching
the two probes of the multi-meter with the ends of the connection.

Figure 3-a
b) Three Parallel and One Series Connection
1) We took four resistors namely R1, R2, R3 and R4. We connected three of
these resistors i.e. R1, R2 and R3 in parallel with each other and then
connected the fourth resistor R4 in series with the parallel connection.
2) We took the first ends of R1, R2 and R3 and connected them in slots of the
row to the left of the rightmost row of the breadboard. This means that
these ends were connected internally through the breadboard as shown in
figure 3-b.
3) Next, we connected the other end of the resistors in slots of the rightmost
row of the breadboard, thus connecting these ends internally as well.
Looking at the breadboard, we can see that this makes these three resistors
connected in parallel to each other.
4) Now, we took the first end of R4 and connected it in a slot in the right most
row of the breadboard. We took its other end and connected it in a slot in
the same row as well . This means that R4 is connected in series with the
parallel connection of the previous three resistors as shown in figure 3-b.
5) Next, we measured the total resistance across this connection by touching
the two probes of the multi-meter with the ends of the connection.

Figure 3-b
 SIMULATIONS

1) SAAIM AHMED -- 417524

I. Series Combinations

a) Two Resistors in Series

a) Measurement of Current

b) Three Resistors in Series

II. Parallel Combinations

a) Two Resistors in Parallel

b) Three Resistors in Parallel

III. Series and Parallel Combinations

a) 2 resistors in Parallel and 1 in Series

b) 3 resistors in Parallel and 1 in Series

2) MUHAMMAD WARIS ALI – 403628

I. Series Combinations

a) Two Resistors in Series

b) Three Resistors in Series

II. Parallel Combinations

a) Two Resistors in Parallel

b) Three Resistors in Parallel

III. Series-Parallel Combinations

a) Two Resistors in Parallel Connected in

Series with Two Resistors in Parallel

b) Two Resistors in Parallel Connected in

Series with Two Resistors in Series
a) MUHAMMAD ALI ARSHAD – 406356

I. Series Combinations

a) Two Resistors Connected in Series

b) Three Resistors Connected in Series

c)
II. Parallel Combinations

a) Two Resistors Connected in Parallel

b) Three Resistors Connected in Parallel

III. Series and Parallel Combinations

a) Two Resistors in Series and One in Parallel Connection

b) Three Resistors in Series and One in Parallel Connection

 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The students were provided with 4 different resistors and were assigned to
create the following combinations with the resistors;
I. Two combinations in Series
II. Two combinations in Parallel
III. Two combinations in both Series and Parallel

RESISTANCE OF RESISTORS
The calculated resistances of the resistors with the help of color coding are as
follows;
1) The color coding of this resistor is;
Brown White Red Golden
1 9 00 ±5%
So, the resistance of this resistor is 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎 ± 𝟓% Ω.

2) The color coding of this resistor is;

Blue Grey Brown Golden
6 8 0 ±5%
So, the resistance of this resistor is 𝟔𝟖𝟎 ± 𝟓% Ω.

3) The color coding of this resistor is same as resistor # 2;

So, the resistance of this resistor is 𝟔𝟖𝟎 ± 𝟓% Ω.

1) The color coding of this resistor is;

Red Red Red Golden
2 2 00 ±5%
So, the resistance of this resistor is 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎 ± 𝟓% Ω.
COMBINATIONS
I. SERIES

a) Two Resistors in Series

Two resistors of 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎 Ω and 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎 Ω are connected in series. So, the equivalent
resistance becomes;
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 1900 + 2200
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟒𝟏𝟎𝟎 Ω
The percentage error between the
theoretical and experimental equivalent
resistance arises due to several factors
like unwanted fluctuations in resistance
of a resistor overtime etc. In this case,
it is given by;
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
4100 − 4042.4
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =
4042.4
% 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐%

b) Three Resistors in Series

Three resistors of 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎 Ω, 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎 Ω and 𝟔𝟖𝟎 Ω are connected in series. So, the
equivalent resistance becomes;
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 1900 + 2200 + 680
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟒𝟕𝟖𝟎 Ω
The percentage error is given by;
4780 − 4725.6
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =
4725.6
% 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓%
II. PARALLEL

a) Two Resistors in Parallel

Two resistors of 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎 Ω and 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎 Ω are connected in parallel. So, the
equivalent resistance becomes;
1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 1900 2200
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗. 𝟓𝟏 Ω
The percentage error is given by;
1019.51 − 1005.8
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =
1005.8
% 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔%

b) Three Resistors in Parallel

Three resistors of 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎 Ω, 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎 Ω and 𝟔𝟖𝟎 Ω are connected in parallel. So, the
equivalent resistance becomes;
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 1900 2200 680
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟒𝟎𝟕. 𝟗𝟐 Ω
The percentage error is given by;
407.92 − 419.5
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =
419.5
% 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟔%
 III. SERIES AND PARALLEL

a) Two Resistors in Parallel And One in Series

Two resistors of 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎 Ω and 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎 Ω are connected in parallel and the
resistance with resistance 𝟔𝟖𝟎 Ω is connected in series. So, the equivalent
resistance becomes;
1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = + 680
1 1
+
1900 2200
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎 Ω
The percentage error is given by;
1700 − 1680.5
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =
1680.5
% 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟔%

b) Three Resistors in Parallel And One in Series

Three resistors of 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎 Ω, 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎 Ω and 𝟔𝟖𝟎 Ω are connected in parallel. So, the
equivalent resistance becomes;
1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = + 680
1 1 1
+ +
1900 2200 680
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟕. 𝟗𝟐 Ω
The percentage error is given by;
1087.92 − 1095.9
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =
1095.9
% 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐%
 LESSONS LEARN
The respective lessons learnt by each student are as follows:-
1) SAAIM AHMED – 417524
• Resistors restrict the flow of electrons in a circuits, thereby reducing the
flow of current.
• All the resistors have 4 bands of colors engraved on it.
• These bands of colors are collectively called as “Color Coding” of a
resistor.
• Color Coding provides a significant and easy method to calculate the
resistance of a resistor theoretically instead of measuring it without the
multimeter.
• All the colors have been assigned a certain number in the resistance
color coding. For example, the red color has been assigned the number
‘2’; green is given the number ‘5’ etc.
• The first two bands on a resistance provide us with their respective
numbers; the third band gives the number of zeroes according to the
number assigned to it. The fourth band gives the tolerance of the resistor
which is basically the deviation from the original value that can be
expected in the resistance value of a resistor.
• Now, combining all these results from the color bands of the resistors
gives us the resistance of the resistor.
• Resistors can be connected in different combinations for different
circuits. These are the series and parallel combinations.
• In a series combination, the equivalent resistance is the sum of the
resistances of the resistors connected in the combination.
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯ 𝑹𝒏

• In a parallel combination, the equivalent resistance is the sum of the

reciprocal of the resistances of the resistors in the combination.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + + ⋯+
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝒏

2) MUHAMMAD WARIS ALI – 403628

• Resistors are special components in a circuit that restrict the flow of motion
or reduce current.
• They are marked with colored bands that are used to determine the
resistance of that resistor along with its percentage tolerance.
• We will use 4 band resistors in our circuits.
• The colors have certain values which are used to determine the resistance.
• The first two band’s color gives us the first two digits and the third band’s
color gives us the number of zeros.
• The fourth band’s color gives us the percentage tolerance of that resistor.
• What the tolerance value gives us is the deviation of the resistance value
from its original value.
• Resistors thickness also varies for same resistance.
• A thicker resistor has a higher power rating and can handle more current
through it.
• Resistors are connected in different combinations i.e Series and parallel.
• For a series combination the net resistance is just the sum of all the resistors
connected in series.
• For a Parallel combination it’s the sum of the reciprocal of all the resistors
connected in parallel and taking the reciprocal of the value you get.

3) MUHAMMAD ALI ARSHAD – 406356

• Resistors are components of circuits which oppose the flow of current and
can be used to control various electrical quantities in a circuit.
• This opposition to the flow of current is known as “ resistance “ and is
measured in ohms (Ω).
• Each resistor has a specific value of current indicated on it by a colored
bands. By using a standard table , we can easily calculate the resistance of
a resistor .
• In addition to this two resistors of same resistance may have a different
thickness.
• A thicker resistor has a higher power rating and a large amount of current
can flow through it without burning it out.
• A thinner resistor would have a lower power rating and only current smaller
than a certain amount can safely flow through it.
• We can use multiple resistors in combinations of series and parallel to
achieve a certain total resistance and model our circuit however we want.
• When resistors are connected in series , the total resistance across the series
connection is just the sum of their resistances.
• When resistors are connected in parallel, the total resistance across the
parallel combination is the reciprocal of the sum of reciprocals of the
resistances connected in parallel.
 • We can use a small number of resistors and get multiple resistances as
required by combining them in series or parallel or a mixture of both.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we learned the basic fundamentals of resistors and their basic
functioning. By building combinations in series, parallel and series-parallel, we
observed how to equivalent resistance of the resistor changes when connected in
different combinations.