UNIT-II

AUTOMATED FLOW LINES

An automated flow line consists of several machines or workstations which are linked
together by work handling devices that transfer parts between the stations. The transfer
of workparts occurs automatically and the workstations carry out their specialized
functions automatically. The flow line can be symbolized as shown in Figure1 using the
symbols presented in Table1. A raw workpart enters one end of the line and the
processing steps are performed sequentially as the part moves from one station to the
next. It is possible to incorporate buffer storage zones into the flow line, either al a
single location or between every workstation. It is also possible to include inspection
stations in the line to automatically perform intermediate checks on the quality of the
workparts. Manual stations might also be located along the flow line to perform certain
operations which are difficult or uneconomical to automate.

Figure 1 In-line configuration

Figure 2 symbols used in production systems diagrams

9
 The objectives of the use of flow line automation are, therefore:
 To reduce labor costs

 To increase production rates

 To reduce work-in-process

 To minimize distances moved between operations

 To achieve specialization of operations

 To achieve integration of operations

Configurations of automated flow line.

1) In-line type
The in-line configuration consists of a sequence of workstations in a more-or-less
straight-line arrangement as shown in figure 1. An example of an in-line transfer
machine used for metal-cutting operations is illustrated in Figure 4 and 5.

Figure 4 Example of 20 stations In-line

Figure 5 Example of 20 stations In-line configuration

10
 2) Segmented In-Line Type
The segmented in-line configuration consists of two or more straight-line
arrangement which are usually perpendicular to each other with L-Shaped or U-
shaped or Rectangular shaped as shown in figure 5-7. The flow of work can take a
few 90° turns, either for workpieces reorientation, factory layout limitations, or
other reasons, and still qualify as a straight-line configuration.

Figure 5 L-shaped configuration

Figure 6 U-shaped configuration

Figure 7 Rectangular-shaped configuration

11
 3) Rotary type
In the rotary configuration, the workparts are indexed around a circular table or dial.
The workstations are stationary and usually located around the outside periphery of the
dial. The parts ride on the rotating table and arc registered or positioned, in turn, at each
station for its processing or assembly operation. This type of equipment is often
referred to as an indexing machine or dial index machine and the configuration is
shown in Figure 8 and example of six station rotary shown in figure 9.

Figure 8 Rotary configuration

Figure 9 Example of 6 station rotary configuration

12
METHODS OF WORKPART TRANSPORT
The transfer mechanism of the automated flow line must not only move the partially
completed workparts or assemblies between adjacent stations, it must also orient
and locate the parts in the correct position for processing at each station. The
general methods of transporting workpieces on flow lines can be classified into the
following three categories:
1. Continuous transfer
2. Intermittent or synchronous transfer
3. Asynchronous or power-and-free transfer

The most appropriate type of transport system for a given application depends on
such factors as:
The types of operation to be performed
The number of stations on the line
The weight and size of the work parts

Whether manual stations are included on the line

Production rate requirements
Balancing the various process times on the line

1. Continuous transfer
With the continuous method of transfer, the workparts are moved continuously at
Constant speed. This requires the workheads to move during processing in order to
maintain continuous registration with the workpart. For some types of operations,
this movement of the workheads during processing is not feasible. It would be
difficult, for example, to use this type of system on a machining transfer line
because of inertia problems due to the size and weight of the workheads. In other
cases, continuous transfer would be very practical. Examples of its use are in
beverage bottling operations, packaging, manual assembly operations where the
human operator can move with the moving flow line, and relatively simple
automatic assembly tasks. In some bottling operations, for instance, the bottles are
transported around a continuously rotating drum. Beverage is discharged into the
moving bottles by spouts located at the drum's periphery. The advantage of this
application is that the liquid beverage is kept moving at a steady speed and hence
there are no inertia problems.

Continuous transfer systems are relatively easy to design and fabricate and can
achieve a high rate of production.

13
2) Intermittent transfer
As the name suggests, in this method the workpieces are transported with an
intermittent or discontinuous motion. The workstations are fixed in position and the
parts are moved between stations and then registered at the proper locations for
processing. All workparts are transported at the same time and, for this reason, the
term "synchronous transfer system" is also used to describe this method of workpart
transport.

3) Asynchronous transfer
This system of transfer, also referred to as a "power-and-free system," allows each
workpart to move to the next station when processing at the current station has been
completed. Each part moves independently of other parts. Hence, some parts are
being processed on the line at the same time that others are being transported
between sta-tions.

Asynchronous transfer systems offer the opportunity for greater flexibility than do the
other two systems, and this flexibility can be a great advantage in certain circumstances.
In-process storage of workparts can be incorporated into the asynchronous systems with
relative ease. Power-and-free systems can also compensate for line balancing problems
where there are significant differences in process times between stations. Parallel
stations or several series stations can be used for the longer operations, and single
stations can be used for the shorter operations. Therefore, the average production rates
can be approximately equalized. Asynchronous lines are often used where there are one
or more manually operated stations and cycle-time variations would be a problem on
either the continuous or synchronous transport systems. Larger workparts can be
handled on the asynchronous systems. A disadvantage of the power-and-free systems is
that the cycle rates are generally slower than for the other types.

14
TRANSFER MECHANISMS
There are various types of transfer mechanisms used to move parts between
stations. These mechanisms can be grouped into two types: those used to provide
linear travel for in-line machines, and those used to provide rotary motion for dial
indexing machines.

Linear transfer mechanisms

We will explain the operation of three of the typical mechanisms; the walking beam
transfer bar system, the powered roller conveyor system, and the chain-drive
conveyor system. This is not a complete listing of all types, but it is a representative
sample.

Walking beam systems

With the walking beam transfer mechanism, the work-parts are lifted up from their
workstation locations by a transfer bar and moved one position ahead, to the next
station. The transfer bar then lowers the pans into nests which position them more
accurately for processing. This type of transfer device is illustrated in Figure10 and
11. For speed and accuracy, the motion of the beam is most often generated by a
rotating camshaft powered by an electric motor or a roller movement in a profile
powered by hydraulic cylinder. Figure 12 shows the working of the beam
mechanish.

Figure 10 Almac Industrial Systems, the Ontario-based manufacturer of material handling

equipment- Walking Beam’.

15
Figure 11 SIKAMA INTERNATIONAL has developed a Walking beam mechanism
for FALCON 1200 and 8500

Figure 12 walking beam transfer system, showing various stage during transfer stage

16
Powered roller conveyor system
This type of system is used in general stock handling systems as well as in
automated flow lines. The conveyor can be used to move pans or pallets possessing
flat riding surfaces. The rollers can be powered by either of two mechanisms. The
first is a belt drive, in which a flat moving belt beneath the rollers provides the
rotation of the rollers by friction. A chain drive is the second common mechanism
used to power the rollers. Powered roller conveyors are versatile transfer systems
because they can be used to divert work pallets into workstations or alternate tracks.

(13 a)
(13 b)

Figure 13 a, b and c Power Conveyor

17
 Chain-drive conveyor system
In chain-drive conveyor system either a chain or a flexible steel belt is used to
transport the work carriers. The chain is driven by pulleys in either an "over-and-
under" configuration, in which the pulleys turn about a horizontal axis, or an
"around-the-corner" configuration, in which the pulleys rotate about a vertical axis.
Figure 14 shows the chain conveyor transfer system.

Figure 14 Chain drive conveyor

This general type of transfer system can be used for continuous, intermittent, or
nonsynchronous movement of workparts. In the nonsynchronous motion, the
workparts are pulled by friction or ride on an oil film along a track with the chain or
belt providing the movement. It is necessary to provide some sort of final location
for the workparts when they arrive at their respective stations.
Rotary transfer mechanisms
There are several methods used to index a circular table or dial at various equal
angular positions corresponding to workstation locations.
Rack and pinion
This mechanism is simple but is not considered especially suited to the high-speed
operation often associated with indexing machines. The device is pictured in Figure
4.6 and uses a piston to drive the rack, which causes the pinion gear and attached
indexing table to rotate, A clutch or other device is used to provide rotation in the
desired direction.

Figure 15 rack and pinion mechanisms

18
Ratchet and pawl:
A ratchet is a device that allows linear or rotary motion in only one direction, while
preventing motion in the opposite direction.
Ratchets consist of a gearwheel and a pivoting spring loaded finger called a pawl
that engages the teeth. Either the teeth, or the pawl, are slanted at an angle, so that
when the teeth are moving in one direction, the pawl slides up and over each tooth
in turn, with the spring forcing it back with a 'click' into the depression before the
next tooth. When the teeth are moving in the other direction, the angle of the pawl
causes it to catch against a tooth and stop further motion in that direction. This drive
mechanism is shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16 Rachet and pawl mechanism

Geneva mechanism:
The two previous mechanisms convert a linear motion into a rotational motion. The
Geneva mechanism uses a continuously rotating driver to index the table, as
pictured in Figure 17. If the driven member has six slots for a six-station dial
indexing machine, each turn of the driver will cause the table to advance one-sixth
of a turn. The driver only causes movement of the table through a portion of its
rotation. For a six-slotted driven member, 120° of a complete rotation of the driver
is used to index the table. The other 240° is dwell. For a four-slotted driven
member, the ratio would be 90° for index and 270° for dwell. The usual number of
indexings per revolution of the table is four, five, six, and eight.

19
Figure 17 Geneva mechanism

CAM Mechanisms:
Various forms of cam mechanism, an example of which is illustrated in Figure 18,
provide probably the most accurate and reliable method of indexing the dial. They
are in widespread use in industry despite the fact that the cost is relatively high
compared to alternative mechanisms. The cam can be designed to give a variety of
velocity and dwell characteristics.

Figure 18 CAM mechanisms

20
 CONTROL FUNCTIONS
Controlling an automated flow line is a complex problem, owing to the sheer
number of sequential steps that must be carried out. There are three main functions
that are utilized to control the operation of an automatic transfer system. The first of
these is an operational requirement, the second is a safety requirement, and the third
is dedicated to improving quality.

1. Sequence control.
The purpose of this function is to coordinate the sequence of actions of the transfer
system and its workstations. The various activities of the automated flow line must
be carried out with split-second timing and accuracy.
Sequence control is basic to the operation of the flow line.

2. Safety monitoring:
This function ensures that the transfer system does not operate in an unsafe or
hazardous condition. Sensing devices may be added to make certain that the cutting
tool status is satisfactory to continue to process the workpart in the case of a
machining-type transfer line. Other checks might include monitoring certain critical
steps in the sequence control function to make sure that these steps have all been
performed and in the correct order. Hydraulic or air pressures might also be
checked if these are crucial to the operation of automated flow lines.

3. Quality monitoring:
The third control function is to monitor certain quality attributes of the workpart. Its
purpose is to identify and possibly reject defective workparts and assemblies. The
inspection devices required to perform quality monitoring are sometimes incorporated
into existing processing stations. In other cases, separate stations are included in the
line for the sole purpose of inspecting the workpart as shown in figure 19.

Figure 19 Inspection station with feedback

21
Conventional thinking on the control of the line has been to stop operation when a
malfunction occurred. While there are certain malfunctions representing unsafe
con-ditions that demand shutdown of the line, there are other situations where
stoppage of the line is not required and perhaps not even desirable. There are
alternative control strategies 1.Instantaneous control and 2. Memory control.

Instantaneous control:
This mode of control stops the operation of the flow line immediately when a
malfunction is detected. It is relatively simple, inexpensive, and trouble-free.
Diagnostic features are often added to the system to aid in identifying the location
and cause of the trouble to the operator so that repairs can be quickly made.
However, stopping the machine results in loss of production from the entire line,
and this is the system's biggest drawback.

Memory control:
In contrast to instantaneous control, the memory system is designed to keep the
machine operating. It works to control quality and/or protect the machine by
preventing subsequent stations from processing the particular workpart and by
segregating the part as defective at the end of the line. The premise upon which
memory-type control is based is that the failures which occur at the stations will be
random and infrequent. If, however, the station failures result from cause and tend
to repeat, the memory system will not improve production but, rather, degrade it.
The flow line will continue to operate, with the consequence that bad parts will
continue to be produced. For this reason, a counter is sometimes used so that if a
failure occurs at the same station for two or three consecutive cycles, the memory
logic will cause the machine to stop for repairs.

BUFFER STORAGE
Automated flow lines are often equipped with additional features beyond the basic
transfer mechanisms and workstations. It is not uncommon for production flow lines to
include storage zones for collecting banks of workparts along the line. One example of
the use of storage zones would be two intermittent transfer systems, each without any
storage capacity, linked together with a workpart inventory area. It is possible to
connect three, four, or even more lines in this manner. Another example of workpart
storage on flow lines is the asynchronous transfer line. With this system, it is possible
to provide a bank of workparts for every station on the line.

There are two principal reasons for the use of buffer storage zones. The first is to
reduce the effect of individual station breakdowns on the line operation. The
continuous or intermittent transfer system acts as a single integrated machine. When
breakdowns occur at the individual stations or when preventive maintenance is
applied to the machine, production must be halted. In many cases, the proportion of

22
time the line spends out of operation can be significant, perhaps reaching 50% or
more. Some of the common reasons for line stoppages are:
Tool failures or tool adjustments at individual processing stations Scheduled
tool changes
Defective workparts or components at assembly stations, which require
that the
Feed mechanism be cleared
Feed hopper needs to be replenished at an assembly station
Limit switch or other electrical malfunction
Mechanical failure of transfer system or workstation

Figure 20 Storage buffer between two stages of a production

When a breakdown occurs on an automated flow line, the purpose of the buffer
storage zone is to allow a portion of the line to continue operating while the
remaining portion is stopped and under repair. For example, assume that a 20-
station line is divided into two sections and connected by a parts storage zone which
automatically collects parts from the first section and feeds them to the second
section. If a station jam were to cause the first section of the line to stop, the second
section could continue to operate as long as the supply of parts in the buffer zone
lasts. Similarly, if the second section were to shut down, the first section could
continue to operate as long as there is room in the buffer zone to store parts.
Hopefully, the average production rate on the first section would be about equal to
that of the second section. By dividing the line and using the storage area, the
average production rate would be improved over the original 20-station Mow line.
Figure 20 shows the Storage buffer between two stages of a production line

23
Reasons for using storage buffers:

– To reduce effect of station breakdowns

– To provide a bank of parts to supply the line
– To provide a place to put the output of the line
– To allow curing time or other required delay
– To smooth cycle time variations
– To store parts between stages with different production rates

The disadvantages of buffer storage on flow lines are increased factory floor space,
higher in-process inventory, more material handling equipment, and greater
complexity of the overall flow line system. The benefits of buffer storage are often
great enough to more than compensate for these disadvantages.

AUTOMATION FOR MACHINING OPERATIONS

Transfer systems have been designed to perform a great variety of different metal-
cutting processes. In fact, it is difficult to think of machining operations that must
be excluded from the list. Typical applications include operations such as milling,
boring, drilling, reaming, and tapping. However, it is also feasible to carry out
operations such as turning and grinding on transfer-type systems.

There are various types of mechanized and automated machines that perform a
sequence of operations simultaneously on different work parts. These include dial
indexing machines, trunnion machines, and transfer lines. To consider these
machines in approximately the order of increasing complexity, we begin with one
that really does not belong in the list at all, the single-station machine.

Single-station machine
These mechanized production machines perform several operations on a single
workpart which is fixtured in one position throughout the cycle. The operations are
performed on several different surfaces by work heads located around the piece.
The available space surrounding a stationary workpiece limits the number of
machining heads that can be used. This limit on the number of operations is the
principal disadvantage of the single-station machine. Production rates are usually
low to medium. The single station machine is as shown in figure 21.

24
Figure 21 single-station machines

25
 Rotary indexing machine
To achieve higher rates of production, the rotary indexing machine performs a
sequence of machining operations on several work parts simultaneously. Parts are
fixtured on a horizontal circular table or dial, and indexed between successive
stations. An example of a dial indexing machine is shown in Figure 22 and 23.

Figure 22 Example of 6 station rotary configuration

Figure 23 Five station dial index machine showing vertical and

horizontal machining centers

26
 Trunnion machine
Trunnion machine is a vertical drum mounted on a horizontal axis, so it is a
variation of the dial indexing machine as shown in figure 24. The vertical drum is
called a trunnion. Mounted on it are several fixtures which hold the work parts
during processing. Trunnion machines are most suitable for small workpieces. The
configuration of the machine, with a vertical rather than a horizontal indexing dial,
provides the opportunity to perform operations on opposite sides of the workpart.
Additional stations can be located on the outside periphery of the trunnion if it is
required. The trunnion-type machine is appropriate for work parts in the medium
production range.

Figure 24 Six station trunnion machine

27
 Center column machine
Another version of the dial indexing arrangement is the center column type,
pictured in Figure 25. In addition to the radial machining heads located around the
periphery of the horizontal table, vertical units are mounted on the center column of
the machine. This increases the number of machining operations that can be
performed as compared to the regular dial indexing type. The center column
machine is considered to be a high-production machine which makes efficient use
of floor space.

Figure 25 Ten-station center column machine

Transfer machine
The most highly automated and versatile of the machines is the transfer line, as
explained earlier the workstations are arranged in a straight-line flow pattern and
parts are transferred automatically from station to station. The transfer system can
be synchronous or asynchronous, work parts can be transported with or without
pallel fixtures, buffer storage can be incorporated into the line operation if desired,
and a variety of different monitoring and control features can be used to manage the
line. Hence, the transfer machine offers the greatest flexibility of any of the

28
machines discussed. The transfer line can accommodate larger workpieces than the
rotary-type indexing systems. Also, the number of stations, and therefore the
number of operations, which can be included on the line is greater than for the
circular arrangement. The transfer line has traditionally been used for machining a
single product in high quantities over long production runs. More recently, transfer
machines have been designed for ease of changeover to allow several different but
similar workparts to be produced on the same line. These attempts to introduce
flexibility into transfer line design add to the appeal of these high-production
systems.

Figure 26 Example of 20 stations Transfer line

Figure 27 Example of Transfer line

29
 The 10 principles of Material handling.
The goal of material handling operations is to improve efficiency, productivity,
safety, and profitability while reducing costs and waste. To achieve these goals,
there are ten principles of material handling that everyone involved in the
process should follow, whether reviewing existing methods or looking at new
processes. They include:

1. Planning

2. Standardization

3. Work

4. Ergonomics

5. Unit Load

6. Space Utilization

7. System

8. Automation

9. Environment

10. Life Cycle Cost

Let us look at each of the principles of material handling and the questions you
should ask yourself when assessing the movement of products, equipment or raw
materials, and what material handling equipment and material handling systems
may be required.

1. Planning

The planning principle involves identifying the materials that need to be moved,
determining the best way to move them, and ensuring that the process is safe
 and efficient. When using the planning principle to assess a material handling
task, ask yourself the following questions:
 What materials need to be moved?
 What is the best way to move the materials?
 How can the process be made safer and more efficient?

2. Standardization

The standardization principle involves using the same processes and material
handling equipment for similar tasks to reduce variability and improve efficiency.
When considering standardization, ask yourself:

 Are there any similar tasks that can use the same processes and material handling
equipment?
 Can standardization reduce variability and improve efficiency?

Our electric tugs and tows are often used for a variety of load movement tasks,
helping to drive standardization of material handling equipment and maximize
efficiency.
 3. Work

This involves minimizing the amount of physical work required within material
handling systems to move materials by using equipment and automation, rather
than pushing the limits of human capabilities. When considering the work
principle, ask yourself:

 Can equipment or automation reduce the physical work required?

 How can the process be made less physically demanding?

Putting stress and strain on people only creates risk, so reducing manual
handling helps to protect the workforce, keeping them safe, but also empowers
them to be more efficient

4. Ergonomics

The Ergonomic principle involves designing workstations and material handling

equipment to minimize physical strain and fatigue. When considering
ergonomics, ask yourself:

 Is the equipment designed to minimize physical strain and fatigue?

 Are workstations designed to minimize physical strain and fatigue?

The Ergonomic principle is one we pay close attention to at Master Mover, when
designing material handling equipment, to ensure our electric tugs and tows are
easy to use for safe and effective operations!

5. Unit Load

Looking at Unit loads involves consolidating materials into a single load for more
efficient movement, to maximize physical material flow. When considering the
 unit load principle, ask yourself:

 Can materials be consolidated into a single load?

 Can unit loads be standardized for more efficient movement?

Tugger trains of trolleys, platforms or dollies are often a good way to way to
move more material in one go, reducing total trips or the number of times a task
is carried out.

6. Space Utilization

The Space Utilization principle involves maximizing the use of available space for
handling and storage activities. Warehouse space is often at a premium - even in
terms of overhead space - and the same is true in manufacturing environments.
When considering space utilization, ask yourself:
 Can the available space be better utilized for storage and movement?
 How can the available space be maximized for material handling?
7. System

The Systems principle involves using a coordinated system of processes,

equipment, and people to improve material flow, improve operational efficiency
and reduce waste. When considering the system principle, ask yourself:

 Are there a coordinated system of processes, equipment, and people?

 Can the system be improved to reduce waste and improve efficiency?

A coordinated system is essential to ensure material handling processes, and the

wider operation, runs smoothly.

8. Automation

The Automation principle involves using technology to automate material

movement for improved efficiency and safety. When considering automation in
material handling systems, ask yourself:

Can technology be used to automate material handling processes?

How can automation improve efficiency and safety?
Ultimately, if a material handling task is being repeated often, and especially
where it involves regular travel times, AGV solutions could be the answer.
 9. Environment

This involves considering the impact of material handling processes and material
handling systems on the environment and taking steps to reduce waste and
improve sustainability. When considering the environment, ask yourself:

 What is the impact of a material handling process on the environment?

 How can material handling systems be made more sustainable?

Utilizing battery-powered material handling equipment instead of ICE diesel

equipment is often a good place to start, with simple charging, zero emissions
and a quieter running noise level.

10. Life Cycle Cost

The Life Cycle Cost principle involves considering the total cost of material
handling processes, including material handling equipment and time to run them.
When considering the entire life cycle cost of material movement processes, ask
yourself:

 What is the total cost of material handling processes over the life of the
equipment and processes?
 How can cost be reduced through better equipment and process selection?

Sacrificing productivity by not investing in the right equipment and processes will
only have a negative impact ultimately.
 AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLE SYSTEMS

An automated or automatic guided vehicle system (AGVS)is a materials handling system

that uses independently operated, self-propelled vehicles that are guided along defined pathways
in the floor. The vehicles are powered by means of on-board batteries that allow operation for
several hours (8 to 16 hours is typical) between recharging. The definition of the pathways is
generally accomplished using wires embedded in the floor or effective paint on the floor surface.
Guidance is achieved by sensors on the vehicles that can follow the guide wires or paint.

Automated guided vehicles (AGVs) increase efficiency and reduce costs by helping to
automate a manufacturing facility or warehouse.

AGVS can carry loads or tow objects behind them in trailers to which they can
autonomously attach. The trailers can be used to move raw materials or finished product. The
AGV can also store objects on a bed. The objects can be placed on a set of motorized rollers
(conveyor) and then pushed off by reversing them. Some AGVs use forklifts to lift objects for
storage. AGVs are employed in nearly every industry, including, pulp, paper, metals, newspaper,
and general manufacturing. Transporting materials such as food, linen or medicine in hospitals is
also done.
There are a number of different types of AGVS all of which operate according to the preceding
description. The types can be classified as follows:

Driverless trains:

This type consists of a towing vehicle (which is the AGV) that pulls one or more trailers
to form a train. It was the first type of AGVS to be introduced and is still popular. It is useful in
applications where heavy payloads must be moved large distances in warehouses or factories
with intermediate pickup and drop-off points along the route. Figure 17 illustrates the driverless-
train AGVS.
 AGVS pallet trucks:

Automated guided pallet trucks are used to move palletized loads along predetermined
routes. In the typical application the vehicle is backed into the loaded pallet by a human worker
who steers the truck and uses its forks to elevate the load slightly. Then the worker drives the
pallet truck to the guide patn, programs its destination, and the vehicle proceeds automatically to
the destination for unloading. The capacity of an AGVS pallet truck ranges up to 6000 Ib, and
some trucks are capable of handling two pallets rather than one. A more recent introduction
related to the pallet truck is the forklift AGV. This vehicle can achieve significant vertical
movement of its forks to reach loads on shelves. Figure18 illustrates this vehicle type.

AGVS unit load carriers.

This type of AGVS is used to move unit loads from one station to another station. They are often
equipped for automatic loading and unloading by means of powered rollers, moving belts,
mechanized lift platforms, or other devices. The unit load carrier is pictured in Figure 20. Variations
of the unit load carrier include light-load AGVs and assembly line AGVs. The light-load AGV is a
relatively small vehicle with a corresponding iight load capacity (typically 500 Ib or less). It does not
require the same large aisle width as the conventional AGV. Light-load guided vehicles are designed
to move small toads (single parts, small baskets or tote pans of parts, etc.) through plants of limited
size engaged in light manufacturing. The assembly line AGVS is designed to carry a partially
completed subassembly through a sequence of assembly workstations to build the product.

Vehicle guidance and routing

There are several functions that must be performed to operate any automated guided vehicle system
successfully. These functions are:
1, Vehicle guidance and routing

2, Traffic control and safety

3, System management

We describe these functions in this and the following two subsections.

The term guidance system refers to the method by which the AGVS pathways are defined and the vehicle control
systems that follow the pathways. As indicated above, there are two principal methods currently in use lo define the pathways
along the floor: embedded guide wires and paint strips Of the two types, the guide wire system is the more common in
warehouse and factory applications
 .

Wire guided AGV

Figure wire guided AGV

In the guide wire method the wires are usually embedded in a small channel cut into the surface of the floor.
The channel is typically about 1/8 in. wide and 1/2 in. deep. After the guide wires are installed, the channel slot is
filled so as to eliminate the discontinuity in the floor surface as shown in figure. An alternative but fewer
permanent ways to install the guide wires is to tape them to the floor. A frequency generator provides the guidance
signal carried in the wire. The signal is of relatively low voltage (less than 40 V), low current (less than 400 mA),
and has a frequency in the range 1to15kHz. This signal level creates a magnetic field along the pathway that is
followed by sensors on-board each vehicle. The operation of a typical system is illustrated in Figure 22 Two
sensors (coils) are mounted on the vehicle on either side of the guide wire. When the vehicle is moving along a
course such that the guide wire is directly between the two coils, the intensity of the magnetic field measured by
each coil will be equal. If the vehicle strays to one side or the other, or if the guide wire path curves, the magnetic
field intensity at the two sensors will be different. This difference is used to control the steering motor, which
makes the required changes in vehicle direction to equalize the two sensor signals, thereby tracking the defined
pathway
Paint strips AGV
When paint strips are used to define the vehicle pathways, the vehicle possesses an optical sensor systemthat
is capable of tracking the paint. The strips can be taped, sprayed, or painted on the floor. One system uses al-in.-
wide paint strip containing fluorescent particles that reflect an ultraviolet (UV) light source on the vehicle. An
on-board sensor detects the reflected light in the strip and controls the steering mechanism to follow it. The paint
guidance system is useful in environments where electrical noise would render the guide wire system unreliable
or when the installation of guide wires in the floor surface would not be appropriate. One problemwith the paint
strip guidance method is that the paint strip mus be maintained (kept clean and unscratched).

A safety feature used in the operation of most guidance systems is automatic stopping of the vehicle in the
event that it accidentally strays more than a few inches (typically2 to 6 in.) from the guide path. This automatic-
stopping feature prevents the vehicle from running wild in the building. Alternatively, in the event that the
vehicle is off the guide path (e.g., for manual loading of a pallet truck), it is capable of locking onto the guide
wire or paint strip if moved within the same few inches of it. The distance is referred to as the vehicle's
acquisition distance.
 The use of micro processor controls on-board the vehicles has led to the development of a feature called
dead reckoning. This term refers to the capability of the vehicle to travel along route that does not follow the
defined pathway in the floor. The micro-processor computes the number of wheel rotations and the operation of
the steering motor required to move along the desired path. Dead reckoning might be employed by the vehicle to
cross a steel plate in the factory floor (where guide wires cannot be installed), or to depart from the guide path for
positioning at a load/unload station. At the completion of the dead- reckoning man oeuvre, the vehicle is
programmed to return to within (he acquisition distance of the guide path to resume normal guidance control.

Routing in an AGVS is concerned with the problem of selecting among alternative pathways available
to a vehicle in its travel to a defined destination point in the system. A typical guided vehicle layout,
one that exploits the capabilities of modern AGVS technology, contains features such as multiple
loops, branches, side tracks, and spurs, in addition to the required pickup and drop-off stations.
Vehicles in the system must decide which path to take to reach a defined destination point.

When a vehicle approaches a branching point in which the guide path splits into two (or more)
directions, a decision must be made as to which path the vehicle should take. This is sometimes
referred to as a decision point for the vehicle. There are two methods used in commercial AGV
systems to permit the vehicle to decide which path to take:

1. Frequency select method

2. Path switch select method

In the frequency select method, the guide wires leading into the two separate paths at the branch
have different frequencies. As the vehicle enters the decision point, it reads an identification code on
the floor to identify its location. Depending on its programmed destination, the vehicle selects one of
the guide paths by deciding which frequency to track. This method requires a separate frequency
generatorforeachfrequencythatisusedintheguidepathlayout.Thisusuallymeansthattwoorthree generators
are needed in the system. Additional channels must often be cut into the floor with the frequency
select method to provide for bypass channels where only the main channel needs to be powered for
vehicle tracking.

The path switch select method uses a single frequency throughout the guide path layout. In order to
control the path of a vehicle at a decision point, the power is switched off in ail branches except the
one on which the vehicle is to travel. To accomplish routing by the path switch select method, the
guide path layout most be divided into blocks that can be independently turned on and off by meansof
controls mounted on the floor near their respective blocks. These control units are operated by the
vehicles as they move in the various blocks. As a vehicle enters a decision point, it activates a floor-
mounted switching device connected to the control unit for the relevant block. The control unit
activates the desired guide path and turns off the alternative branch or branches.
Traffic control and safety

The purpose of traffic control for an AGVS is to prevent collisions between vehicles traveling along
the same guide path in the layout. This purpose is usually accomplished by means of a control system
called the blocking system. The term "blocking" suggests that a vehicle traveling along a given guide
path is in some way prevented from hitting any vehicle ahead of it. There are several means used in
commercial AGV systems to accomplish blocking. They are:

a. On-board vehicle sensing

b. Zone blocking

On-board vehicle sensing and zone blocking are often used in combination to implement a
comprehensive blocking system

On-board vehicle sensing (sometimes called forward sensing) involves the use ofsome form of
sensor system to detect the presence of vehicles and carts ahead on the same guide wire. The sensors
used on commercial guided vehicles include optical sensors and ultrasonic systems. When the on-
board sensor detects an obstacle (e.g, another guided vehicle) in front of it, the vehicle stops. When
the obstacle is removed, the vehicle proceeds. Assuming that the sensor system is 100% effective,
collisions between vehicles are avoided and traffic is controlled. Unfortunately, the effectiveness of
forward sensing is limited by the capability of the sensor system to detect vehicles in front of it on
the guide path. Since the sensors themselves are most effective in detecting obstacles directly ahead
of the vehicle, these systems are most appropriate on layouts that contain long stretches of straight
pathways. They are less effective at turns and convergence points where forward vehicles may notbe
directly in front of the sensor.

The concept of zone control is simple. The AGVS layout is divided into separate zones, and the
operating rule is that no vehicle is permitted to enter a zone if that zone is already occupied by
another vehicle. The length of a zone is sufficient to hold one vehicle (or a train in driverless train
systems) plus an allowance for safety and other considerations. These other considerations include
the number of vehicles in the system, the size and complexity of the layout, and the objective of
minimizing the number of separate zone controls. When one vehicle occupies a given zone, any
trailing vehicle is not allowed into that zone. The leading vehicle must proceed into the next zone
before the trailing vehicle can occupy the given zone.

By controlling the forward movement of vehicles in the separate zones, collisions are prevented and
traffic in the overall system is controlled. The concept is illustrated in Figure 23 in its simplest form.
More complicated zone control schemes separate any two vehicles by a blocked zone.
 Figure: Zone control

One means of implementing zone control is to use separate control units for each zone. These
controls are mounted along the guide path and are actuated by the vehicle in the zone. When a vehicle
enters a given zone, it activates the block in the previous (upstream) zone to block any trailing vehicle
from moving forward and colliding with the present vehicle. As the present vehicle moves into the
next (downstream) zone, it activates the block in that zone and deactivates the block in the previous
zone. In effect, zones are turned on and off to control vehicle movement by the blocking system.

In addition to avoiding collisions between vehicles, a related objective is the safety of human beings
who might be located along the route of the vehicles traveling in the system. There are several devices
that are usually included on an automatic guided vehicle to achieve this safety objective. One of the
safety devices is an obstacle-detection sensor located at the front of each vehicle. This is often the
same on-board sensor as that used in the blocking system to detect the presence of other vehicles
located in front of the sensor. The sensor can detect not only other vehicles, but also people and
obstacles in the path of the vehicle. These obstacle-detection systems are usually based on optical,
infrared, or ultrasonic sensors. The vehicles are programmed either to stop when an obstacle is sensed
ahead ofit, or to slow down. There ason for slowing down is that the sensed object maybe located off
to the side of the vehicle path, or directly ahead of the vehicle beyond a turn in the guide path. In
either of these cases, the vehicle should be permitted to proceed at a slower (safer) speed until it has
passed the object or rounded the turn.

Another safety device included on virtually all commercial AG vehicles is an emergency

bumper. This bumper surrounds the front of the vehicle and protrudes ahead of it by a distance
which can be a foot or more. When the bumper makes contact with an object, the vehifcle is
programmed to brake immediately. Depending on the speed of the vehicle, its load, and other
conditions, the braking distance will vary from several inches to several feet. Most vehicles are
programmed to require manual restarting after an obstacle encounter has occurred with the
emergency bumper.

Other safety devices on the vehicles include warning lights (blinking or rotating lights) and/or
warning bells. These devices alert people that the vehicle is present.

Finally, another safety feature that prevents runaway vehicles is the inherent op-erating characteristic
of the guidance system: If the vehicle strays by more than a few inches from the defined path, the
vehicle is programmed to stop.
 System management

Managing the operations of an AGVS deals principally with the problem of dispatching vehicles tothe
points in the system where they are needed (e.g., to perform pickups and deliveries) in a timelyand
efficient manner. The system management function depends on reliable operation of the other system
functions discussed above (guidance, routing, traffic control). There are a number of methods used in
commercial A.GV systems for dispatching vehicles. These methods are generally used in combination
to maximize responsiveness and effectiveness of the overall system. The dispatching methods include:

* On-board control panel

* Remote call stations

* Central computer control

Each guided vehicle is equipped with some form of control panel for the purpose of manual vehicle
control, vehicle programming, and other functions. Most commercial vehicles have the capacity to be
dispatched by means of this control panel to a given station in the AGVS layout. Dispatching with an
on-board control panel represents the lowest level of sophistication among the possible methods. Its
advantage is that it provides the AGVS with flexibility and responsiveness to changing demands on
the handling system. Its disadvantage is that it requires manual attention.

The use of remote call stations is another method that allows the AGVS to respond to changing
demand patterns in the system. The simplest form of call station is a press button mounted near the
load/unload station. This provides a signal to any passing vehicle to stop at the station in order to
accomplish a load transfer operation. The vehicle might then be dispatched to the desired location by
means of the on-board control panel.

More sophisticated call stations consist of control panels mounted near the various stations along the
layout. This method permits a vehicle to be stopped at a given station, and its next destination to be
programmed from the remote call panel. This represents a more automated approach to thedispatching
function and is useful in AGV systems that are capable of automatic loading and unloading
operations.

Both of the call station methods described here involve a human interface with the AGVS at the
load/unload station. It is also possible to automate the call function at an automatic load/unload
station. One example is an automated production workstation that receives raw materials and sends
completed parts by means of the AGVS. The workstation is interfaced with the AGVS to call for
vehicles as needed to perform the loading and unloading procedures.
In large factory and warehouse systems involving a high level of automation, the AGVS servicing the
factory or warehouse must also be highly automated to achieve efficient operation of the entire
production-storage-handling system. Central computer control is used to accomplish automatic
dispatching of vehicles according to a preplanned schedule of pickups and deliveries in the layout
and/or in response to calls from the various load/unload stations in the system. In this dispatching
method, the central computer issues commands to the vehicles in the system concerning their
destinations and operations to perform. To accomplish the dispatching function, the central computer
mustpossessreal-timeinformationaboutthelocationofeachvehicleinthesystemsothatitcanmake
appropriate decisions concerning which vehicles to dispatch to what locations. Hence, the vehicles
must continually communicate their whereabouts to the central control.

There are differences in the way these central computer dispatching systems operate. One of the
differences involves the distribution of the decision-making responsibilities between the central
controller and the individual vehicles. At one extreme, the central computer makes nearly all the
decisions about routing of vehicles and other functions. The central computer plans out the routes for
each vehicle and controls the operation of the guide path zones and other functions, At the opposite
extreme, each individual vehicle possesses a substantial decision-making capability to make its own
routing selections and to control its own operations. The central computers still needed to control the
overall scheduling and determine which vehicles should go to the various demand points in the
system. However, the vehicles themselves decide which routes to take and control their own load
transfer operations. Vehicles in this second category are often referred to as "smart" vehicles.

To accomplish the system management function, it is helpful to monitor the overall operations of the
AGVS by means of some form of graphics display. Even with central computer control it is still
desirable for human managers to be able to see the overall system operations, in order to monitor its
general status and to spot problems (e.g., traffic jams, breakdowns, etc.). A CRT color graphics
display is often used for these purposes in modem guided vehicle systems.

Another useful tool in carrying out the systems management function is a system performance report
for each shift (or other appropriate time period) of AGVS operation. These periodic reports of system
performance provide summary information about proportion uptime, downtime, number of
transactions (deliveries) made during a shift, and more detailed data about each station and each
vehicle in the system. Hard-copy reports containing this type of information permit the system
managers to compare operations from shift to shift and month to month to maintain a high level of
overall system performance.
 Applications of AGV

Automated Guided Vehicles can be used in a wide variety of applications to transport many different
types of material including pallets, rolls, racks, carts, and containers.

AGVsexcelin applications with the following characteristics:

 Repetitive movement of materials over a distance

Regular delivery of stable loads

 Medium throughput/volume

 When on-time delivery is critical and late deliveries are causing inefficiency

 Operations with at least two shifts

 Processes where tracking material is important

 Driverless train operations

 Storage/distribution

 FMS

 Mail delivery in offices

 Hospitals

 Raw Material Handling

 Work-in-Process Movement

 Pallet Handling

 Finished Product Handling

 Trailer Loading

 Roll Handling

 Battery Charging

1. Driverless train operations: These applications involve the movement of largequantities of

materials over relatively large distances. For example, the moves are with in a large warehouse or
factory building, or between buildings in a large storage depot. For the movement of trains
consisting of 5 to 10 trailers, this becomes an efficient handling method,
2. Storage/distribution systems: Unit load carriers and pallet trucks are typically used in these
applications. These storage and distribution operations involve the movement of materials in unit
loads (sometimes individual items are moved) from or to specific locations. The applications often
interface the AGVS with some other automated handling or storage system, such as an automated
storage/retrieval system (AS/RS) in a distribution center. The AGVS delivers incoming items or
unit loads (contained on pallets) from the receiving dock to the AS/RS, which places the items in
storage,andtheAS/RSretrievesindividualpalletloadsoritemsfromstorage and transfers them to
vehicles for delivery to the shipping dock. When the rates of incoming loads and the outgoing
loads are in balance, this mode of -operation permits loads to be carried in both directions by the
AGVS vehicles, thereby increasing the handling system efficiency.
This type of storage/distribution operation can also be applied in light manufacturing and
assembly operations in which work-in-progress is stored in a central storage area and distributed
to individual workstations for assembly or processing. Electronics assembly is an example of
these types of applications. Components are" kitted" at the storage area and delivered in tote pans
or trays by the guided vehicles to the assembly workstations in the plant. Light-load AGV
systems are used in these applications.

3. Assembly-line operations: AGV systems are being used in a growing number of assembly-line
applications, based on a trend that began in Europe. In these applications, the production rate is
relatively low(perhaps 4 to10minperstationintheline)and there are a variety of different models
made on the production line. 'Between the work stations, components are kitted and placed on the
vehicle for the assembly operations that are to be performed on the partially completed product at
the next station. The workstations are generally arranged in parallel configurations to add to the
flexibilityoftheline.Unitloadcarriersandlight-loadguidedvehicles are the type of AGVS used in these
assembly lines.

4. Flexible manufacturing systems: Another growing application of AGVS technology is in

flexible manufacturing systems (FMS). In this application, the guided vehicles are used as the
materials handling system in the FMS. The vehicles deliver work from the staging area (where
work is placed on pallet fixtures, usually manually) to the individual workstations in the system.
The vehiclesalsomoveworkbetweenstationsinthemanufacturingsystem.Ataworkstation,thework is
transferred from the vehicle platform into the work area of the station (usually, the table of a
machine tool) for processing. At the completion of processing by that station a vehicle returns to
pick up the work and transport it to the next area. AGV systems provide a versatile material
handling system to complement the flexibility of the FMS operation.

5. Miscellaneous applications: Other applications of automated guided vehicle systems include non
manufacturing and non warehousing applications, such as mail delivery in office buildings and
hospital material handling operations. Hospital guided vehicles transport meal trays, linen,
medical and laboratory supplies, and other materials between various departments in the building.
These applications typically require movement of the vehicles between different floors of the
hospital, and hospital AGV systems have the capability to summon and use elevators for this
purpose
Applications of deadlock avoidance

To avoid deadlocks caused by indefinite waiting, a timeout mechanism can be used to limit the amount of time a
process can wait for a resource. If the help is unavailable within the timeout period, the process can be forced to
release its current resources and try again later

Smart manufacturing
Smart manufacturing is a broad category of manufacturing that employs computer-integrated manufacturing,
high levels of adaptability and rapid design changes, digital information technology, and more flexible technical
workforce training. Other goals sometimes include fast changes in production levels based on demand, optimization of
the supply chain, efficient production and recyclability. In this concept, as smart factory has interoperable systems,
multi-scale dynamic modeling and simulation, intelligent automation, strong cyber security, and networked sensors

Advanced robotics

Advanced industrial robots, also known as smart machines, operate autonomously and can communicate
directly with manufacturing systems. In some advanced manufacturing contexts, they can work with humans for co-
assembly tasks. By evaluating sensory input and distinguishing between different product configurations, these
machines are able to solve problems and make decisions independent of people. These robots are able to complete
work beyond what they were initially programmed to do and have artificial intelligence that allows them to learn from
experience.[5] These machines have the flexibility to be reconfigured and re-purposed. This gives them the ability to
respond rapidly to design changes and innovation, which is a competitive advantage over more traditional
manufacturing processes.[13] An area of concern surrounding advanced robotics is the safety and well-being of the
human workers who interact with robotic systems. Traditionally, measures have been taken to segregate robots from
the human workforce, but advances in robotic cognitive ability have opened up opportunities, such as cobots, for
robots to work collaboratively with people.

Cloud computing allows large amounts of data storage or computational power to be rapidly applied to
manufacturing, and allow a large amount of data on machine performance and output quality to be collected. This can
improve machine configuration, predictive maintenance, and fault analysis. Better predictions can facilitate better
strategies for ordering raw materials or scheduling production runs.

3D printing
As of 2019, 3D printing is mainly used in rapid prototyping, design iteration, and small-scale production.
Improvements in speed, quality, and materials could make it useful in mass production[15][16] and mass customization.

However, 3D printing developed so much in recent years that it is no longer used just as technology for prototyping.
3D printing sector is moving beyond prototyping especially it is becoming increasingly widespread in supply chains.
The industries where digital manufacturing with 3D printing is the most seen are automotive, industrial and medical.
In the auto industry, 3D printing is used not only for prototyping but also for the full production of final parts and
products. 3D printing has also been used by suppliers and digital manufacturers coming together to help fight COVID-
19.
3D printing allows to prototype more successfully, thus companies are saving time and money as significant volumes
of parts can be produced in a short period. There is great potential for 3D printing to revolutionise supply chains,
hence more companies are using it. The main challenge that 3D printing faces is the change of people's mindset.
Moreover, some workers will need to re-learn a set of new skills to manage 3D printing technology

Eliminating workplace inefficiencies and hazards

Smart manufacturing can also be attributed to surveying workplace inefficiencies and assisting in worker
safety. Efficiency optimization is a huge focus for adopters of "smart" systems, which is done through data research
and intelligent learning automation. For instance operators can be given personal access cards with inbuilt Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth, which can connect to the machines and a Cloud platform to determine which operator is working on which
machine in real time.[18] An intelligent, interconnected 'smart' system can be established to set a performance target,
determine if the target is obtainable, and identify inefficiencies through failed or delayed performance targets. [19] In
general, automation may alleviate inefficiencies due to human error. And in general, evolving AI eliminates the
inefficiencies of its predecessors.

As robots take on more of the physical tasks of manufacturing, workers no longer need to be present and are exposed
to fewer hazards.[

Impact of Industry 4.0

Industry 4.0 is a project in the high-tech strategy of the German government that promotes the computerization
of traditional industries such as manufacturing. The goal is the intelligent factory (Smart Factory) that is characterized
by adaptability, resource efficiency, and ergonomics, as well as the integration of customers and business partners in
business and value processes. Its technological foundation consists of cyber-physical systems and the Internet of
Things.[21]

This kind of "intelligent manufacturing" makes a great use of:

 Wireless connections, both during product assembly and long-distance interactions with them;
 Last generation sensors, distributed along the supply chain and the same products (Internet of things);
 Elaboration of a great amount of data to control all phases of construction, distribution and usage of a good.
European Roadmap "Factories of the Future" and German one "Industries 4.0″ illustrate several of the action lines to
undertake and the related benefits. Some examples are:

 Advanced manufacturing processes and rapid prototyping will make possible for each customer to order one-of-a-
kind product without significant cost increase.
 Collaborative Virtual Factory (VF) platforms will drastically reduce cost and time associated to new product
design and engineering of the production process, by exploiting complete simulation and virtual testing throughout
the Product Lifecycle.
 Advanced Human-Machine interaction (HMI) and augmented reality (AR) devices will help increasing safety in
production plants and reducing physical demand to workers (whose age has an increasing trend).
 Machine learning will be fundamental to optimize the production processes, both for reducing lead times and
reducing the energy consumption.
 Cyber-physical systems and machine-to-machine (M2M) communication will allow to gather and share real-time
data from the shop floor in order to reduce downtime and idle time by conducting extremely effective predictive
maintenance.
Digital manufacturing, also known as Industry 4.0, is the integration of technologies into the
production process to make plant operations more flexible, efficient and resilient in the face of
changing market demands.

What are the benefits of digital manufacturing?

By integrating both the physical and digital world, digital manufacturing makes it possible to transform the
production process, improve business operations and drive revenue growth. Data from across the enterprise –
including the manufacturing execution system (MES), product life cycle management (PLM), supply chain
management (SCM) and enterprise resource planning (ERP) –can deliver insights and enable more informed strategic
decision-making. By leveraging digital manufacturing practices, organisations are better able to:
 Connect workers with data and insights to monitor and control plant floor equipment, products and even the
production processes themselves.
 Achieve faster time to insight using data that spans plant floor operations, product life cycle management,
supply chain management and business operations.
 Accelerate time to market with faster product design and simulation made possible with digital technologies.
 Enable more efficient operations through improved visibility into plant floor operations and equipment
performance, which make it possible to adopt predictive maintenance and condition monitoring practices.
 Gain agility and resilience with an automation strategy based on converged edge computing, which makes it
possible to realize adaptive, flexible automation.

What is meant by virtual manufacturing?

Virtual manufacturing is a simulation-based method that supports engineers to define, simulate, and visualize
the manufacturing process in a computer environment. By using virtual manufacturing, the manufacturing process can
be defined and verified early in the design process. In addition, the manufacturing time can be estimated. Material cost
and manufacturing time constitute a significant portion of the product cost. The virtual machining operations, such as
milling, turning, and drilling, allow designers to conduct machining process planning, generate machining tool paths,
visualize and simulate machining operations, and estimate machining time.
14
15
16