Control system and Components (313329) AO3K CH3

Chapter 3 Process Control

3.1 Process control system: Block diagram, function of each block.

3.2 Discontinuous control actions- ON-OFF controller: Operation, differential gap
3.3 Continuous control actions-proportional, integral and derivative: operation, output
equations, corresponding transfer function, Response graph.
3.4 Composite controllers - PI, PD, PID controllers : operation, output equations, Response
graph, comparison, application and selection criteria

1. Block diagram of process control system and explanation

Block Diagram of Process control system

Function of each block:

Controller: Controller requires an input which is the difference between the
controlled variable and the reference value or the set point of the variable. This
difference is called error. Control actions are the term used to represent the
relationship between the controller output and error. Evaluation of controller
consists of determining the action required to drive the controlled variable to the
set point value. The controller output is the commanding signal given to the final
control element (FCE) to reduce the error.
Final control element: It is the device that exerts a direct influence on the
process. ie it provides those required changes in the controlled variable to bring it
to the set point. This element accepts an input from the controller, which is then
transformed into some proportional operation performed on the process.
Commonly used FSE is control valve.
Process: It is often called as plant. It consists of single variable or multi variables
which are to be controlled. Control element output is given to process which
changes the process variable.
Error detector: It receives two inputs, set point and controlled variable and error
obtained is given to controller.
OR

Manju K 1
Control system and Components (313329) AO3K CH3

2. Classification of controllers
1. Discontinuous controller- example is ON-OFF controller
2. Continuous controller –Proportional, Integral and Derivative controller
3. Composite controller- PI,PD and PID
3. On- Off Controller
It has only two fixed positions such as on (1) and off (0). The output signal P
remains either 0% or 100% depending upon whether the error is negative or
positive. So the equation of On-Off controller is:
P = 100% (on) for positive error
P = 0% (off) for negative error .
Consider a practical example of temperature control system with Set Point “x”.
When the temperature is more than “x” the on - off controller will be off and when
it is less than “x” ,on - off controller will be on.

Example:- Relays, Thermostat

Manju K 2
Control system and Components (313329) AO3K CH3

 Neutral Zone (NZ) or Differential Gap :

It is defined as the range of error in On Off controller in which the controller output
remains constant. It is the range of error through which the signal moves before the
switching action takes place. It is designed to avoid frequent chattering of the controller.

NZ = 2ΔEp

 Applications: temperature control systems for houses (heating and cooling), freezers and
other home appliances are using on-off control

4. Proportional controller

 The controller output is directly proportional to the error. The error is the difference
between the setpoint and the process variable.

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑃𝑜 ∝ 𝐸𝑃

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑃𝑜 = 𝐾𝑃 𝐸𝑃

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑲𝑷 𝑬𝑷 + 𝑷𝒐

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = Controller output

𝐾𝑃 = proportional constant

𝐸𝑃 = Error percentage
𝑃𝑜 = Controller output when error is zero

 Here, one to one correspondence exists between the controller output and error.

Manju K 3
Control system and Components (313329) AO3K CH3

Transfer function:

Taking Laplace transform of equation 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝑃 𝐸𝑃 + 𝑃𝑜 ,

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑠)−𝑃𝑜 (𝑠)

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝑃 𝐸𝑝 (𝑠) + 𝑃𝑜 (𝑠) Therefore, 𝑇𝐹 = = 𝐾𝑃
𝐸𝑝 (𝑠)

Characteristics: (direct and reverse actions):

OR

 Proportional Band PB:

PB is the range of error for which the proportional controller output changes from 0 % to
100%.

100
𝑃𝐵 =
𝑲𝑷

Proportional controller with two different PB and 𝑲𝑷 :

Manju K 4
Control system and Components (313329) AO3K CH3

 Offset:
It is a permanent residual error or steady state error in proportional controller which is
inherent in nature; it is due to the one to one correspondence existing between the controller
output and error. It occurs because the controller cannot adapt to changing external
conditions or loads i.e. here, the zero-error output is a fixed value. When a load change
requires a new controller output, proportional controller cannot provide that and instead it
gives a fixed error from the set point. This fixed error is the offset.Since it is the steady state
error, it has to be reduced to improve the performance of the controller.

Methods to eliminate offset:

 Manual resetting
 By increasing 𝑲𝑷 (But this will decrease PB which in turn makes the system
behave like ON-OFF controller)
 Automatic resetting by using Integral controller

Manju K 5
Control system and Components (313329) AO3K CH3

Advantages of P controller:
 Linear response
Disadvantages of P controller:
 Offset

5. Integral controller (I) ( or Reset controller)

Here, the rate of change of controller output is proportional to the error.

𝑑𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
∝ 𝐸𝑝
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 𝐾𝐼 𝐸𝑝
𝑑𝑡

Taking integral,

𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝐼 ∫0 𝐸𝑝 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑃0 (𝑃0 is the controller output when time t=0)

Transfer function:

𝑑𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
Taking Laplace transform of equation = 𝐾𝐼 𝐸𝑝 ,
𝑑𝑡

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐼
𝑆𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝐼 𝐸𝑝 (𝑠) Therefore, 𝑇𝐹 = =
𝐸𝑝 (𝑠) 𝑆
Therefore, it adds pole at origin.

 Integral control is the control mode where the controller output is proportional to
the integral of the error with respect to time, i.e. controller output ∝ integral of error with
time.
 Integral determines the area of the function being integrated. Therefore it gives the size and
magnitude of the error which is the function being integrated.
 When the error occurs, the controller begins to increase or decrease its output at a rate that
depends upon the size of the error and the gain based on the equation
𝑑𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 𝐾𝐼 𝐸𝑝 . If the error is zero, the controller output is not changed. If the error is
𝑑𝑡
positive, controller output begins to ramp up at a rate determined by the gain.
 Automatic reset or integral action corrects for any offset between set point and process
variable automatically. Therefore it is also called Reset controller.
 Integral action is provided by summing the error over time (which is the cumulative
addition or integral action), multiplying that by a gain and adding the result to the present
controller output. If the error becomes positive or negative, the integral action will begin
to accumulate and makes changes to the controller output.
 This controller action is slow and has less stability due to oscillations induced by the
integral overshoot in the response. It looks into the past history of errors due to the integral
actions.

How does integral action eliminate offset?

Manju K 6
Control system and Components (313329) AO3K CH3

 Offset occurs because the proportional controller cannot adapt to changing external
conditions or loads i.e. here, the zero-error output is a fixed value. Integral eliminates this
problem by allowing the controller to adapt to changing external conditions by changing
the zero-error output. Integral provides a reset of the zero error output after a load change.
Thus Integral redefines the output requirements at the set point until the process variable
and set point are equal.
OR

 When a load change requires a new controller output, proportional controller cannot
provide that and instead it gives a fixed error from the set point. This fixed error is the
offset. Integral provides the required new output thereby allowing the error to be zero after
a load change. It provides reset of the zero-error output after the load change. Thus
integral controller eliminates offset.
Integral action response:

Two systems with gain 𝐾2 & 𝐾1 ( 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾2 < 𝐾1 ) are considered here. The rate of
change of controller output is proportional to the error which is shown below:

Integral controller output for a constant error:

Here, controller output begins to ramp up at a rate determined by the gain. Two systems with
gain 𝐾2 & 𝐾1 ( 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾2 < 𝐾1 ) are considered here. In the case of gain 𝐾1 , the output finally
saturates at 100% and no further action can occur. (For example, control valve is fully open). The
graph is given below:

Manju K 7
Control system and Components (313329) AO3K CH3

Advantages:
1. Eliminates offset
Disadvantages:
1. Slow response 2. Less stability

6. Derivative controller (D)

Here, the controller output is directly proportional to the rate of change of error signal.
Therefore it is also called rate controller.
The equation for D controller is:
𝑑𝐸𝑝
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝐷
𝑑𝑡
𝐾𝐷 is the derivative gain constant which is the time constant.
It shows that the controller output will be zero if i) error 𝐸𝑝 is zero ii) if error is constant.
Therefore D controller is not used alone.

Transfer function:

𝑑𝐸𝑝
Taking Laplace transform of equation 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝐷 𝑑𝑡
,
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑠)
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝐷 𝑆 𝐸𝑝 (𝑠) Therefore, 𝑇𝐹 = = 𝐾𝐷 𝑆
𝐸𝑝 (𝑠)
Therefore, it adds zero at origin of S plane.

Anticipatory controller:
It is also called anticipatory controller because:-
If a variable changes suddenly, its rate of change is fast. Since the change in output from
derivative controller depends on rate of change of error signal, it gives a large amount of
correction to a rapidly changing error signal while the error is still small. Thus it behaves
as if anticipating the process error before it becomes too large and takes corrective action
in advance. This tends to increase the stability of the system.

Advantages:
1. Fast
2. Better stability
3. No offset
4. Useful for slow systems or systems with large inertia or capacitance

Disadvantages:
1. Cannot eliminate offset
2. No output for zero or constant error
3. Cannot be used alone
4. Amplifies noise

Response:
When the error changes rapidly, with positive slope, the controller output changes
suddenly and if the rate of change of error is constant, controller output remains at a
constant value. If the error is zero, the controller output is also zero. It is shown below.

Manju K 8
Control system and Components (313329) AO3K CH3

In the second example of error, it is assumed that the controller output for no error is 50%. When
the error changes rapidly, with positive slope, the controller gives a larger output. When the
error changes rapidly, with negative slope (error is decreasing), the controller gives a smaller
output. When the error is not changing, controller output is 50%. It is shown below.

7. PI controller:

It is the combination of Proportional and Integral controller. The output equation is

𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝑃 𝐸𝑃 + 𝐾𝑃 𝐾𝐼 ∫ 𝐸𝑝 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑃0
0
Where 𝑃0 is the controller output when time t=0

Integral controller is rarely used alone because of its slow response to disturbances. When it is
combined with proportional controller, its slow response can be eliminated. Here, one to one
correspondence of the proportional controller is available and integral controller eliminates offset.

PI mode ensures that when a deviation takes place, proportional mode reacts immediately to change
the controller output since there is not a time integral of deviation. Offset error occurs with a load
change but mode provides a new controller output which in turn changes the error to be zero after a
load change.

Characteristics:

Manju K 9
Control system and Components (313329) AO3K CH3

i) When error=0, controller output is Po (output when t=0)

ii) When error is not zero, the proportional controller gives correction and integral begins to
change the accumulated value of the error which is initially 𝑃0

If the error is not zero, the proportional controller gives correction and integral begins to
change the accumulated value of the error which is initially 𝑃0

Advantages of PI controller:
Eliminates offset, can be used for systems with large load changes

Manju K 10
Control system and Components (313329) AO3K CH3

8. PD Controller

It is the combination of Proportional and Derivative controller. The output equation is

𝑑𝐸𝑝
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝑃 𝐸𝑃 + 𝐾𝑃 𝐾𝐷 + 𝑃0
𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑃0 is the controller output when error is 0.

It cannot eliminate offset. But it can handle fast process load changes because of derivative
action. It improves the speed and stability of the control system response. But it is not
suitable for systems with noise problems because derivative action amplifies noise error
signals.
Response:

The derivative action moves the controller output in relation to the rate of change of error.

Manju K 11
Control system and Components (313329) AO3K CH3

9. PID (Proportional Integral Derivative) control action

PID controller is the combination of proportional-integral-derivative controller.

𝑡 𝑑𝐸𝑝
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝑝 𝐸𝑝 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾1 ∫ 𝐸𝑝 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝐷 + 𝑃𝑜
0 𝑑𝑡

When an error (the change in measured variable from the set point) is introduced to a PID
controller, the controller’s response is a combination of the proportional, integral, and derivative
actions.
As the error increases, the proportional action of the PID controller produces an output that is
proportional to the error signal.
The integral action of the controller produces an output whose rate of change is determined by the
magnitude of the error. As the error continues to increase at a steady rate, the integral output
continues to increase its rate of change.
The derivative action of the controller produces an output whose magnitude is determined by the
rate of change of error.
When combined, these actions produce an output. The output responds immediately to the error
with a signal that is proportional to the magnitude of the error.
The proportional action of the controller stabilizes the process. The integral action combined with
the proportional action causes the measured variable to return to the set point (reduces the offset).
The derivative action combined with the proportional action reduces the initial overshoot and
cyclic period.

Nature of output response:

Advantages:
1. Offset is reduced.
2. Fast response
3. Produces output depending upon magnitude, duration, and rate of change of error.
4. The PID algorithm is suitable for the large system
5. When there are rapid and large changes in process variables, PID controller is used.

Manju K 12
Control system and Components (313329) AO3K CH3

Disadvantages:
1. Complex
2. Tuning of parameters ( KP, KI, KD) is difficult.

10. Comparison of P, I & D controller:

Sr.No Proportional control Integral control Derivative control

Rate of change of controller Controller output is
Controller output is proportional
1 output is proportional to the proportional to the rate of
to error
error change of error
2 Offset is present Absent Absent

Response to the size, time

Response to the direction of Response to the rate of
3 duration and magnitude of
error change of error
error
4 Amplifies noise Eliminates noise Amplifies noise

5 Moderate response speed Slow Fast

Small period of
6 Moderate period of oscillation Long period of oscillation
oscillation
Less stability (due to poles High stability (due to
7 Moderate stability
at origin) zero at origin)
Looks into the past history of
8 Looks into the present error Anticipates the error
error
9 Action has no sense of time Depends on time Measured in terms of time
10 No pole or zero is added Adds pole at origin Adds zero at origin
Equation is 𝑡
11 𝑑𝐸𝑃
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝑃 𝐸𝑃 + 𝑃0 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝐼 ∫ 𝐸𝑃 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑃(0) 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝐷
0 𝑑𝑡
Used in processes with
Used in processes with small
large process lags &
Used in processes with medium process lags & small
12 inertia such as
process lags capacitance such as flow &
temperature control
level control system
system
Response:

13

Manju K 13
Control system and Components (313329) AO3K CH3

11. Selection criteria:

 Look for controllers with the appropriate control modes (P, PI, PD and PID) and the
ability to switch between them if necessary. This flexibility allows fine-tuning the
controller to match the specific dynamics of the process.
 Other criterion is remote monitoring, which enables to oversee and adjust the controller
from a distance.
 Another criterion is the user interface and ease of configuration.

Important questions:

1. State the equation of ON-OFF controller. Define “Neutral Zone” in ON-OFF

controller.
2. Describe the on-off control action with equation.
3. Explain proportional controller action with output equation and response. Define
Proportional Band. State its relation with error.
4. Define offset. State the name of the controller which can eliminate it
5. Explain the Integral control action with equation
6. State the equation and applications (any two) of PI controller
7. State the name of the controller which cannot be used alone. State the reasons why it
cannot be used alone.
8. Compare integral and derivative control action on the basis of: i) Nature of input ii)
equation iii) stability iv) speed of response
9. Compare Proportional, Integral and Derivative control action (6 points)
10. State the equation of PID controller. State its advantages (any 2)

Manju K 14