AIR QUALITY, AIR POLLUTION AND

CONTROL
 AIR QUALITY
Pure air is described as a mixture of the following gases:
●78.0% N2

●20.1% O2

●0.9% Ar

●0.03% CO2

●0.002% Ne

●0.005% He plus other gases

Such pure air does not exist but it serves as a reference for
clean air.
 4 MAJOR LAYERS OF THE EARTH’S
ATMOSPHERE

1) Troposphere
-(contains more than
80% air)
2) Stratosphere
-(contains 90% ozone)
3) Mesosphere
-temp decreases w/
height; coldest part of
the atmosphere
4) Thermosphere
-temp increase w/
height. UV and
radiation from the sun
is absorbed
 MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS
I. PARTICULATES
II. GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
 I. Particulates
a) Dust (100µ)
● solid particles created by the break up of
larger masses through processing or
handling of materials such as coal, ash,
cement, grains by crushing or grinding.
● direct offspring of a parent material
undergoing mechanical operation
(sawdust from wood works)
●entrained materials used in
mechanical operations (sand blasting)
●natural phenomena (volcanic eruption)
 I. Particulates
b) Fume (0.03 – 0.3µ)
● a solid particle frequently a metallic oxide formed by the
condensation of vapors by sublimation, distillation, calcinations, or
chemical reaction processes.
ex. Zinc and lead oxides from oxidation and condensation
 I. Particulates
c) Mist (0.5 – 3.0µ)
○ an entrained liquid particle formed by the condensation of a
vapor, dispersion of a liquid (as foaming or splashing) and by
chemical reaction (formation of sulfuric acid mists)
- Mist is also called fog when its concentration is high enough to
obscure visibility.
 I. Particulates
d) Smoke (0.05 – 1.0µ)
– entrained solid particles formed as a result of incomplete
combustion of carbonaceous materials (wood, coal, tobacco, other
combustibles)
 I. Particulates
e) Spray (10 – 1000µ)
● a liquid particle formed by the atomization of a parent
liquid, settles out by gravity
 I. Particulates
f) Fly ash
● consists of finely divided, non – combustible particles contained in
flue gases arising from combustion of coal and other combustibles.
 MEASUREMENT OF PARTICULATES
a) Measurement of Total
Suspended Particulates (TSP)
- High – volume sampler is used
which operates like a vacuum
cleaner by simply
forcing more than 2000 m3 of air
through a filter for 24 hours
- Analysis is gravimetric and
the air flow is measured by
small flow meter (calibrated in
ft3/min)
 MEASUREMENT OF PARTICULATES
b) Measurement of
Respirable Particulates
(particulates < 0.3µ)
- Measurement done in
relation to health
Air sampling system for respirable
particles
 MEASUREMENT OF PARTICULATES
c) Measurement of PM10 :
Particulate Matter less
than 10 microns
- a measure used in
ambient air quality
standards
 II. Gaseous Pollutants
● Gaseous pollutants include substances that are gases at
normal temperature and pressure as well as vapors of
substances that are liquid or solid at normal T and P.

● The following are some gaseous air pollutants:

○ SO2, SO3, H2S, N2O, NO2, CO, CO2, O3, HC’s, CH4, CFC
 SOME GASEOUS POLLUTANTS & THEIR
EFFECTS:
a) SO2 – colorless gas, intense choking odor, highly soluble
in water to form H2SO3. Can damage property, health and
vegetation.
b) SO3 – soluble in water to form H2SO4, highly corrosive
c) H2S – has a rotten egg odor at low concentrations and
odorless at high concentrations, highly poisonous
d) N2O – colorless gas, used as carrier gas in aerosol
bottles, relatively inert, not produced in combustion
 SOME GASEOUS POLLUTANTS & THEIR
EFFECTS:
e) NO – colorless gas produced during high temperature –
high pressure combustion, oxidizes to NO2
f) NO2 – brown to orange gas, major component in the
formation of photochemical smog
g) CO – colorless and odorless gas, product of incomplete
combustion, poisonous
h) CO2 – colorless and odorless gas, formed during
complete combustion, greenhouse gas
i) O3 – highly reactive, can damage vegetation and
property, produced mainly during the formation of
photochemical smog
 SOME GASEOUS POLLUTANTS & THEIR
EFFECTS:
j) HC’s CXHY – some are emitted from automobiles and
industries, others are formed in the atmosphere
k) CH4 – highly combustible, odorless, greenhouse gas
l) CFC (cholorofluorocarbons) – non-reactive,
with excellent thermal properties, depletes ozone
layer
 Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer

AAS is an analytical technique used to determine how much of certain

elements are in a sample. It uses the principle that atoms (and ions)
can absorb light at a specific, unique wavelength. When this specific
wavelength of light is provided, the energy (light) is absorbed by the
atom.
Orsat analyzer

 An Orsat gas analyser is a piece of

laboratory equipment used to analyse
a gas sample (typically fossil fuel flue
gas) for its oxygen, carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide content.
Spectrophotometry
MEASUREMENT OF
GASES
The earliest gas-measurement techniques almost all
involved the use of a bubbler, shown in the figure.

The gas is literally bubbled through the liquid, which

either reacts chemically with the gas of interest or into
which the gas is dissolved.

Wet chemical techniques are then used to measure

the concentration of the gas.
 MEASUREMENT OF GASES

EXAMPLE:

A bubbler technique for measuring SO2 is to bubble air through

hydrogen peroxide, causing the following reaction to occur:

SO2 + H2O2→H2SO4

The amount of sulfuric acid formed can be determined by titration.

 MEASUREMENT OF
SMOKE
●The density of smoke has for many years been measured
on the Ringlemann scale, devised in the late 1800s by
Maxmilian Ringlemann,
●The scale ranges from 0 for white or transparent smoke to
5 for totally black, opaque smoke. The test is conducted
by holding a card, such as shown in the figure, and
comparing the blackness
of the card to the smoke.
●A fairly dark smoke is, thus, said to be Ringlemann 4,
for example.
 Air Pollutant Classification
a) Primary Air Pollutants
● Materials released directly into the atmosphere in their
unmodified forms and in sufficient quantities to pose health
risk. Among them are CO, HC’s, particulates, SO2, NO and NO2.
b) Secondary Air Pollutants
● Products from the interaction of the primary air pollutants
with one another in the presence of an energy source.
● *Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants
resulting from the interaction of NO & NO2 w/ ultraviolet
light.
● Comes from chemical reactions
 Air Pollutant Classification
Photochemical Smog
Two Most Destructive Forms:
1) Ozone, O3
○ destroys chlorophyll and injures the lung tissue, can
damage rubber such as tires.
Peroxyacetylnitrates
2)

○ eye irritants.

○ These are excellent oxidizing agents, they react

readily with many other compounds causing destructive
damage.
 Other Classification of Air Pollutants
a) Criteria Pollutants
- Most common hazardous air pollutant.

- Key indicators for air quality

- emissions to the urban air traditionally sees as polluting: NO2, CO, SO2, PM,
O3, Pb

b) Non - criteria Pollutants

- All pollutants not included in criteria pollutants

- Non-conventional pollutants

- C6H6, C7H8, CS2, VC, PAH (polynuclear aromatic HC’s), Arsenic, Asbestos,
TCDD (2,3,7,7 tetrachloro – dibenzon – p – dioxin)
 Sources of Air Pollution
I. Natural Processes
○ Particulates from pollen grains, fungus spores,
○ smoke and dust particles from forest fires,
○ ash from volcanic eruption, natural breakdown of CH4 into
CO,
○ HC’s in the form of terpenes from pine trees,
○ H2S and CH4 from anaerobic decomposition of organic
matter,
○ NOx from fixation of atmospheric nitrogen
 Sources of Air Pollution
II. Man – made Pollutants – classified as:
a) Stationary Combustion
- Comes from residential, commercial, or industrial power and
heating, burning of coal or oil fuels
b) Mobile Transportation
- Motor vehicles, aircraft, railroads, ships, handling or
evaporation of gasoline
c) Industrial Process
- Chemical, metallurgical, pulp and paper industries,
petroleum refineries
d) Solid waste Disposal
- Household/commercial refuse, coal refuse etc.
 Effects of Air Pollution
1) Reduce in visibility
– particulates reduce visibility both by adsorbing the light
and by scattering the light
 Effects of Air Pollution
2. Causes allergies (aeroallergens)
– airborne substances cause allergies from sources such as pollens and
spores, common to asthmatic people
 Effects of Air Pollution
3. Global warming
– CH4, N2O and CO2,
greenhouse gases cause
heating of the earth’s
surface
 Effects of Air Pollution
4. Damage to plants animals and other living things
● Acid rain may result to acidic surface waters which may not be able
to sustain marine life, fishes and marine plants. Acid rain also
destroys forests. Acid causes abnormal bone development in fishes
causing their death.
 Effects of Air Pollution
5) Ozone depletion

– destruction of the ozone layer

(which protects us from UV rays)
because of the use of CFC’s that
destroy the ozone layer, thus
potential effect on the incidence of
skin cancer
 Effects of Air Pollution
6. Damage to non – living things
- particulate matter can damage
materials by soiling clothing and
textiles, corroding metals.
-Acid rain is corrosive to galvanized iron,
materials for roofs, even zinc and steel
materials, discolors and destroys
painted surfaces;
-ozone can also damage rubber in
automobile tires.
 Effects of Air Pollution
7) Causes Health problems
● respiratory system; diseases and
illnesses such as lung cancer, asthma
and other respiratory diseases;
● emphysema;
● irritates eyes (O3) or skin (acids);
● asphyxiation
● H2S causes nausea, nervous
breakdown and is also detrimental at
high concentrations.
Indoor Air Pollution
 Methods of Control of Indoor
Pollution
1) Decrease pollutant source
-modify behaviors (no
smoking)
2) Change of consumer
products
-lower emission rates of toxic
compounds
3) Increase rate of pollutant
removal
-increase ventilation, use
filters and air conditioning
units
 Air Quality Control
Air Pollution Legislation (RA 8749) Clean Air Act
● Set emission and ambient air quality limits.

Air Pollutant Emission and Control

1) Control Emissions
2) Understand process (transport, transformation and removal)
3) Monitor concentration
4) Protection from effects
 Control of Particulates
1) Settling chambers
– consist of wide places in the exhaust flue where large particles can
settle out, usually with baffle to slow the emission stream.
- Only particulates > 100 µm can be removed.
 Control of Particulates
2) Cyclones
– most effective means of controlling
particulates.
-The dirty air is blasted into a conical
cylinder but off center line. This creates
a violent swirl within the cone and the
heavy solids migrate to the wall of the
cylinder where they slow down due to
friction, slide down the cone and finally
exit at the bottom.
-The clean air is in the middle of the
cylinder and exits out at the top.
 Control of Particulates
3) Bag filters (fabric filters)
➢ operate like the common vacuum
cleaner.
➢ They are used to collect dust then
removed from the bag. This filter can
remove submicron sizes of particulates
but are sensitive to high temperature
and humidity.
➢ Filter bags are widely used in many
industrial applications.
➢ The dust particles adhere to the fabric
due to entrapment and surface forces.
 Control of Particulates
4) Spray Tower or scrubber
➢ effective for removing large
particulates.
➢ Drawbacks include producing
visible plume, albeit only water
vapor.
➢ The waste is converted to liquid
which needs treatment.
 Control of Particulates
5) Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP) – widely used in power
plants, because power is readily available. The
particulates are first charged by electrons jumping from
one high – voltage electrode to the other and then
migrating to the positively charge collecting electrode.
Effective in removing submicron particles.
 Control of Gaseous Pollutants
1) Wet Scrubbers
➢ the gaseous pollutants are dissolved in water.
➢ Alternatively, a chemical may be injected which reacts with the
pollutants (usually done to remove SO2 and SO3)
 Control of Gaseous Pollutants
2) Adsorption
➢ used when it is possible to bring the pollutant into contact with an
adsorber like activated carbon.
 Control of Gaseous Pollutants
3) Incineration or Flaring
➢ used when organic pollutant can be oxidized to CO2 and water,
catalytic combustion.
 Control of SOx
1) Change to low sulfur fuel (coal to natural gas, more
expensive)
2) Desulfurize the coal
3) Tall stacks to disperse SO2
4) Flue gas desulfurization – reduce SO2 emitted by cleaning
the gases coming from the combustion process
Dispersion of Pollutants
● Dispersion is the process of spreading out the emission over
a large area and thereby reducing the concentration of the
specific pollutants.
● Dispersion is in two dimensions:
 horizontal or vertical.
● The amount of dispersion is directly related to the stability of
the air, or how much vertical air movement is taking place.
 Stability of the Atmosphere
● As the air rises in the
earth’s atmosphere, it
experiences lower and
lower pressure from the
surrounding air molecules
and thus expands.
 Stability of the
Atmosphere

• This expansion lowers the temperature of the air.

 Stability of the Atmosphere
● Lapse Rate
○ Lapse rate is the rate
of change in
temperature observed
while moving upward
through the Earth’s
atmosphere
 Stability of the Atmosphere
1) Adiabatic
➢ Adiabatic lapse rate
is the rate of fall in
temperature of a
rising or a falling air
parcel adiabatically
 Stability of the Atmosphere
2) Superadiabatic lapse rate
➢Strong lapse rate
➢Occurs when the atmospheric temperature drops more than 1°C/100 m
➢Atmospheric conditions are unstable
➢A great deal of vertical movement and turbulence are produced, and
dispersion is enhanced.
 Stability of the Atmosphere
3) Subadiabatic lapse rate
➢ Weak lapse rate
➢ Characterized by a drop of less than 1°C/100 m,
➢ stable atmospheric condition
 Stability of the Atmosphere
4) Inversion – special case of a weak lapse rate
➢ Extreme subadiabatic condition
➢ A condition that has warmer air above colder air
➢ Stable atmospheric condition
 Stability of the
Atmosphere

5) Inversion over
superadiabatic
➢a unique atmospheric condition
where a layer of air with
increasing temperature with
altitude (inversion) sits above a
layer where the temperature
decreases very rapidly with
altitude (superadiabatic lapse
rate).