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ASTRONOMY: Module 1:
A Self-Learning Module for College Students

INTRODUCTION TO ASTROLOGY
MARVIN Y. ARCE

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 ASTRONOMY: A Self-Learning Module for College Students 1

MODULE 1: Introduction to Astronomy

Introduction

Astronomy is one of the most-fascinating subjects; the Universe in which we live

is simply a beautiful and incredible place!

As one of the oldest sciences, astronomy is also one of the fastest-progressing

sciences today. In centuries past, people used the stars to tell stories through patterns
in the sky. They used the positions of the Sun and Moon to tell time and the seasons,
and the positions of the stars to navigate.

With the advent space exploration starting in October 1957, satellites have added
to our knowledge of the Universe, from the surface of Mars to the beginning of the
Universe itself. It hardly seems a week passes without a new discovery, either from
earth-based observations or the myriad of satellites.

Images of the Universe, from galaxies containing billions of stars to the rings of
Saturn, inspire both the casual and professional stargazer alike. Astronomy is a passion
for many and today is a mainstream hobby, as in years past.

Introduction to Astronomy will provide you with an opportunity to explore both the
significant historical aspects of astronomy, as well as contemporary exploration of the
Universe. Common topics, such as the phases of the Moon, tides, seasons and the
space program, will also be explored.

So welcome to your Universe: a beautiful and incredible place, as you will soon
learn.

Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:

• describe the characteristics of the major classes of objects in the Universe;

• recognize the scale of the Cosmos, using Astronomical Units and Light travel;
• identify specific Constellations;
• describe the characteristics of specific Constellations;
• identify specific Asterisms; and
• differentiate between Constellations and Asterisms.

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BASIC OBJECTS IN THE UNIVERSE

This module starts with the question, “What is Astronomy?”. Simply

stated, Astronomy is the study of the Universe. Astronomers classify objects into
various groups based on characteristics and locations in our Universe. Some of these
classifications, such as stars, are easy to understand scientifically. Other objects are
more difficult to classify, and in some instances, to entirely understand. This module
identifies basic objects in our Solar System and those beyond, the overall scale of the
Universe, and patterns in the night sky.

The following are some of the basic objects present in the cosmos.

Stars
Stars are glowing balls of gas that undergo nuclear fusion; the Sun is a star.

Credit: NASA,ESA Public Domain

Planets
Planets are moderately large objects orbiting a star. We see planets because
they reflect the light of their central star, or in some cases, stars. Planets are generally
rocky or gaseous in nature and spherical-shaped.

A new group of objects has been recently defined: the Dwarf Planets or Plutoids.
These are objects that orbit the Sun, but have not cleared their orbits. Pluto is an
example of a Dwarf Planet.

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Credit: NASA Public Domain

Satellite

A satellite orbits a planet; these objects

are also called moons. For example, the
Earth’s satellite is the Moon – a proper name.

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Asteroid

An asteroid is a
relatively small, rocky/metallic
object usually orbiting a star.

Full View of Asteroid Vesta.

Credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCAL/MPS/DLR/IDA

Comet

A comet is a relatively small, icy object usually orbiting a star. Asteroids, comets,
and miscellaneous small/irregular objects and “dust” are often categorized as Minor
Bodies.

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Comet Neowise
Credits: Dee Wright Observatory
Solar System

The Solar System is the Sun and all the objects that orbit the Sun, including the
planets and their moons.

Credits: Pixabay.com

Stellar System

A Stellar System is a star and other objects such as planets and/or other stars
and other materials that orbit it.

Galaxy
A galaxy is a large island
of stars, a few hundred million
to over a trillion stars.

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Credits: ESA/Hubble, NASA

Galactic Cluster
A Galactic Cluster is a collection of galaxies gravitationally bound.

Supercluster
A Supercluster is a region where galaxies and galactic clusters are tightly
packed.

Universe
The Universe is all matter and energy, and is also called the Cosmos.

Credits: Pixabay.com

SCALE OF THE COSMOS

Perhaps you have heard the phrase that a large number is astronomical.
Astronomical comes from the fact that the size of the Universe is so big, it is often hard
to comprehend. Even distances between the planets and the Sun in our own Solar
System are numbers we are not custom to using.

To understand the scale of the Cosmos, we will start with several examples in
our Solar System. First, the distance between the Earth and Moon is about 230,000
miles. The closest distance between Earth and Mars is about 32,000,000 miles. The
distance between the Earth and Sun is about 93,000,000 miles. The distance between
Mercury – the closest planet to the Sun – and the Sun is about 36,000,000 miles. The

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distance between Neptune – the farthest planet from the Sun – and the
Sun is about 2,797,770,000 miles. It is often useful to make a scale model
of large systems.

To simplify distance in our Solar

System, astronomers use the Astronomical
Unit (1 AU), which equals 93,000,000 miles or
the average distance from Earth to the Sun.

As for other numbers, these are the

diameters of three Solar System bodies. First,
our Earth’s diameter is just less than 8,000
miles. Jupiter’s diameter – the largest planet in
our Solar System – is around 88,000 miles.
And the Sun’s diameter is about 850,000
miles.

Credit: Huritisho

The idea here is not to memorize size and distance; rather, it is to appreciate the
grand scale of the Universe within which we live.

Going beyond our Solar System, the closest star is Proxima Centauri, part of the
Alpha Centauri triple star system. It is about 24,340,000,000,000 miles (that is 24
trillion, 340 billion miles) away or about 270,000 times more distant than Earth to the
Sun. And that is the closest star beyond our Sun.

Because of these great distances, astronomers will use another measure: the
distance light travels in one year, or the light year. This sounds like a time measure,
but it is not. Light travels 186,000 miles in one second, or 2.99 x 108 meters per
second. That is 5,869,713,600,000 miles in a year. So, the Sun is about 8 light minutes
from Earth and Proxima Centauri about 4.24 light years distant.

To measure the distance of an object outside the Solar System, scientist use a
unit of length called parsec (pc). One parsec is approximately equal to 31 trillion
kilometers (19 trillion miles), or 210,000 astronomical units, and equates to about 3.3
light-years.

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Watch the video from the link below to learn more about the scale of
the universe:

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i93Z7zljQ7I

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uaGEjrADGPA&t=17s

CONTELLATIONS

Ever since people first wandered the Earth, great significance has been given to
the celestial objects seen in the sky. Throughout human history and across many
different cultures, names and mythical stories have been attributed to the star patterns
in the night sky, thus giving birth to what we know as constellations.

Archaeological studies have identified possible astronomical markings painted on

the walls in the cave system at Lascaux in southern France. Our ancestors may have
recorded their view of the night sky on the walls of their cave some 17 300 years ago. It
is thought that the Pleiades star cluster is represented alongside the nearby cluster of
the Hyades. Was the first ever depiction of a star pattern made over seventeen
millennia ago?

Over half of the 88 constellations the IAU recognizes today are attributed to
ancient Greek, which consolidated the earlier works by the ancient Babylonian,
Egyptian and Assyrian. Forty-eight of the constellations we know were recorded in the
seventh and eighth books of Claudius Ptolemy’s Almagest, although the exact origin of
these constellations still remains uncertain. Ptolemy’s descriptions are probably strongly
influenced by the work of Eudoxus of Knidos in around 350 BC. Between the 16th and
17th century AD, European astronomers and celestial cartographers added new
constellations to the 48 previously described by Ptolemy; these new constellations were
mainly “new discoveries” made by the Europeans who first explored the southern
hemisphere. Those who made particular contributions to the “new” constellations
include the Polish-born, German astronomer Johannes Hevelius; three Dutch
cartographers, Frederick de Houtman, Pieter Dirksz Keyser and Gerard Mercator; the
French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille; the Flemish mapmaker Petrus Plancius
and the Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci.

A constellation is an area on the celestial sphere in which a group of visible

stars forms a perceived outline or pattern, typically representing an animal, mythological
person or creature, or an inanimate object.

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Today astronomers recognize 88 “official” Constellations. These are

taken from many of the historical constellations. Many of today’s 88 official
constellations are Western European in design and history. Whereas some
Constellations are easy to recognize, most are not. Constellations are basically
connecting the dots or stars that make up these constellations. To be able to see all 88
Constellations, we would need to be at the equator. The 88 constellations depict 42
animals, 29 inanimate objects and 17 humans or mythological characters. An
exhaustive list is given on the table below:

The List of Official Modern Constellations

Official Name Origin Meaning
Andromeda (The chained
Andromeda ancient (Ptolemy)
maiden or princess)
Antlia 1763, Lacaille air pump
1603, Uranometria,
Bird-of-paradise/Exotic
Apus created by Keyser and de
Bird/Extraordinary Bird
Houtman
Aquarius ancient (Ptolemy) water-bearer
Aquila ancient (Ptolemy) eagle
Ara ancient (Ptolemy) altar
Aries ancient (Ptolemy) ram
Auriga ancient (Ptolemy) charioteer
Boötes ancient (Ptolemy) herdsman
Caelum 1763, Lacaille chisel or graving tool
Camelopardalis 1613, Plancius giraffe
Cancer ancient (Ptolemy) crab
1690, Firmamentum
Canes Venatici hunting dogs
Sobiescianum, Hevelius
Canis Major ancient (Ptolemy) greater dog
Canis Minor ancient (Ptolemy) lesser dog
Capricornus ancient (Ptolemy) sea goat
1763, Lacaille, split
Carina keel
from Argo Navis
Cassiopeia (mythological
Cassiopeia ancient (Ptolemy)
character)
Centaurus ancient (Ptolemy) centaur
Cepheus (mythological
Cepheus ancient (Ptolemy)
character)
Cetus ancient (Ptolemy) sea monster (later

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ASTRONOMY: A Self-Learning Module for College Students

interpreted as
a whale)
1603, Uranometria,
Chamaeleon created by Keyser and de chameleon
Houtman
Circinus 1763, Lacaille compasses
1592, Plancius, split
Columba dove
from Canis Major
1603, Uranometria, split
Coma Berenices Berenice's hair
from Leo
Corona Australis ancient (Ptolemy) southern crown
Corona Borealis ancient (Ptolemy) northern crown

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Corvus ancient (Ptolemy) crow

Crater ancient (Ptolemy) cup
1603, Uranometria, split
Crux southern cross
from Centaurus
Cygnus ancient (Ptolemy) swan or Northern Cross
Delphinus ancient (Ptolemy) dolphin
1603, Uranometria,
Dorado created by Keyser and de dolphinfish
Houtman
Draco ancient (Ptolemy) dragon
Equuleus ancient (Ptolemy) pony
Eridanus ancient (Ptolemy) river Eridanus (mythology)
Fornax 1763, Lacaille chemical furnace
Gemini ancient (Ptolemy) twins
1603, Uranometria,
Grus created by Keyser and de crane
Houtman
Hercules (mythological
Hercules ancient (Ptolemy)
character)
Horologium 1763, Lacaille pendulum clock
Hydra (mythological
Hydra ancient (Ptolemy)
creature)
1603, Uranometria,
Hydrus created by Keyser and de lesser water snake
Houtman
1603, Uranometria,
Indus created by Keyser and de Indian (of unspecified type)
Houtman
1690, Firmamentum
Lacerta lizard
Sobiescianum, Hevelius
Leo ancient (Ptolemy) lion
1690, Firmamentum
Leo Minor lesser lion
Sobiescianum, Hevelius
Lepus ancient (Ptolemy) hare
Libra ancient (Ptolemy) balance
Lupus ancient (Ptolemy) wolf
1690, Firmamentum
Lynx lynx
Sobiescianum, Hevelius

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Lyra ancient (Ptolemy) lyre / harp

Table Mountain (South
Mensa 1763, Lacaille
Africa)
Microscopium 1763, Lacaille microscope
Monoceros 1613, Plancius unicorn
Musca 1603, Uranometria, fly
created by Keyser and de

Houtman
Norma 1763, Lacaille carpenter's level
Octans 1763, Lacaille octant (instrument)
Ophiuchus ancient (Ptolemy) serpent-bearer
Orion (mythological
Orion ancient (Ptolemy)
character)
1603, Uranometria,
Pavo created by Keyser and de peacock
Houtman
Pegasus (mythological
Pegasus ancient (Ptolemy)
winged horse)
Perseus (mythological
Perseus ancient (Ptolemy)
character)
1603, Uranometria,
Phoenix created by Keyser and de phoenix
Houtman
Pictor 1763, Lacaille easel
Pisces ancient (Ptolemy) fishes
Piscis Austrinus ancient (Ptolemy) southern fish
1763, Lacaille, split
Puppis poop deck
from Argo Navis
Pyxis 1763, Lacaille mariner's compass
Reticulum 1763, Lacaille eyepiece graticule
Sagitta ancient (Ptolemy) arrow
Sagittarius ancient (Ptolemy) archer
Scorpius ancient (Ptolemy) scorpion
Sculptor 1763, Lacaille sculptor
1690, Firmamentum
Scutum shield (of Sobieski)
Sobiescianum, Hevelius

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Virgo ancient (Ptolemy) virgin or maiden

1603, Uranometria,
Volans created by Keyser and de flying fish
Houtman
1690, Firmamentum
Vulpecula fox
Sobiescianum, Hevelius
Serpens[10] ancient (Ptolemy) snake
1690, Firmamentum
Sextans sextant
Sobiescianum, Hevelius
Taurus ancient (Ptolemy) bull
Telescopium 1763, Lacaille telescope
Triangulum ancient (Ptolemy) triangle
1603, Uranometria,
Triangulum Australe created by Keyser and de southern triangle
Houtman
1603, Uranometria,
Tucana created by Keyser and de toucan
Houtman
Ursa Major ancient (Ptolemy) great bear
Ursa Minor ancient (Ptolemy) lesser bear
1763, Lacaille, split
Vela sails
from Argo Navis
Credits: “The Constellation”. International Astronomical Union

An asterism is a popularly-known pattern or group of stars that can be seen in the night
sky. This colloquial definition[a] makes it appear quite similar to a constellation, but they differ in
that: a constellation is a formally-named area of the sky and all the celestial objects within it,
representing an object, person, or animal, often mythological; while an asterism is a visually
obvious collection of stars and the lines used to mentally connect them. As such, asterisms do
not have officially determined boundaries and are therefore a more general concept which may
refer to any identified pattern of stars. This distinction between terms remains somewhat
inconsistent, varying among published sources. An asterism may be understood as an informal
group of stars within the area of an official or defunct former constellation, or crossing the
boundaries of two or more constellations.

A familiar asterism is the Big

Dipper, Plough or Charles's Wain,
which is composed of the seven
brightest stars in Ursa Major (see
figure on the right). These stars
delineate the Bear's hindquarters
and exaggerated

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 ASTRONOMY: A Self-Learning Module for College Students 14

tail, or alternatively, the "handle" forming the upper outline of the bear's head
and neck. With its longer tail, Ursa Minor hardly appears bearlike at all, and is widely known by
its pseudonym, the Little Dipper.

Credit:Rursus, CC BY-SA 3.0

POST-ASSESSMENT
Upload a softcopy (MS Word) of your answers to the following questions. I will post a link
where you can upload your file on Friday, September 25, 2020.

1. Write a reflection on what you have learned from this module.

Answer the following questions

2. Humans can be described as a “speck of dust” in the scale of the Cosmos. Having this
in mind, how would you play your role to leave a significant mark in the universe?

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3. As a future elementary school teacher, how would you encourage your
students to appreciate the vastness of space. What methods/techniques
will you use to develop in your student the desire to learn more about the
universe?

Marvin Y. Arce
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2020