Chapter 4 LINKERS & LOADERS

Chapter 4
Loaders and Linkers
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 Chapter 4 LINKERS & LOADERS

Chapter 3
Loaders and Linkers
The Source Program written in assembly language or high level language will be converted to
object program, which is in the machine language form for execution. This conversion either
from assembler or from compiler, contains translated instructions and data values from the
source program, or specifies addresses in primary memory where these items are to be loaded
for execution.

This contains the following three processes, and they are,

1. Loading - which allocates memory location and brings the object program into
memory for execution - (Loader)
2. Linking- which combines two or more separate object programs and supplies the
information needed to allow references between them - (Linker)
3. Relocation - which modifies the object program so that it can be loaded at an
address different from the location originally specified - (Linking Loader)

Basic Loader Functions

A loader is a system program that performs the loading function. It brings object

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program into memory and starts its execution. The role of loader is as shown in the figure 3.1.
In figure 3.1 translator may be assembler/complier, which generates the object program and
later loaded to the memory by the loader for execution. In figure 3.2 the translator is
specifically an assembler, which generates the object loaded, which becomes input to the
loader. The figure 3.3 shows the role of both loader and linker.

Source Object Object

Translator
Program Program Loader program
ready for
execution

Figure 3.1 : The Role of Loader

Memory

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Object
Source Assembler
Program Loader Object
Program
program
ready for
execution

Memory
Figure 3.2: The Role of Loader with Assembler

Source Assembler
Object
Program
cks Linker
Program
Object
program
ready for
Executable execution
Code

Loader

Memory
Figure 3.3 : The Role of both Loader and Linker

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Type of Loaders

The different types of loaders are, absolute loader, bootstrap loader, relocating loader
(relative loader), and, direct linking loader. The following sections discuss the functions and
design of all these types of loaders.

Absolute Loader

The operation of absolute loader is very simple. The object code is loaded to specified
locations in the memory. At the end the loader jumps to the specified address to begin
execution of the loaded program. The role of absolute loader is as shown in the figure 3.3.1.
The advantage of absolute loader is simple and efficient. But the disadvantages are, the need
for programmer to specify the actual address, and, difficult to use subroutine libraries.

1000
Object Absolute
Program Loader
cks Object
program
ready for
execution

2000

Memory
Figure 3.3.1: The Role of Absolute Loader

The algorithm for this type of loader is given here. The object program and, the object program
loaded into memory by the absolute loader are also shown. Each byte of assembled code is
given using its hexadecimal representation in character form. Easy to read by human beings.
Each byte of object code is stored as a single byte. Most machine store object programs in a
binary form, and we must be sure that our file and device conventions do not cause some of the
program bytes to be interpreted as control characters.

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Note
No linking and relocation needed
Records in object program performs the following
Header record
Check the Header record for program name, starting address, and length (available memory)
Text record
Bring the object program contained in the Text record to the indicated address
End record
Transfer control to the address specified in the End record.

Algorithm for an absolute loader

Begin
read Header record
verify program name and length
read first Text record
while record type is <> ‘E’ do
begin
{if object code is in character form, convert into internal representation}
move object code to specified location in memory
read next object program record
end
jump to address specified in End record

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end

No text record corresponds here.XXX indicates that the previous contents of these locations
remain unchanged.

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3.3.2 A Simple Bootstrap Loader

Bootstrap Loader (usually in ROM)

When a computer is first turned on or restarted, a special type of absolute loader, called
bootstrap loader is executed. This bootstrap loads the first program to be run by the computer -
- usually an operating system.
SIC bootstrap loader
1. The bootstrap itself begins at address 0
2. It loads the OS starting address 0x80
3. No header record or control information, the object code is consecutive bytes of
memory
4. After load the OS, the control is transferred to the instruction at address 80

Algorithm for SIC/XE bootstrap loader

X 0x80 (the address of the next memory location to be loaded)
Loop until end of input
A  GETC (and convert from ASCII character code to the hexadecimal digit)
save the value in the high-order 4 bits of S
A  GETC
combine the value to form one byte A  (A+S)
(X)  (A) (store one char.)

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XX+1
End of loop

GETC A  read one character from device F1

if (A = 0x04) then jump to 0x80
if A<48 then goto GETC
A  A-48 (0x30)
if A<10 then return
A  A-7
return

Bootstrap loader for SIC/XE

BOOT START 0 BOOTSTRAP LOADER FOR SIC/XE

THIS BOOTSTRAP READS OBJECT CODE FROM DEVICE F1 AND ENTERS IT INTO MEMORY
STARTING AT ADDRESS 80 (HEXADECIMAL). AFTER ALL OF . THE CODE FROM DEVF1 HAS BEEN
SEEN ENTERED INTO MEMORY, THE BOOTSTRAP EXECUTES A JUMP TO ADDRESS 80 TO BEGIN
EXECUTION OF . THE PROGRAM JUST LOADED. REGISTER X CONTAINS THE NEXT ADDRESS
. TO BE LOADED

SUBROUTINE TO READ ONE CHARACTER FROM INPUT DEVICE AND

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. CONVERT IT FROM ASCII CODE TO HEXADECIMAL DIGIT VALUE. THE

. CONVERTED DIGIT VALUE IS RETURNED IN REGISTER A. WHEN AN END-OF-FILE IS READ,
CONTROL IS TRANSFERRED TO THE STARTING ADDRESS (HEX 80).

3.4 Machine-Dependent Loader Features

Absolute loader is simple and efficient, but the scheme has potential disadvantages One
of the most disadvantage is the programmer has to specify the actual starting address, from
where the program to be loaded. This does not create difficulty, if one program to run, but not
for several programs. Further it is difficult to use subroutine libraries efficiently.

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This needs the design and implementation of a more complex loader. The loader must
provide program relocation and linking, as well as simple loading functions.

3.4.1 Relocation

The concept of program relocation is, the execution of the object program using any
part of the available and sufficient memory. The object program is loaded into memory
wherever there is room for it. The actual starting address of the object program is not known
until load time. Relocation provides the efficient sharing of the machine with larger memory
and when several independent programs are to be run together. It also supports the use of
subroutine libraries efficiently. Loaders that allow for program relocation are called relocating
loaders or relative loaders.

3.4.2 Methods for specifying relocation

Use of modification record and, use of relocation bit, are the methods available for
specifying relocation. In the case of modification record, a modification record M is used in the
object program to specify any relocation. In the case of use of relocation bit, each instruction is
associated with one relocation bit and, these relocation bits in a Text record is gathered into bit
masks.

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Modification records are used in complex machines and are also called Relocation and
Linkage Directory (RLD) specification. The format of the modification record (M) is as
follows. The object program with relocation by Modification records is also shown here.

Modification record
col 1: M
col 2-7: relocation address
col 8-9: length (halfbyte)
col 10: flag (+/-)
col 11-17: segment name

Object program with modification record

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Relocatable program for SIC

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Relocation Bits
If there are many addresses needed to be modified, it is more efficient to use a relocation bit,
instead of a Modification record, to specify every relocation.
When the instruction format is fixed
1. There is a relocation bit for each word of the object program
2. Relocation bits are put together into a bit mask
3. If the relocation bit corresponding to a word of object code is set to 1, the program’s
starting address will be added to this word when the program is relocated.

The relocation bit method is used for simple machines. Relocation bit is 0: no modification is
necessary, and is 1: modification is needed. This is specified in the columns 10-12 of text
record (T), the format of text record, along with relocation bits is as follows.

Text record
col 1: T
col 2-7: starting address
col 8-9: length (byte)
col 10-12: relocation bits
col 13-72: object code

Twelve-bit mask is used in each Text record (col:10-12 – relocation bits), since each

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text record contains less than 12 words, unused words are set to 0, and, any value that is to be
modified during relocation must coincide with one of these 3-byte segments. For absolute
loader, there are no relocation bits column 10-69 contains object code. The object program
with relocation by bit mask is as shown below. Observe FFC - means all ten words are to be
modified and, E00 - means first three records are to be modified.

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Program linking
The Goal of program linking is to resolve the problems with external references
(EXTREF) and external definitions (EXTDEF) from different control sections.

EXTDEF (external definition)

The EXTDEF statement in a control section names symbols, called external symbols, that are
defined in this (present) control section and may be used by other sections.

ex: EXTDEF BUFFER, BUFFEND, LENGTH

EXTDEF LISTA, ENDA

EXTREF (external reference)

The EXTREF statement names symbols used in this (present) control section and are defined
elsewhere.

ex: EXTREF RDREC, WRREC

EXTREF LISTB, ENDB, LISTC, ENDC

How to implement EXTDEF and EXTREF

The assembler must include information in the object program that will cause the
loader to insert proper values where they are required – in the form of Define record (D) and,
Refer record(R).

Define record cks

The format of the Define record (D) along with examples is as shown here.

Col. 1 D
Col. 2-7 Name of external symbol defined in this control section
Col. 8-13 Relative address within this control section (hexadecimal)
Col.14-73 Repeat information in Col. 2-13 for other external symbols

Example records

D LISTA 000040 ENDA 000054

D LISTB 000060 ENDB 000070

Refer record

The format of the Refer record (R) along with examples is as shown here.

Col. 1 R
Col. 2-7 Name of external symbol referred to in this control section
Col. 8-73 Name of other external reference symbols

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Example records
R LISTB ENDB LISTC ENDC
R LISTA ENDA LISTC ENDC
R LISTA ENDA LISTB ENDB

Here are the three programs named as PROGA, PROGB and PROGC, which are
separately assembled and each of which consists of a single control section. LISTA, ENDA in
PROGA, LISTB, ENDB in PROGB and LISTC, ENDC in PROGC are external definitions in
each of the control sections. Similarly LISTB, ENDB, LISTC, ENDC in PROGA, LISTA,
ENDA, LISTC, ENDC in PROGB, and LISTA, ENDA, LISTB, ENDB in PROGC, are
external references. These sample programs given here are used to illustrate linking and
relocation. The following figures give the sample programs and their corresponding object
programs. Observe the object programs, which contain D and R records along with other
records.

Program for Linking and Relocation

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Object programs of Figure 3.8

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Programs after linking and loading

Relocation and linking operations performed on REF4

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The initial value from the Text record

T0000540F000014FFFFF600003F000014FFFFC0 is 000014. To this is added the address
assigned to LISTC, which is 4112 (the beginning address of PROGC plus 30). The result is 004126.
That is REF4 in PROGA is ENDA-LISTA+LISTC=4054-4040+4112=4126.

Similarly the load address for symbols LISTA: PROGA+0040=4040, LISTB:

PROGB+0060=40C3 and LISTC: PROGC+0030=4112

Keeping these details work through the details of other references and values of these
references are the same in each of the three programs.
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Algorithm and data structure for a linking loader

The algorithm for a linking loader is considerably more complicated than the absolute loader
program, which is already given. The concept given in the program linking section is used for
developing the algorithm for linking loader. The modification records are used for relocation
so that the linking and relocation functions are performed using the same mechanism.

Considers the following conditions:

1. Most instructions use relative addressing; no relocation is necessary
2. Modification records are used in this type of machine
3. A linking loader usually makes two passes over its input:
4. Because some external symbols are processed before read

Linking Loader uses two-passes logic. ESTAB (external symbol table) is the main data
structure for a linking loader.

Two passes linking loader

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ESTAB - ESTAB for the example (refer three programs PROGA PROGB and PROGC) given
is as shown below. The ESTAB has four entries in it; they are name of the control section, the
symbol appearing in the control section, its address and length of the control section

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Linking loader -- Program Logic for Pass 1

1. Assign address to all external symbols
2. Only processes Header Record and Define Record
3. Builds an external symbol table (ESTAB)
its name, its address, in which control section the symbol is defined
4. Program Load Address (PROGADDR)
The beginning address in memory where the linked program is to be loaded
Its value is supplied to the loader by the OS.
CSADDR contains the starting address assigned to the control section currently being scanned
by the loader. This value is added to all relative addresses within the control section to convert
them to actual addresses.

The algorithm for Pass 1 of Linking Loader is given below.

Linking loader -- Pass 1 algorithm

Begin (Only processes Header Record and Define Record)

get PROGADDR from operating system
set CSADDR to PROGADDR {for first control section}
while not end of input do
begin

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read next input record {Header record for control section}
set CSLTH to control section length
search ESTAB for control section name
if found then
set error flag {duplicate external symbol}
else
enter control section name into ESTAB with value CSADDR
while record type != ‘E’ do
begin
read next input record
if record type = ‘D’ then
for each symbol in the record do
begin
search ESTAB for symbol name
if found then
set error flag (duplicate external symbol)
else
enter symbol into ESTAB with value
(CSADR + indicated address)
end {for}
end {while != ‘E’}
add CSLTH to CSADDR {starting address for next control section}
end {while not EOF}
end {Pass 1}

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Linking loader -- Pass 2

1. Perform the actual loading, relocation, and linking
2. Only processes Text Record and Modification Record
3. Get address of external symbol from ESTAB
4. When read T record
Moves object code to the specified address
5. When read M record
(+/-) EXTREF in M records are handled
6. Last step: transfer control to the address in E
7. If more than one transfer address: use the last one
8. If no transfer: transfer control to the first instruction (PROGADDR)

Linking loader -- Pass 2 algorithm

begin
set CSADDR to PROGADDR
set EXECADDR to PROGADDR
while not end of input do
begin
read next input record {Header record for control section}
set CSLTH to control section length

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while record type != ‘E’ do
begin
if record type = ‘T’ then
begin
{if object code is in character form, convert into internal representation}
Move object code from record to location (CSADR + specified address)
end {if ‘T’}
else if record type = ‘M’ do
begin
search ESTAB for modifying symbol name
if found then
add or subtract symbol value at location
(CSADR + specified address)
else set error flag (undefined external symbol)
end {if ‘M’}
end {if ‘E’}
if an address is specified {in end record} then
set EXECADDR to { CSADDR + specified address}
add CSLTH to CSADDR
end {while not EOF}
jump to location given by EXECADDR {to start the execution of loaded program}
end {Pass 2}

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Program Logic for Pass 2

Pass 2 of linking loader perform the actual loading, relocation, and linking. It uses
modification record and lookup the symbol in ESTAB to obtain its address. Finally it uses
end record of a main program to obtain transfer address, which is a starting address needed
for the execution of the program. The pass 2 process Text record and Modification record of
the object programs. The algorithm for Pass 2 of Linking Loader is given below.

Improve Efficiency, How?

The question here is can we improve the efficiency of the linking loader. Also observe
that, even though we have defined Refer record (R), we haven’t made use of it. The efficiency
can be improved by the use of local searching instead of multiple searches of ESTAB for the
same symbol. For implementing this we assign a reference number to each external symbol in
the Refer record. Then this reference number is used in Modification records instead of
external symbols. 01 is assigned to control section name, and other numbers for external
reference symbols.

The object programs for PROGA, PROGB and PROGC are shown below, with above
modification to Refer record ( Observe R records).

We can make the linking loader algorithm more efficient by

1. Assigning a reference number to each external symbol referred to in a control section

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01: control section name
02~: external reference symbols
2. Using this reference number (instead of the symbol name) in Modification records
3. Avoiding multiple searches of ESTAB for the same symbol during the loading of a control section.
4. Search of ESTAB for each external symbol can be performed once and the result is stored in a
Table indexed by the reference number.
5. The values for code modification can then be obtained by simply indexing into the table.

Examples of Using Reference Numbers -- Figure 3.12, pp. 145

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Examples of Using Reference Numbers

Machine-independent Loader Features

Here we discuss some loader features that are not directly related to machine

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architecture and design. Automatic Library Search and Loader Options are such Machine-
independent Loader Features.
Automatic Library Search
• Many linking loaders can automatically incorporate routines from a subprogram library
into the program being loaded. (E.g., the standard C library)
• The subroutines called by the program are automatically fetched from the library, linked
with the main program, and loaded.
• The programmer does not need to take any action beyond mentioning the subroutine names
as external references in the source program
• Linking loader that support automatic library search must keep track of external symbols
that are referred to, but not defined, in the primary input to the loader.
• At the end of pass 1, the symbols in ESTAB that remain undefined represent unresolved
external references.
• The loader searches the library for routines that contain the definitions of these symbols,
and processes the subroutines found by this search process exactly as if they had been part
of the primary input stream.
• The subroutines fetched from a library in this way may themselves contain external
references. It is necessary to repeat the library search process until all references are
resolved.
• If unresolved references remain after the library search is completed, they are treated as
errors.
• If a symbol (or a subroutine name) is defined both in the source program and in the library,
the one in the source program is used first.
• A programmer can make his own library easily on UNIX by using the “ar” command.

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Loader Options
Loader options allow the user to specify options that modify the standard processing. The
options may be specified in three different ways.
They are,
1. Specified using a command language,
2. Specified as a part of job control language that is processed by the operating system, and
3. Can be specified using loader control statements in the source program.

• For example:
– INCLUDE program-name (library name)
• Direct the loader to read the designated object program from a library
– DELETE csect-name
• Instruct the loader to delete the named control sections from the set of
programs being loaded
– CHANGE name1, name2
• Cause the external symbol name1 to be changed to name2 wherever it
appears in the program
• LIBRARY MYLIB – search MYLIB library before standard libraries.
• NOCALL STDDEV, PLOT, CORREL – no loading and linking of unneeded routines

Here is one more example giving, how commands can be specified as a part of object
file, and the respective changes are carried out by the loader.
LIBRARY UTLIB
INCLUDE READ (UTLIB)
INCLUDE WRITE (UTLIB)
DELETE RDREC, WRREC
CHANGE RDREC, READ
CHANGE WRREC, WRITE
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NOCALL SQRT, PLOT
The commands are, use UTLIB ( say utility library), include READ and WRITE
control sections from the library, delete the control sections RDREC and WRREC from the
load, the change command causes all external references to the symbol RDREC to be changed
to the symbol READ, similarly references to WRREC is changed to WRITE, finally, no call to
the functions SQRT, PLOT, if they are used in the program.

Loader Options Application

– In the COPY program, we write two subroutines RDREC and WRREC to
perform read records and write records.
– Suppose that the computer system provides READ and WRITE subroutines
which have similar but advanced functions.
– Without modifying the source program and reassembling it, we can use the
following loader options to make the COPY object program use READ rather
than RDREC and WRITE rather than WRREC.
INCLUDE READ (Util)
INCLUDE WRITE (Util)
DELETE RDREC, WRREC
CHANGE RDREC, READ
CHANGE WRREC, WRITE

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Loader Design Options

There are some common alternatives for organizing the loading functions, including relocation
and linking. Linking Loaders – Perform all linking and relocation at load time. The Other
Alternatives are Linkage editors, which perform linking prior to load time and, Dynamic
linking, in which linking function is performed at execution time

Linkage Editor
• The difference between a linkage editor and a linking loader:
– A linking loader performs all linking and relocation operations, including
automatic library search, and loads the linked program into memory for
execution.
- A linkage editor produces a linked version of the program, which is normally written to
a file for later execution.
• When the user is ready to run the linked program, a simple relocating loader can be used to
load the program into memory.
• The only object code modification necessary is the addition of an actual address to relative
values within the program.
• The linkage editor performs relocation of all control sections relative to the start of the
linked program
• All items that need to be modified at load time have values that are relative to the start of
the linked program.
•

•
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This means that the loading can be accomplished in one pass with no external symbol table
required.
Thus, if a program is to be executed many times without being reassembled, the use of a
linkage editor can substantially
reduce the overhead required.
– Resolution of external references and library searching are only performed
once.

Linking loader Linkage editor

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Dynamic Linking
• Linkage editors perform linking before the program is loaded for execution.
• Linking loaders perform these same operations at load time.
• Dynamic linking postpones the linking function until execution time.
– A subroutine is loaded and linked to the test of the program when it is first
called.

Dynamic Linking Application

• Dynamic linking is often used to allow several executing programs to share one copy of
a subroutine or library.
• For example, a single copy of the standard C library can be loaded into memory.
• All C programs currently in execution can be linked to this one copy, instead of linking
a separate copy into each object program.
• In an object-oriented system, dynamic linking is often used for references to software

•
object.
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This allows the implementation of the object and its method to be determined at the
time the program is run. (e.g., C++)
• The implementation can be changed at any time, without affecting the program that
makes use of the object.
• The subroutines that diagnose errors may never need to be called at all.
• However, without using dynamic linking, these subroutines must be loaded and linked
every time the program is run.
• Using dynamic linking can save both space for storing the object program on disk and
in memory, and time for loading the bigger object program.

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Dynamic Linking Implementation

• A subroutine that is to be dynamically loaded must be called via an operating system
service request.
– This method can also be thought of as a request to a part of the loader that is
kept in memory during execution of the program
• Instead of executing a JSUB instruction to an external symbol, the program makes a
load-and-call service request to the OS.
• The parameter of this request is the symbolic name of the routine to be called..
• The OS examines its internal tables to determine whether the subroutine is already
loaded.
• If needed, the subroutine is loaded from the library.
• Then control is passed from the OS to the subroutine being called.
• When the called subroutine completes its processing, it returns to its caller (operating
system).
• The OS then returns control to the program that issues the request.
• After the subroutine is completed, the memory that was allocated to it may be released.
• However, often this is not done immediately. If the subroutine is retained in memory, it
can be used by later calls to the same subroutine without loading the same subroutine
multiple times.

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• Control can simply pass from the dynamic loader to the called routine directly.

(a) Issue a load-and-call service request (b) Load the called subroutine into memory
(c) Control is passed to the loaded subroutine. (d) Control is returned to the loader and later
returned to the user program
(e) The called subroutine this time is already loaded.
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Bootstrap Loaders

If the question, how is the loader itself loaded into the memory? is asked, then the
answer is, when computer is started – with no program in memory, a program present in ROM
( absolute address) can be made executed – may be OS itself or A Bootstrap loader, which in
turn loads OS and prepares it for execution. The first record (or records) is generally referred to
as a bootstrap loader – makes the OS to be loaded. Such a loader is added to the beginning of
all object programs that are to be loaded into an empty and idle system.

Implementation Examples

This section contains brief description of loaders and linkers for actual computers.
They are, MS-DOS Linker - Pentium architecture, SunOS Linkers - SPARC architecture, and,
Cray MPP Linkers – T3E architecture.

MS-DOS Linker

This explains some of the features of Microsoft MS-DOS linker, which is a linker for
Pentium and other x86 systems. Most MS-DOS compilers and assemblers (MASM) produce
object modules, and they

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are stored in .OBJ files. MS-DOS LINK is a linkage editor that combines one or more object
modules to produce a complete executable program - .EXE file; this file is later executed for
results.
The following table illustrates the typical MS-DOS object module

Record Types Description

THEADR Translator Header

TYPDEF, PUBDEF, EXTDEF External symbols and references
LNAMES, SEGDEF, GRPDEF Segment definition and grouping
LEDATA, LIDATA Translated instructions and data
FIXUPP Relocation and linking information
MODEND End of object module

THEADR specifies the name of the object module. MODEND specifies the end of the
module. PUBDEF contains list of the external symbols (called public names). EXTDEF
contains list of external symbols referred in this module, but defined elsewhere. TYPDEF the
data types are defined here. SEGDEF describes segments in the object module (includes name,
length, and alignment). GRPDEF includes how segments are combined into groups. LNAMES
contains all segment and class names. LEDATA contains translated instructions and data.
LIDATA has above in repeating pattern. Finally, FIXUPP is used to resolve external
references.

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Chapter 4 LINKERS & LOADERS

SunOS Linkers

SunOS Linkers are developed for SPARC systems. SunOS provides two different
linkers – link-editor and run-time linker.

Link-editor is invoked in the process of assembling or compiling a program – produces a single

output module – one of the following types

1. A relocatable object module – suitable for further link-editing

2. A static executable – with all symbolic references bound and ready to run

3. A dynamic executable – in which some symbolic references may need to be bound at

run time

4. A shared object – which provides services that can be, bound at run time to one ore
more dynamic executables

An object module contains one or more sections – representing instructions and data
area from the source program.
Each section has a set of attributes, such as ‘executable’ and ‘writeable’. The object module

cks
also includes a list of relocation and linking information, external symbol table.

Run-time linker uses dynamic linking approach. Run-time linker binds dynamic
executables and shared objects at execution time. Performs relocation and linking operations to
prepare the program for execution.

Cray MPP Linker

Cray MPP (massively parallel processing) Linker is developed for Cray T3E systems. A T3E
system contains large number of parallel processing elements (PEs).
The below figure shows how the data (i.e. 256 dimensional array) is divided into 16 PE’s

PE0 PE1 PE15

A [1] A [17] A [241]
A [2] A [18]
A [3] A [19] A [242]
. . A [243]
. . .
. . .
. .

A [16] A [32] A [256]

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Chapter 4 LINKERS & LOADERS

Each PE has local memory and has access to remote memory (memory of other PEs). The
processing is divided among PEs - contains shared data and private data. The loaded program
gets copy of the executable code, its private data and its portion of the shared data. The below
figure shows this arrangement.

PE0 PE1 PEn

CODE CODE CODE

PRIVATE PRIVATE PRIVATE
DATA DATA DATA
SHARED SHARED SHARED
DATA DATA DATA

The MPP linker organizes blocks containing executable code, private data and shared data. The
linker then writes an executable file that contains the relocated and linked blocks. The
executable file also specifies the number of PEs required and other control information. The
linker can create an executable file that is targeted for a fixed number of PEs, or one that
allows the partition size to be chosen at run time. Latter type is called plastic executable.

cks

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 Chapter 4 LINKERS & LOADERS

QUESTIONS

Sl.No UNIT – 4 LOADERS AND LINKERS Marks

1. What is a loader? What are its functions? Explain in brief. (JAN 2005,Dec 2011) 10

2. What are the basic functions of a loader? Develop an algorithm for a bootstrap 10
loader. (FEB 2005. JUNE 2008 JAN 2009 JAN 2010)
3. How relocation is done using bit masking and modification records? (JAN 2005) 10

4. With figure explain how loading & calling of a subroutine can be done using 10
dynamic linking.(JUNE 2008 JAN 2009)
5. What is relocating loader? Explain with example two methods of relocating loader. 10
(JUNE 2008 JAN 2009, Dec2011)

6. Write an algorithm for pass 2 of a linking loader.(JAN 2007) 10

7. What are the basic functions of a loader? Develop an algorithm for a bootstrap 10
loader.(JAN 2010)
8. Explain the procedure of program linking when the subprograms use external 12
references. (JUNE 2010)
9. Write short notes on
I.
II.
III.
cks
Linkage loader (JUNE 2010)
Automatic library search
MS-DOS - Linker
04
08
05
IV. Linkage editor. 05
10. Enlist any four loader options commands. (JUNE 2010) 04

11. Distinguish between linking loader and linkage editor. (JAN 2009) 04

Explain the working of linkage editor and linking loader (Dec2011)

08
12. With a diagram, explain how object can be processed using linkage editor. (JAN 2010) 10

C.K. SRINIVAS Asst.Prof. DEPT OF CSE BITM, BELLARY 28