[email protected] Thermodynamic Power Mech. 2nd MSc. Hussian A. Abdul Kareem Chapter One 1.1 Dryness Fraction Reaction Measurement The dryness fraction is the primary parameter required to know the state of the substance in the liquid- vapor mixture region (wet region). For any pressure, the dryness fraction varies from 0 to 1 in the wet region, i.e., from saturated liquid to saturated vapor. The dryness fraction, the ratio of the vapor and total mass of the substance can be conveniently estimated if these two mass values are known. It may also be termed as the 'quality' of Steam or 'dryness factor.
mass of vapor Dryness fraction = (𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐯𝐚𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐫 + 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝)
Here, we shall be looking into standard methods available for dryness fraction measurement. These are: (i) Throttling calorimeter (ii) Separating calorimeter (iii) Separating and throttling calorimeter (iv) Electrical calorimeter
(i) Throttling calorimeter: The throttling action is utilized to calculate the dryness fraction. If a mixture is throttled, then upon throttling, its enthalpy remains constant before and after throttling. Let us look at the states of substance on the h–s diagram, including before and after throttling.
Figure 1 Throttling process on h–s diagram
Initially at state '1', the wet mixture attains a new state ‘2’ upon being throttled to pressure p2. This state at the end of throttling lies in the superheated region such that h 1 = h2 Say, dryness fraction at state 1 is x, then enthalpy at this point can be given as h1 = hf at p1 + x × hfg at p1 The above expression hf at p 1 and hfg p at 1 can be seen from a steam table if the pressure of wet Steam is known. Also, the enthalpy at state 2 (end of throttling) can be seen from a superheated steam table if pressure and temperature at '2' are known. Substituting in, h1 = h2
1-6 Thermodynamic Power Mech. nd 2 MSc. Hussian A. Abdul Kareem h f at p1 + x × hfg at p1 = h2 Here h 2, hf at p1, hfg at p1 are all known as explained above. ℎ2 − ℎ𝑓 𝑥= ℎ𝑓𝑔 Now, the arrangements are to be made. As shown in Figure (2), Steam is drawn from the main through a sampling tube and to the throttle orifice of the calorimeter. After throttling, the Steam passes into the throttle chamber of the calorimeter, where its pressure can be determined using a water manometer, and a thermometer can determine its temperature. The Steam then passes away to exhaust. The pressure after throttling differs significantly from atmospheric pressure, so the saturation temperature will be about 100oC. h1: enthalpy before throttling. h2: enthalpy after throttling.
Thermometer Temperature
Pressure Gage Throttling Valve
Throttling Chamber
Sample Tube Pressure Gage
Throttled steam exhaust
Steam main Figure 2 Throttling Calorimeter System.
(ii) Separating calorimeter: In this type of calorimeter, the known mass of the wet mixture is collected through a sampling bulb and sent to a separating chamber. The separating chamber has a series of obstacles and a zig-zag path inside it so that when the mixture passes through them, the liquid particles separate due to sudden changes in the direction of flow and gravity action. Thus, The liquid is separated, collected in a collection tank, and measured. Thus, by knowing the two mass values, the dryness fraction can be estimated as; {(𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)– (m𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑)} Dryness fraction = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
The layout of the separating calorimeter is given in Fig. 3
2-6 Thermodynamic Power Mech. 2nd MSc. Hussian A. Abdul Kareem
Figure 3 Separating calorimeter
(iii) Separating and throttling calorimeter: Sometimes, when the wet mixture is extremely wet, then the throttling state of Steam cannot become superheated. In such situations, the mixture is first passed through a separating calorimeter to reduce liquid fraction, and subsequently, this less wet mixture is passed through the throttling calorimeter. The arrangement for such calorimeters is shown below. Here, excessively wet Steam is first sent to a separating calorimeter, where its wetness is reduced by separating some liquid fraction, say mass mf1. Less wet Steam is sent to the throttling calorimeter, and its dryness fraction is estimated as x2. Then, in the end, this throttled Steam (of superheated type) is made to pass through the condenser. Condensate mass is measured from that collected in a condensate tank, say m2. Thus m2 is the total mass of Steam sent from the separating calorimeter to the throttling calorimeter. As the mass of liquid collected in the collection tank of the separating calorimeter is mf1, the total mass of wet Steam under examination is (mf1 + m2). The dryness fraction at sections 1–1 shall be; 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑡 1−1 x1= 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
3-6 Thermodynamic Power Mech. 2nd MSc. Hussian A. Abdul Kareem Fig. 6.18 Separating and throttling calorimeter Mass of vapour at 1–1 shall be similar to mass of vapour entering at 2–2. Mass of vapour at 2–2 = x2 × m2 𝑚2 ∗𝑥2 Hence, dryness fraction at 1–1, x1 = 𝑚𝑓 +𝑚2
Separating and throttling processes are also shown on the h–s diagram in Fig. 6.19.
Fig. 6.19 Separating and throttling together on h–s diagram
(iv) Electrical Calorimeter: The principle employed in an electrical calorimeter is similar to that of a throttling calorimeter. Here, the wet mixture is brought to the superheated state by heating, not throttling. One can find out the initial enthalpy for the amount of heat added and the final enthalpy for superheated Steam being known. For mass m of a mixture, heat Qadd added by a heater, and the enthalpies before and after heating being h 1, h2, steady flow energy equation may be written as; mh1 + Qadd = mh2.
Figure 4 Electrical calorimeter
4-6 Thermodynamic Power Mech. 2nd MSc. Hussian A. Abdul Kareem
Example Q1/ A sample of Steam at 1.4MPa is taken from a boiler and passed through a throttling calorimeter. After throttling to 0.11 MPa its temperature is 110oC. Find the dryness fraction of the Steam leaving boiler.
Q2/ A throttling calorimeter is used to measure the dryness fraction of the Steam in the steam main which has Steam flowing at a pressure of 8 bar. The Steam after passing through the calorimeter is at 1 bar pressure and 115°C.
Q3/ Discuss under what circumstances, a throttling calorimeter is capable of being used as a device for measuring the steam dryness. Find the maximum degree of wetness that can be determined by a throttling calorimeter if the inlet pressure of Steam to it is 10.5 bar and exit pressure is 1.2 bar.
Q4/ In a separating and throttling calorimeter the total quantity of Steam passed was 40 kg and 2.2 kg of water was collected from separator. Steam pressure before throttling was 1.47 MPa and temperature and pressure after throttling are 120°C and 107.88 kPa. Determine the dryness fraction of Steam before entering to calorimeter. Specific heat of superheated Steam may be considered as 2.09 kJ/kg.K.
Q5 / The following observations were taken with a separating and a throttling
calorimeter arranged in series : Water separated = 2 kg, Steam discharged from the
5-6 Thermodynamic Power Mech. 2nd MSc. Hussian A. Abdul Kareem throttling calorimeter = 20.5 kg, temperature of Steam after throttling = 110°C, initial pressure = 12, final pressure = 1bar
Q6 / Steam at 1 MPa with a flow rate of 4 kg/min passes through a separator, which extracted moisture ar a rate of 0.22 kg/min. The Steam is then throttled to 0.32 MPa, and passes through a coil which extracted 650 kJ/min with out loss of a pressure. The Steam leaves the coil with a dryness fraction of 0.88. Determine the steam condition a- after throttling b- before separator.
Q7 / The following, data were obtained with a separating and throttling calorimeter: Pressure in the pipe line 1.5 MPa Condition after throttling 0.1 MPa and 110°C Moisture collected in separating Calorimeter/5 min 0.15 lit at 70°C Steam condensed after throttling 3.24 kg Find the quality of Steam in the pipe.
Q8/ Combined separating and throttling calorimeter is used to determine quality of
Steam. Following observations are made; Steam inlet pressure = 1.4 MPa Pressure after throttling = 0.1 MPa Temperature after throttling = 120°C Water collected in separator = 0.45 kg Steam condensed after throttling = 6.75 kg Take specific heat of superheated steam = 2.1 kJ/kg.K Also find the limiting quality of Steam to be measured by above throttling calorimeter alone assuming that separating calorimeter is not there.
