The Nervous System

Chapter 11
 Introduction
• Back in Biology 20, we discussed how the human body always tries to
reach a state of stability. Known as homeostasis, it’s controlled by two
body systems: the nervous and endocrine systems.

• The nervous system sends and receives electrical impulses that

regulate body structures and processes to achieve this despite changes
in the internal and external environment.

•Examples that were talked about in Bio 20 include…

•Body temperature

•Acid-base balance

•Fluid volume
 Control mechanisms within an organism

Cells within the body are controlled by two

mechanisms:
1. The nervous system
2. Hormones (Endocrine System)
 Nervous system vs. Hormones
• In general the nervous system is responsible for coordinating
rapid, precise responses and is especially important in
mediating interactions with the external environment
• the endocrine system primarily controls activities that require
duration rather than speed including:
– Regulating organic metabolism and H2O and electrolyte
balance
– Inducing adaptive changes to help the body cope with stress
– Controlling reproduction
– Regulating red blood cell production
– Along with the autonomic nervous system, controlling and
integrating both circulation and digestion of food
 Nervous system vs. Hormones
Hormones and the nervous system have two major
differences.
1.Speed of action
• nervous system 100 m/s
• hormones: seconds, minutes, longer
2.Size of effect
• nerve: single muscle, or single cell
• hormones: all cells they reach with the correct
receptor
 Homeostasis
• Relatively stable chemical and physical conditions in
the internal fluid environment are maintained by the
highly coordinated, regulated actions of the body’s
systems
• Body conditions must be maintained in a stable
steady state (despite changes in internal or external
environment).
(i.e. Internal environment kept in a stable/constant condition)
• Examples:
– Body temperature: regulated close to 37ºC
– Blood pH: kept at 7.4
– Arterial blood pressure: maintained around 120/80 mm Hg
for men 110/70 mm Hg for women
• The nervous system uses receptors to collect information
about the internal/external environment.

• Photoreceptors are sensitive to light (ie. sense of vision).

• Chemoreceptors are sensitive to chemicals (ie. sense of

taste and smell).

• Mechanoreceptors are sensitive to vibrations (ie. sense of

sound, balance, body position, touch, pressure & pain).

• Thermoreceptors are sensitive to temperature (ie. sense of

hot and cold).

• It’s the nervous system that receives and processes the info
provided by these receptors and then sends the commands
necessary to adjust the body as a whole.
 Divisions of the Nervous System
• The human nervous is
arguably the most
complex system in our
body and is divided
into two main sections.

• Central Nervous
System (CNS) -
Consists of your brain
and spinal cord. It
integrates and
processes
electrochemical info
sent by nerves.

• Now just what can our

body do without a brain?
• Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS) - Includes nerves that
carry sensory messages to and
from the CNS. It is further
divided into two sections.

• Somatic Nervous System

(SNS) - This is the
voluntary portion of the
PNS, which controls
skeletal muscles.

• Autonomic Nervous
System (ANS) - Provides
involuntary control of
glandular secretions and
smooth/cardiac muscle.
The sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions
of this system often work in
opposition to each other to
regulate involuntary
processes of the body (ie.
vasoconstriction vs
vasodilation in blood
vessels to maintain body
temperature).
 Cells of the Nervous System
• Neurons - Functional units of the
nervous system. They respond to
physical/chemical stimuli, conduct
electrochemical signals and release
chemicals that regulate various body
processes. Neurons are grouped into
bundles of tissues known as nerves.
These bundles are similar to the way
muscle are arranged (see next slide).

• Glial Cells - Outnumber neurons 10 to

1 and function to support them. They
provide nourishment & repairs, remove
wastes and defend against infection.
 Nerve

Muscle
 Types of Neurons
• Sensory (Afferent) Neurons - Part of the PNS, they
transmit impulses from sensory receptors in the body to
the CNS. Most are unipolar (ie. they have only a single
projection extending from their cell body).
• Motor (Efferent) Neurons - Part of the PNS, they
transmit information from the CNS to muscles, glands
and other organs (ie. effectors). Most are multipolar (ie.
they have multiple projections extending from their cell
body - 99% of neurons in your body are multipolar).
• Interneurons (Association Neurons) - These
are found entirely within the CNS and act as
a link between the sensory and motor
neurons. Most are multipolar.
 Structure of a Neuron
• Dendrites -
Receive nerve
impulses from
other neurons and
relay it to the cell
body.

• Cell Body (Soma) -

Contains major cell
organelles,
cytoplasm and
nucleus. If the
input received
from the dendrites
is large enough, it
will relay it to the
axon.
• Axon - Conducts nerve impulses
away from the cell body.

• The axons of some neurons are

enclosed in a fatty, insulating protein
layer called the myelin sheath, which
is formed by Schwann cells (a type of
glial cell).

• Gaps between the myelin sheath

are known as nodes of Ranvier.

• Axons with this sheath are called

myelinated while axons without it
are called unmyelinated.

• Axon/Synaptic Terminal - This is the end

of the neuron and site of the release of
neurotransmitters in space between it and
the dendrites of the next neuron (known
as the synaptic cleft).
 Schwann cells
• Located in the PNS
– Each schwann cell provides myelin for one neuron
– A single axon will have many schwann cells on the axon
• Entire schwann cell surrounds axon
• Functions:
– Digest dead and dying neurons
– Arrange as cylinders for paths of growth for new cells
– Stumps of severed axons may regenerate if they find a
cylinder; otherwise they will die
 Reflex Arc
• When a change in the environment is detected by one of the
various sensory receptors in your body (thermoreceptors,
mechanoreceptors, etc.), we call it a stimulus. An example
could someone pinching your arm.

•If the body reacts to this stimulus, we call that a response.

• If the response is rapid and unconscious, it is known as a

reflex. An example of this would be jerking your hand
away from a hot object you just touched.

• These reflexes are facilitated by a simple connection of very

few neurons called reflex arcs. This generates very rapid
signal transmission (ie. reflexes often occur in about 50 ms).
•To remember how a reflex arc works remember ASIME:

• A sensory receptor/affector (such as the ones in your

fingertips) receives a stimulus.

• Travelling through the peripheral nervous system

(PNS), sensory (afferent) neurons relay information
from the receptor(s) to the central nervous system
(CNS).

• Once in the CNS, interneurons (association neurons)

processes and integrates the incoming sensory
information and relays the outgoing commands to the
motor neurons in the PNS.

• The motor (efferent) neurons then relay the

information from the CNS to a muscle/effector, which
then completes the reflex response to the initial stimulus.
 Nerve Impulse
• So how do these sensory, inter and motor neurons
generate electrical impulses and how do these signals
get transmitted along their length?

• Neurons create an electrical difference similar to a

battery in the form of a membrane potential. This is a
charge separation across a membrane to create a form of
potential energy can be used to form an impulse later.

• In a resting neuron, the intracellular fluid (ICF) has a

negative charge relative to the extracellular fluid (ECF)
surrounding it. This difference is known as the resting
membrane potential and is roughly -70 mV.
• This potential achieved by a high concentration of positive
ions outside the neuron and a lower concentration of them
inside. The neuron also contains
many negative substances like (PO4)3- ions found in DNA,
proteins and Cl- ions all of which cannot leave the cell.

•A neuron that exhibits this resting potential is said to be

polarized.

• The most important

contributor to
polarization of a
neuron are the
sodium-potassium
exchange pumps
found in its cell
membrane.
• These pumps use ATP energy to transport three Na+ ions
out of the neuron for every two K+ ions brought in.

• K+ ions can diffuse out of the neuron more easily than Na+
ions can diffuse into it (in both cases through channel
proteins). As a result, an excess positive charge forms in the
ECF.
• After a neuron has established a resting potential, it has the
capacity to undergo depolarization when it receives a
stimulus.

• During this process, the charge in the neuron rapidly shifts

from negative to positive.

• This change is called an action potential and is an “all-or-

nothing” event.

• A depolarization of between -70 mV and -55 mV has no effect,

while any change higher than -55 mV will result in the
propagation of the signal. Due to this, the potential difference
of -55 mV is known as the threshold potential.

• It’s worth noting that as a stimulus becomes stronger, the

frequency of action potentials increases (the brain reads this as
pain) and/or more neurons “fire” simultaneously. IT WILL
NOT GENERATE A LARGER ACTION POTENTIAL.
• Depolarization is achieved when sodium channels open
along the cell membrane and allow Na+ ions to travel
from the outside to the inside of the axon along their
concentration gradient. This causes a change in the
membrane potential to +35 mV.

• As a result of the change in membrane potential, the

sodium channels close and potassium gates open. K+
ions travel along their concentration gradient to the
outside of the neuron. This is called repolarization. The
membrane potential overshoots to -90 mV, causing the
membrane to become briefly hyperpolarized.

• At this point, the potassium channels close. The sodium-

potassium pumps quickly bring the membrane back to its
resting potential of -70 mV. This brief period is called the
refractory period.
• The action potential lasts
only a few milliseconds.

• Once an action potential

occurs at one spot, it excites
the adjacent portion of the
membrane into an action
potential.

• Sections of the neuron

undergoing refractory
period cannot create a new
action potential, therefore a
wave of potential sweeps all the
way down the neuron in only
one direction.
• In myelinated neurons, action potentials occur only at node
of Ranvier because the myelin sheath insulates the axonal
membrane that it encircles.

• Because action potentials are forced to jump from one node

to the next, the conduction of impulse is called saltatory
conduction.

• This causes myelinated axons to send potentials at much faster

speeds than in unmyelinated axons (ie. 400 km/h as opposed to 1.8
km/h.
 Saltatory Conduction
• Results in a very rapid transmission of the nerve
impulse down the axon
– The wave of depolarization physically skips the
sections of the neuron covered in myelin (i.e. the
impulse “jumps” from node to node)
• much faster than in unmyelinated neurons
• White matter refers to myelinated neurons
• Gray matter refers to unmyelinated neurons
• One disorder that greatly affects the ability of neutrons to
carry electrochemical signals is multiple sclerosis.

• It causes the breakdown of the myelin sheath surrounding the

axons in the CNS.

•It is thought that MS is an autoimmune diseases.

• Symptoms include blurred vision, loss of balance, muscle

weakness, fatigue and slurred speech.

• MS sufferers will experience periods of remission and

progression of the condition.

• It usually strikes between the ages of 20 to 40 and affects more

women than man and there is no cure. Over 20 000 people a
year die from the condition.
 Synapse
A neuronal axon may terminate on:
– A muscle, a gland, or another neuron.
•Synapse is the junction between a neuron and another
cell
– Neuron-to-neuron synapse involves a junction between an
axon terminal of one neuron (the presynaptic neuron) and
the dendrites or cell body of a second neuron (the
postsynaptic neuron)
•Two types of synapses:
1. Electrical
2. Chemical
 Electrical Synapse
• Cell membranes of the presynaptic and
postsynaptic cells are connected
– Action potentials in the presynaptic cell can be
passed directly to the postsynaptic cell
– Facilitates rapid transmission of action potentials
(faster than chemical synapses)
Electrical Synapse
 Action at a Chemical Synapse
1. The action potential reaches a terminal button
causing the opening of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels
2. Ca2+ ions move down a concentration gradient and
move into the terminal button (from ECF)
3. Ca2+ then initiates the release of neurotransmitters
 secreted by exocytosis.
• Neurotransmitters are contained in synaptic vesicles
• Neurotransmitters are released from the pre-synaptic
neuron (before the synapse)
 Chemical Synapse (cont’d)
4. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse
– Bind to receptors on the post-synaptic neuron (after the
synapse)
5. The receptors signal a change in the membrane
potential in the post-synaptic neuron.
– The change may be:
• Excitatory (a positive voltage change; -70mV to -
50mV)
• Inhibitory (a negative voltage change; -70mV to -
90mV)
• Neurotransmitters must then be removed
 Removal of neurotransmitters
• Neurotransmitters must be removed or they
will continuously stimulate the post-synaptic
neuron
• Neurotransmitters can be removed by:
1. Diffusion away from synapse
2. Destruction by an enzyme (e.g. acetylcholine
destroyed by an enzyme: cholinesterase)
3. Re-absorption by the pre-synaptic membrane
(re-uptake)
• When an action potential arrives at the terminal button in
the axon terminal, calcium ions diffuse into the end of the
neuron.

• This causes synaptic vesicles, which produce and store

neurotransmitter chemicals, to fuse with the presynaptic
membrane.

• The fusion of the vesicles to the membrane is facilitated

by proteins known as SNAREs. These proteins are the
target of bacterial neurotoxins responsible for botulism
and tetanus.

• This causes the release neurotransmitter molecules into

the synaptic cleft.

• These neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft

from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron.
Once there, they bind with receptor proteins.
• Depending on whether the neurotransmitters released
have an excitatory (increasing the probability of
producing a membrane potential) or inhibitory
(decreasing the probability of producing a membrane
potential) effect on the postsynaptic membrane, one of
two things will occur.

• Excitatory Neurotransmitters: Ion channels on the

postsynaptic membrane will open causing sodium ions
to diffuse through them causing depolarization of the
membrane. This initiates an action potential that
begins moving down the postsynaptic neuron.

• Inhibitory Neurotransmitters: Ions channels will open

on the postsynaptic membrane causing potassium ions
to flow out and chloride ions to flow in. This will
result in a more negative membrane potential resulting
in hyperpolarization, effectively stopping the signal
from travelling further.
• Once neurotransmitter molecules are used,
they must first release from the receptors
on the postsynaptic membrane and then
are either:
• Taken back across the synaptic cleft
intact to the presynaptic neuron button
terminal by a process called reuptake.
• Or broken up by enzymes in the synaptic
cleft. The fragments then diffuse back
into the presynaptic terminal button
where they are recycled.
• Synapses between a motor neuron and a muscle cell, are known as
neuromuscular junctions.

• A neurotransmitter that crosses these junctions is acetylcholine (Ach).

• Acetylcholine excites the muscle cell membrane (ie.

sarcolemma), causing depolarization and contraction of the
muscle fibre.
• The enzyme acetylcholinesterase/
cholinesterase is released into the
neuromuscular junction by glial cells
to break down acetylcholine so it can
be “deactivated” to prevent
continuous stimulation.

•Here’s how it works…

• A nerve gas called sarin blocks the release
of cholinesterase. This allows
acetylcholine to build up to critical levels,
causing the heart and diaphragm to enter a
state of constant contraction or paralysis.
• Lethal injection involves a
cocktail of three drugs which
interfere with
neurotransmitters.

• Sodium thiopentol is an
anesthetic used to induce a rapid
medical coma. It’s also known as
sodium pentothal, which in
smaller doses is used as a truth
serum.

• Pancuronium bromide (pavulon)

blocks acetylcholine receptors in
skeletal muscles which stops
breathing.

• Potassium chloride hyper

polarizes the neurons of the
heart, causing cardiac
arrest.
• There are more than 50 neurotransmitters in the human body. The following are the
most common ones.

• Dopamine: Usually inhibitory, it affects brain synapses in the control of body

movements. When released by the brain reward system, it produces feelings of
pleasure (ie. when eating good food). Inadequate amounts are linked to an
increased risk of Parkinson’s disease.

• Serotonin: It’s involved in mood, appetite and sensory perception. In the

spinal cord, it inhibits pain pathways. Inadequate amounts are linked to
depression.

•Norepinephrine (Noadrenaline): Acts as a neurotransmitter and a hormone.

In the PNS, it’s part of the fight-or-flight response. In the brain, it’s usually
excitatory in regulating normal brain function. Overproduction can lead to high
blood pressure.

• Endorphins: These act as natural painkillers in brain synapses and also

affects emotional areas of the brain. Inadequate amounts are linked to an
increased risk of alcoholism.

• GABA (Gamma-AminoButyric Acid): The major inhibitory neurotransmitter

in the brain.

•Glutamate: The major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

• Most drugs (legal or illegal) have some affect on
neurons by either promoting or decreasing the
action of neurotransmitters.

• They do this by binding to the receptors on the

postsynaptic membrane and by doing so can alter
an individual’s mood or emotional state.

• For example, nicotine (derived from tobacco

plants) rapidly stimulates the reward centre of the
brain to release dopamine. It also stimulates areas
of the body by mimicking the actions of
acetylcholine, causing increased heart rate and
blood pressure.
 Summation
• A single neuron may have synapses with hundreds of other
neurons.
• The initiation of an action potential in a postsynaptic neuron
may require more than one signal from a pre-synaptic
neuron(s)
• This is called summation.
• Two types of summation:
1. Temporal summation - rapid, repetitive excitation from a
single persistent input.
2. Spatial summation - simultaneous activation of several
excitatory inputs.
Neuron Questions
• Use this package, your notes and
pages 368 to 382 in Inquiry into
Biology to answer questions 1-12
in your “Neurons” question
booklet.
Central Nervous System
• To protect itself, the spinal cord and brain are surrounded by bone (ie.
vertebrae and the skull) and are wrapped in meninges [three layers of
tough, elastic tissue called the dura mater (outermost), arachnoid (middle)
and pia mater (innermost)].

• The space between the meninges is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF),
which absorbs shock, nourishes and eliminates waste.
 Oligodendrocytes
• only located in the CNS
• Function:
– Produce the Myelin sheath
– One oligodendrocyte may provide myelin sheath
for many axons.
• In the CNS regenerating axons encounter scar
tissue produced by astrocytes and cannot
grow through
– this stops the neurons from regenerating
 Astrocytes
• Are large glial cells (support cells) found throughout
the CNS.
• Function:
– Hold neurons in place (the “glue” of the CNS)
– Important in the formation and function of synapses
– Influence blood flow in the brain
– Store glycogen
– Help establish the blood-brain barrier
• induce small blood vessels (capillaries) of the brain to
change to establish the blood-brain barrier
• The meninges also create a blood-brain barrier that protect cells
in the CNS from substances that could harm them.

• Unlike capillaries in the rest of the body that are relative leaky to
a variety of molecules, the capillaries in the brain are tightly
fused. Some substances like glucose & oxygen can get through
but many toxins and infectious agents are blocked from entry.

• Most drugs do not get into the brain. Only ones that are fat
soluble can penetrate this barrier.
 Blood-Brain Barrier
The blood-brain barrier is set up by closing the holes or
pores in the capillaries
– Nothing can pass through the modified capillaries by
passing between the cells
– blood-brain barrier is a highly selective barricade between
the blood and brain
– protects the brain and spinal cord from fluctuations in the
blood and body
– minimizes the possibility that potentially harmful blood-
borne substances might reach the central neural tissue and
cause damage
 Microglial Cells

Microglial cells are phagocytic glial cells located

in the brain and spinal cord.

– Microglia remove plaques, damaged

neurons, and infectious microbes.
•The CNS is comprised of two types of nervous tissue.

• Grey Matter: Contains neurons with unmyelinated

axons. It is found around the outside areas of the
brain and the core of the spinal cord.

• White Matter: Contains neurons with myelinated

axons. It forms the inner region of the brain and the
outer area of the spinal cord.
• The spinal cord is a
column of nerve
tissue that extends
from the brain
through a canal
within the vertebrae
(backbones).

• It serves as the
primary reflex centre,
coordinating rapidly
incoming and
outgoing neural • Sensory (afferent) neurons enter
information (ie. reflex through the dorsal root ganglion (ie. a
arcs). cluster of lots of neurons) on the
posterior side.
• Motor (efferent) neurons leave through
the ventral root ganglion on the anterior
side

• Interneurons (association neurons) in the

spinal cord initiate reflexes as well as
relay information to the brain for
processing.
• The gray matter
of the spinal cord
is located
centrally, forming
a “H” shape and
is composed of
interneurons.

• The white matter

of the spinal
cord surrounds
the grey matter
and delivers
information to
and from the
brain.
• The brain is the centre for intelligence, consciousness
and emotion.

• Despite its small size, scientists estimate there are more

neurons in the human brain than stars in the Milky
Way.

• It is subdivided into three general regions: the

hindbrain, midbrain & forebrain.
 Meninges
Meninges are 3 protective and nourishing layers of
connective tissue:
1. Dura mater - outermost layer; tough, inelastic covering
2. Arachnoid mater - delicate middle layer; the space
between this layer and underlying pia mater is the
subarachnoid space (filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF))
3. Pia mater - innermost layer; most fragile; closeladheres
to surface of brain and spinal cord; highly vascularized
(brings blood to deep brain tissues)
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
CSF - produced by specialized tissue of the pia mater
called choroid plexuses.
• CSF circulates through the brain ventricles (inner
hollow chambers) and into the spinal cord.
• CSF also leaves ventricles and enters subarachnoid
space  gets reabsorbed into blood.
• Total volume = 125 -150ml; replaced more than 3
times a day (formed - circulated - reabsorbed)
•The hindbrain is divided into three main areas.

• The medulla oblongata is located at the base of

the brainstem. It controls involuntary responses
such as heart & breathing rates and reflex actions
(ie. vomiting, sneezing, coughing & swallowing).

• The cerebellum is located at the back of the skull

below the cerebrum. It’s involved in balance and
coordination of posture, as well as fine voluntary
motor skills (ie. riding a bike, writing). It can be
programmed to remember movements.

• The pons is located above and in front of the

medulla. It’s a relay station that sends messages
between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex.
• The midbrain is
found just above
the pons and
relays visual
and auditory
information
between areas of
the hindbrain
and forebrain.

• As well, it plays
an important
role in eye
movement and
control of
skeletal muscles.
•The forebrain is divided into three main areas.

• The thalamus is at the base of the forebrain. It

screens sensory information so that it can direct attention to
stimuli of importance (ie. it acts as a filter for information
brought to conscious thought). It’s “the great relay
station of the brain”, connecting various parts with one another
and areas of the sensory system (except smell) with the
cerebellum.

• The hypothalamus lies just below the thalamus and helps to

regulate the body’s internal environment including heart rate,
blood pressure and temperature. It receives
information from internal organs and co- ordinates the nervous
and endocrine systems. It also controls basic
drives (ie. thirst, hunger & sex) and emotions. It coordinates the
actions of the adjoining pituitary gland, by producing and
regulating the release of certain hormones.

• The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and accounts for 80%
of it’s weight. It contains the centres for intellect, memory,
consciousness and language. It interprets and controls
the response to sensory information. Voluntary movement.
Cerebrum
• Each of the cerebrum consists of an internal mass of white matter and a thin
outer covering of grey matter known as the cerebral cortex.

• It’s responsible for language, memory, personality, vision, conscious thought

and other activities associated with thinking and feeling.

• The cerebral cortex is folded into ridges (gyri) and depressions (sulci) to
increase the amount of surface area for the brain to fit inside of the skull.

• The cerebrum is divided into a left and right hemisphere, with each side
being more dominant for certain functions.

• The right brain is associated with intuitive thinking, visual-spatial skills

and artistic abilities.

• The left brain is associated with sequential and logical ways of thinkings,
as well as linguistic and mathematical skills.

• The right and the left hemispheres of the cerebrum are connected by a bundle
of white matter called the corpus callosum. This allows each half of the
brain to tell what the other half is doing. But are people really left-brained or
right-brained?

•As well, can a person live with only one hemisphere of their cerebrum?
 Cerebral Cortex
Four regions of the cerebral cortex:
1. Frontal lobe: located at the front of the cortex
2. Parietal lobe: located posterior to the central
sulcus
3. Temporal lobe: located below the parietal lobe
4. Occipital lobe: located at the back of the head
(posteriorly)
 Frontal Lobe
Located at the front of the cortex
– Separated from the parietal lobe by the central
sulcus
– Functions:
• voluntary motor activity
• elaboration of thought
• speaking ability
• memory
• Responses related to personality
 Hemispheres
• Brain divided into two halves called hemispheres.
• Left hemisphere:
– performance of logical, analytical, sequential and verbal
tasks
• ex: math, language forms and philosophy
– Sends and receives signals from the right side of the body
• Right hemisphere:
– nonlanguage skills, especially spatial perception and
artistic and musical endeavors
– Sends and receives signals from the left side of the body
• Corpus callosum:
– allows for communication between the hemispheres
•Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into four lobes.

• Frontal Lobe: Associated with personality, intelligence/problem solving,

emotional reactions & smell recognition (overlaps with temporal lobe). As
well it controls voluntary movement via the motor cortex. Broca’s area is
located here and allows us to speak.

• Parietal Lobe: This region contains the sensory cortex which receives sensory
information from the skin (ie. touch and temperature). As well, it processes
information about taste and body position/awareness.

• Temporal Lobe: Interprets auditory information (ie. hearing). Wernicke’s area

is located here and allows us to comprehend speech. As well, it’s involved in
facial & smell recognition, musical rhythm and memory.

•Occipital Lobe: Interprets visual information.

• Scientists first learned about brain functions by
studying people with brain disorders or injuries.

• For example, in 1848, railway construction foreman

Phineas Gage (1823-1860) blasted a 13 pound tamping rod
straight through his left frontal lobe.

• Although he survived, he experienced significant

changes to his personality.
Peripheral Nervous System
• The PNS consists of nerves that link
the CNS to the rest of the body,
including sensory organs, muscles,
glands and internal organs.

• The two main divisions of the PNS

are the somatic system and the
autonomic system.

• The somatic nervous system (SNS)

is largely under voluntary and
controls the skeletal muscles
throughout the body.

• It includes 12 pairs of cranial

nerves and 31 pairs of spinal
nerves, all of which are myelinated.
Each nerve contains both sensory
and motor neurons which services
the area of the body where they are
found.
• Cranial nerves originate directly from the brain and bypass the spinal column all together.
They generally control the head, neck and face functions.
• The exception is the vagus nerve which connects to many internal organs, including the
heart, lungs, digestive tract, liver and pancreas.
• The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is under the control of
your hypothalamus and medulla oblongata.

• Its neurons are bundled together with neurons from the SNS.
However, unlike the SNS, the ANS is involuntary, controlling
glands and non-skeletal muscle (ie. smooth & cardiac). It’s
divided into two main branches:

• The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for

“emergencies”. It’s often referred to as the fight-or-flight
response. Sympathetic neurons release the neurotransmitter
norepinephrine, which has an excitatory effect on target
muscles. The adrenal glands are stimulated to produce
epinephrine (adrenaline). Skeletal muscles are
given an energy boost by increasing heart rate and blood
pressure. Some of these changes can be picked up by devices
such as polygraphs (lie detectors).

• The parasympathetic nervous system is activated when the

body is at rest. It’s often
called the rest-and-digest response. It slows
down heart rate, reduces blood pressure and promotes
digestion of food.