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129 views484 pagesAnalog Electronics
Electronics book
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ea er)
Analog Electronics
7
Technical Publications Pune” ‘Table of Contents : ee
Chapter- 1 Feedack Amplifiers 1-1) to (1_- 104)
Chapter-2 Oscillators (2 - 1) to (2 - 90)
Chapter- 3 Multivibrators and Blocking Oscillators (3 - 1) to (3 - 126)
Chapter-4 High Frequency Amplifiers (4 - 1) to (4 - 52)
Chapter-§ Tuned Amplifier (5 - 1) to (5 - 54)
Chapter-6 Power Amplifiers [Large Signal Amplifiers} (6 - 1) to (6 - 88)
Appendix-A Schmitt Trigger using Op-amp (A- 1) to (A- 16)
Chapterwise University Questions with Answer (P= 1) to (P-24)
(3) Features of Book —
[® Use of clear, plain and lucid ‘language making the understanding very easy.
|# Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs.
‘* Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and illustrations.
‘* Important conc#pts are highlighted using Key Points throughout the book.
\# Large number of solved examples.
|# Approach of the book resembles classroom teaching.
l® Book provides detailed insight into the subject.
1 Stepwise cxplanation to mathomatical derivations for casier understanding.
Best of Technical Publications a
As per Revised Syllabus of RTU - 2006 Course
Semester - IV (ECE)
“© Electromagnetic Field Theory
(4) S
et
Analog Electronics
ISBN 9788184316100
All rights reserved with Technical Publications, Ne part of this book should be
reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and
retrigval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune.
Published by :
Technical Publications Pune®
#1, Amit Revicleney, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, MS. India,
Printer :
Alet OTPincers
Sno. 10/3, Sehayad Read,
Pune = 431-041
1H! The importance of Analog Electronics is well known in various engineering fields.
Overwhelming response to our books on various subjects inspired us to write this book.
The book is structured to cover the key aspects of the subject Analog Electronics.
The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The book
provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise methods
to explain the important topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations,
practical examples and solved problems. All the chopters in the book are arranged in a
proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All care has been
taken fo make students comfortable in understanding the basic concepts of the subject.
The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy of
the subject. This makes the understonding of this subject more clear and makes it more
interesting. The book will be very useful not only fo the students but also to the subject
teachers. The students have to- omit nothing ond possibly have to cover nothing more.
We wish to express our profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book a
reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous
cccasions by our whole fomily. We wish to thank the Publisher and the entire team of
Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with quality
printing.
Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well
oppreciated.
Authors
U. A Bakshi
A. P. Godse
Dedteated to Gururaj, Neha and Rutuvas Table of Contents
Chapter-1i_Feedback Amplifiers Ee _- (1) to (4-104),
1.2 Classification of Amplifiers... a
1.2.1 Voltage Amplifier... 0. ses sess cess ees ee eset ee eeeeneteneeeerereneeensstes
1.2.3 Transconductance Amplifier
1.2.4 Transresistance Amplifier
1.3 Block Diagram......
1.3.1 Sampling Network... ee cs cece ens etee eee ee eeneneereenereeesecereeeseceiy 1-4
1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Negative Feedback.
1.4.1 Advantages
1.4.2 Disadvantages... . 1... 0. sees eens cece te teense te eee eee tees 4-7
1.5 The Four Basic Feedback Topologies...............ssssssssesmcsuesseressessned = 7
1.6.1 Loop Gain........................
1.6.2 Desensitivity of Gain ....
1.7 Cut-off Frequencies with Feedback
a Distortion with F .
1.8.4 Frequency Distortion ...... 2.21... sss es esses eee sees sete eee eee eeee ee VN 1.9 Input and Output Resistances.......
4.9.1 Input Resistance oo... . ccc sce ee cess eee ee eeeeeee see eeeeeseueeeseres
1.10 Summary of Effect of Negative Feedback on Amplifier...
1.11 Method of Identifying Feedback Topology and Analysis of a Feedback
1.12.1.1 Transistor Emitter Follower 00 he
1.12.:1.2 FET Source Follower 1-29
1.12.1.3 Voltage Series FeedbackPair 1-3
1.42.2 Curent Series Feedback.
1.12.2.1 Common Emitter Configuration with UnbypassodR, os. 1-35
4.12.2.2 Cammon Source Configuration wihR,Unbypassed . 2... . 1-37
1.12.3 Current Shunt Feedback...
1.42.4 Voltage Shunt Feedback... ....ccsese sees eee sees ree ee et eeeeseeee eee :
1.13 Nyquist Criterion for Stability of Feedback Amplifiers...
Examples with Solutions...
Exercise Problems on Feedback Amplifier: 2.4.3 Based on the Range of Operating Frequency ..........0scceeeueeseeeeeeeeeeee 2-8
2.5.5 Advantages.
2.5.6 Disadvantages
2.5.7 Phase Shift Oscillator using Op-amp:
ilk
2.6 Wien Bridge Oscillator
2.5.1 Derivation for Frequency of Oscillations.......-..-....) ss eeseeeeeee
2.6.2 Transistorised Wien Bridge Oscillator ...............2..............00..00
2.6.3 Wien Bridge Oscillator using Op-aMp ......eeeee esses esse cere ee eeeenrerrere
2.6.4 Wien Bridge Oscillator using FET, ........-.-.--s
2.7 Comparison of RC Phase Shift and Wien Bridge Oscillators...
2.9.2 Derivation of Frequency of Oscillations .........--.......)) eee 2-39
2.9.3 FET Hartley Oscillator... 2.2... eee eee eee ees 2-44
2.9.4 Hartley Oscillator using Op-amp.. ees ees eeeeeeeeeeeeseseee sees eseaneee 2-45
2.10 Colpitts Oscillator.
2.10.1 Transistorised Colpitts Oscillator... .. ss ee eee 2-47
2.10.2 Derivation of frequency of Oscillations... ....... sect e eee sess ceeeseeeeetes 2-48
2.10.3 Colptts Oscillator using Op-amp . 2.10.4 Colpitts Oscillator using FET 0.0... 00. cccecceeereeeeneeneeeeeeesanenes
2.11 Clapp Oscillator
2.14.1 Derivation of Frequency of Oscillations ...... .
2.11.2 Advantages. . .
2.12 Tuned Collector Oscillator PD
2.13 Frequency Stability of Oscillator... 2-61
2.13.1 Factors Affecting the Frequency Stability... ....sseeseesevsssseveeeeereeeee 2-61
2.14 Crystal Oscillators. 2-62
2.14.1 Constructional Details. 2... ee 2 BB
2.44.2 AC, Equivalent Circuit .
2.14.3 Series and Parallel Resonance . aeeesenseee Do BG
2.14.4 Crystal Stability. ... .. cee eee eee eee eee eee eee 2-66
2.14.5 Pierce Crystal Oscillator... 0.6.00 cece eee esse eee sess cree tees res 2°66
2.14.6 Miller Crystal Oscillator... o.oo tee e ee eee eee en ees 2-67
2.15 Amplitude Stabilization...
Examples with Solutions.
BAAD MCHC aes ee ee eee EE
3.2 Types of Multivibrators ........ 3-1
3.2.1 Bistable Muttivibrator os. sess testes settee ete teee sts eee ee tess OHk
3.2.2 Monostable Multivibrator......... wee 3-2
3.3.2 Loading Considerations . . «
33.24 Design of Ftd Bas stable Mira.
3.3.3 Self Biased Transistor Bistable Multivibrator . .
1.3.3.1 Design of Self Biased Bistable Multivibrator . . be ee 3-18 3.3.4 Speed-up Capacitors or Commutating Capacitors .
3.3.5 Appli
3.4 Collactor Coupled Monostable Multivibrator.... 3-21
3.4.1 Pulse Width of Collector Coupled Monostable Multivibrator....................- 3-22
f - 3-24
3.4.3 Applications
3.5 Emitter Coupled Monostable Multivibrato!
B51 Waveforms
4.5.2 Extreme LimitsofVo
3.5.3 Gale Width of Emitter Coupled Monoshot................-....--....... - 3-33
3.6 Triggering of Monostable Multivibrator ...... 0.0... ee eee SBA
3.7 Collector Coupled Astable Muttivibrator ...... sore = BD
4.7.4 Applications ....... Ppererraderst?rrrttt??s cee eee 2 3-dt
3.8 Emitter Coupled Astable Multivibrator ........
3.8.1 Operation and Mathematical Analysis....... 20.00.04... cess sees eee GHA?
3.8.2 Expression for Time Period
3.8.3 Practical Emitter Coupled Astable Multivibrator . .
1.8.4 Advantages of Emitter Coupled Astable Multivibrator.
18.5 Disadven of Emitter Coupled Astable Multivibrator ..................00. 9-49
3.9 Schmitt Trigger Circuit
3.9.1 Operation of the Circuit... eee eee eee eee eee ees OR
39.2 Hysteresis ...
3.9.3 Applications
3.9.4 Function of Cy.
3.9.5 Designing the Schmilf Trigger .......-..ceesees cesses ceeeseeeseeseseese es OSB
3.10 Introduction ta Blocking Oscillators 00... ee eee eed = 5B
Urheberrechtlich geschiitztes Material 3.11 Pulse Transformer
3.11.1 Practical Equivalent Circuit
3.11.2 Pulse Response Characteristics .
3.11.3 Applications of Pulse Transformer... +. .eseeserecessereveresessseesenss 3-62
3.12 Monostable Blocking Oscillator using Base Timing...........00
3.12.1 Operation and Mathematical Analysis of the Circuit.............00ceseeeeeeeue
9.12.2 Expression for Pulse Width
3.13 Monostable Blocking Oscillator using Emitter Timing
3.13.1 Mathematical ANAIYSIS....6000 cc cscccececeeeeeeeees
3.13.2 Expression for Pulse Width .. oo... 0s. ss cece eens reese essere eee eeeeeeeee
3.43.3 Limiting Value Of Ry... see ees esses esse cree eee eee eesese eer eeeeeeeesee
3.13.4 Effect of Saturation Voltages Of tp... 1.0.0. seseeeeeeeeeseserteeneeneeenenee
3.13.5.1 Necessity ofDamping. se
3.13.6 Loading Considerations. ....................00
3.13.7 Triggering Circuit for Monostable Blocking Oscillator .
3.13.8 Other Methods of Controlling the Pulse. o
3.13.8. Common Base Coafguaton. eee ee
3.13.8.4 Shorted Delay Line Method _.
3.15 Diode Controlled Transistorized Astable Blocking Oscillator.
3.15.1 Mathematical Analysis....................+ .
3.15.3 Mark-Space Ratio and Duty Cycle
3.16 RC Controlled Transistorized Astable Blocking Oscillator......
3.16.1_ Operation of Circuit with Ry C, in Emitter... 0... ......... eee
3.16.2 Limitations of Low Duty Cycle .......cecsccsccseveseesssessssseeseeseeens
3.16.3. Comparison of Astable Blocking Oscillator Circuits... .cceesssssceseesseees 3.17 Applications of Blocking Oscillator.....
Examples with Solutions......
4.2 Hybrid - x Common Emitter Transconductance Model.............ccccend <1
4.2.1 Elements in the Hybrid - mModel.........-esseesceesees eee eee see seer e eee 24-2
4.2.2 Hybrid - wParameter Values... 1... -- eevee see eee ee esses eee er eres 214-3
rid-« Conductances
4.3 Determination of Hi
4.3.1 Transistor Transconductance gm.
4.3.2 The Input Conductance gig...
4.3.3 The Feedback Conductance Gig ses escecesc scr eessceeseeseresseveseeres we 4-7
4.3.4 The Base Spreading Resistance ry... .---esereseee eset ereesesereeser ete 4-8
4.3.5 The Output Resistancegn, ........-----....-). se wee eee AB
4.3.6 Summary... .
4.4 Hybrid-n Capacitance:
4.5 Validity of Hybrid-n Model
4.6 Variation of Hybrid Parameters with | I. |, | Vce | and Temperature.........4-12
4.7 High Frequency Analysis of CE Ampplifier................usscmsscsseenenh = 13
11.CE Short-Circuit c Gai “ta
47.44 Parameterfy ..-.-.-- wee eee 4-15
40 A2 Parameter fy oe ee 4-16
47A3Parameterf oss we eee ee sss 4-16
4.7.2 Current Gain with Resistive Load 4-48
4.7.3 Current Gain Including Source Resistance... ........:.seseeesesessveeeeres 4-22
4.7.4 Voltage Gain Including Source Resistance... ........
4.7.5 The Cut-off Frequency Including Source Resistance . . .
4.8 Gain Bandwidth Product sth = 24
4.8.1 Gain Bandwidth Product for Voltage... 2.2... ss cess ee se eee eee bd
een TESTE Series
ty 4.8.2 Gein Bandwidth Product for Current . ..
4.9 Emitter Follower at High Frequencies
4.9.1 Nodal Equations
4.9.2 Single Pole SolUHON ...... 02... sssessseseeeeeseeesseseen ese seeseeseneees
Examples with Solutions.
5.5 Analysis of Single Tuned Amplifier.......
5.6 Primary Tuned Amplifier with BJT...
5.7 Tuned Secondary FET Amplifier
5.8 Double Tuned Transformer Coupled Amplifier..............sss00:
5.9 Stagger Tuned Amplifier.
5.10 Effact of Cascading Single Tuned Amplifiers on Bandwidth
5.11 Effect of Cascading Double Tuned Amplifiers on Bandwidth .
5.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Tuned Amplifiers.......
5.13 Applications of Tuned Amplifiers
5.14 Comparison between Tuned Circuits .....
5.15 Pulse Response of Tuned Amplifiers
5.16 Bandwidth Requirements for Pulse Amplification ............1...+:.s1sue
SAT Shunt Peaking Circuits for Increased Bandwidth .
Examples with Solutions. 6.1 Concept of Large Signal Amplification... wo 6-4
6.2 Features of Power Amplifiers ...... 6-2
6.3 Classification of Large Signal Amplifiers .. 6-2
6.3.1 Class AAmplifiers ....
6.3.2 Class B Amplifiers ..
6.3.3 Class C Amplifiers... _
6.3.4 Class AB Amplifiers oo. sess sees eect eee eee eee eee eee ees
6.4 Class D Amplifiers 0.0... ceecce sce ccce eee tceseeecceceescueeceusseecestesseeteesesstiee
6.5 Comparison of Amplifier Classes o.oo cece ee cece cee eee tec ees eceeeeeeee
6.6 Analysis of Class A Amplifiers...
6.7 Series Fed, Directly Coupled Class A Amplifier
6.7.1 D.C. Operation.
6.7.2 D.C. Power Input.
6.7.3 AC. Operation... 0... seek sete sees eee e nese eet eee ees eee
6.7.4 AC. Power Output.
67.5 Efficiency... 2.0. ce eee ee eee eee eee eee
6.7.6 Maximum Et
6.7.7 Power Dissipation . .
6.7.8 Advantages and Disadvantages 6-17
6.8 Transformer Coupled Class A Amplifier........ 6-18
6.8.1 Properties of Transformer. .. ce eee eeneeeeenees ss eeeeeeeesesen eee es 6219
6.8.2 Circuit Diagram of Transformer Coupled Amplifier . . ee eeeeeeessss reese HPF
6.8.3 D.C, Operation . 6-22
6.8.4 D.C Power Iny
6.8.5 A.C. Operation .. .. 6-23
G.BGAC. Output Power... ...ssessseresseeeeeeetenerererereteteesesrsenenes 6-23
Urheberrechtlich geschiitztes Material 6.9.3 Second Harmonic Distortion (Three Point Method) ...........+sssseeeeeeerenes G9 31
6.9.4 Power Output Due to Distortion ..........ssssseseeeeseessseeseeseeeeeeeees
6.9.5 Higher Order Harmonic Distortion (Five Point
6.9.6 Power Output Due to Distortion ..
6.10 Analysis of Class B Amplifiers...
6.11 Push Pull Class B Amplifier
6.44.1 D.C. Operation... iiss e sees esses tees ee tee eeeeeeee sess et eset
6.41.2 0.0, Powerfnput oo eerste eee ete ee ee eee sete te nee eeteeeees
6.11.3 A.C. Operation
6.11.4 A.C. Power Output
6.11.5 Efficiency .........
6.17.6 Maximum Efficiency... sees eee eee eee eee ene ee eee eees
6.11.7 Power Dissipation. oo... eee eee eee eee cee sees eee eee es B43
6.12 Complementary Symmetry Class B Amplifier
6.12.1 Mathematical Analysis.......................
6.12.2 Advantages and Disadvant
6.13 Comparison of Push Pull and Complementary Symmetry Circuits ....... 6-55
6.14 Class A Push Pull Amplifier 6.16.2 Complementary Symmetry Class B Amplifier.
6.17 Complementary Symmetry Single Supply Version
6.18 Complementary Symmetry Class B with Driver Stage .....
6.19 Quasi - Complementary Push Pull Amplifier .........
A.2 Basic Comparator using Op-amp..............
A.2.1 Basic Non-inverting Comparator .......seseesssctseteeeeeeeeseseeeeeeennees
A2.2 Basic Inverting Comparator......
A.2.3 Limitations of Op-amp Comparator
A3 Inverting Schmitt Trigger......
A.4 Non-inverting Schmitt Trigger......
A.5.1 Schmitt Triggers for Eliminating Comparator Chatter
A.5.2 Schmitt Triggers in ON/OFF Controllers ...
A. Comparison of Schmitt Trigger and Comparator.
A? Schmitt Trigger with Different UTP and LTP Levels .........000+
A7.1 Another Method of Obtaining Different Trigger Levels... ....-+sersereeereenees
Raview estions A- 5 Feedback Amplifiers
1.1 Introduction
Feedback plays an important role in almost all electronic circuits. It is almost
invariably used in the amplifier to improve its performance and to make it more ideal. In
the process of feedback, a part of output is sampled and fed back to the input of the
amplifier. Therefore, at input we have two signals ; Input signal, and part of the output
which is fed back to the input. Both these signals may be in phase or out of phase. When
input signal and part of output signal are in phase, the feedback is called positive
feedback. On the other hand, when they are in out of phase, the feedback is called
negative feedback. Use of positive feedback results in oscillations and hence not used in
amplifiers.
In this chapter, we introduce the concept of feedback and show how to modify the
characteristics of an amplifier by combining a portion or part of the output signal with the
input signal. We also study the analysis of various feedback amplifiers.
1.2 Classification of Amplifiers
Before proceeding with the concepts of feedback, it is useful to understand the
classification of amplifiers based on the magnitudes of the input and output impedances of
an amplifier relative to the source and load impedances, respectively. The amplifiers can
be classified into four broad categories : voltage, current, transconductance and
transresistance amplifiers.
1.2.1 Voltage Amplifier
Fig. 1.1 shows a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of an amplifier.
If the amplifier input resistance R, is large compared with the source resistance R,
then V, = V,. If the external load resistance R, is large compared with the output resistance
R, of the amplifier, then V, = A, Vj = A, V,. Such amplifier circuit provides a voltage
output proportional to the voltage input, and the proportionality factor does not depend
on the magnitudes of the source and load resistances. Hence, this amplifier is called
voltage amplifier. An ideal voltage amplifier must have infinite input resistance R; and
(1-4) Analog Electronics 41-2 Feedback Amplifiers
RoR, ~ R>>Ry
Fig. 1.1 Thevenin's equivalent circuits of a voltage amplifier
zero output resistance R,. For practical voltage amplifier we must have R, >> R, and
R, >> R,.
1.2.2 Current Amplifier
Fig. 1.2 shows Norton‘s equivalent circuit of a current amplifier. If amplifier input
resistance R, — 0, then I, =1,. If amplifier output resistance R, — , then I, = A;,J,. Such
amplifier provides a current output proportional to the signal current, and the
proportionality factor is independent of source and load resistances. This amplifier is called
current amplifier. An ideal current amplifier must have zero input resistance R, and
infinite output resistance R,. For practical current amplifier we must have R, <> R,.
Ra orReeRy Rice Ror Ry 160
Fig. 1.2 Norton's equivalent circuits of a current amplifier
1.2.3 Transconductance Amplifier
Fig, 1.3 shows a transconductance amplifier with a Thevenin’s equivalent in its input
circuit and Norton’s equivalent in its output circuit. In this amplifier, an output current is
Proportional to the input signal voltage and the proportionality factor is independent of
the magnitudes of the source and load resistances. Ideally, this amplifier must have an
infinite input resistance R; and infinite output resistance R,. For practical transconductance
amplifier we must have R; >> R, and R, >> Ry. Analog Electronics 1-3 Feedback Amplifiers
RoR, RP SR,
Fig. 1.3 Transconductance amplifier
1.2.4 Transresistance Amplifier
Fig. 1.4 shows a transresistance amplifier with a Norton’s equivalent in its input circuit
and a Thevenin’s equivalent in its output circuit. In this amplifier an output voltage is
Proportional to the input signal current and the proportionality factor is independent on
the source and load resistances. Ideally, this amplifier must have zero input resistance R;
and zero output resistance R,. For practical transresistance amplifier we must have
R, < |A|, the feedback
is termed positive or regenerative.
1.6.1 Loop Gain
The difference signal, Xy in Fig. 1.8 is multiplied by A in passing through the
amplifier, is multiplied by B in transmission through the feedback network, and is
multiplied by - 1 in the mixing or difference network. A path of a signal from input
terminals through basic amplifier, through the feedback network and back to the input
terminals forms a loop. The gain of this loop is the product -Afi This gain is known as
loop gain or return ratio.
The difference between unity and the loop gain is called return difference D = 1 + AB.
The amount of feedback introduced into an amplifier can be expressed in decibels. It is
given by
N = AB of feedback = 20 log "| = 20 tog |"
For negative feedback, N will be negative.
1.6.2 Desensitivity of Gain
The transfer gain of the amplifier is not constant as it depends on the factors such as
operating point, temperature, etc. This lack of stability in amplifiers can be reduced by
introducing negative feedback. Analog Electronics 1-10 Feedback Amplifiers
We know that,
. A
1° T+pAa
Differentiating both sides with respect to A we get,
dA, _ (1+BA)1
A
dA (1+Ba)?
= 1.
(+B)?
dA
dA, = ———
i a+pay?
Dividing bath sides by A, we get,
dA, dA
= —dA_ yt
G+pay Ay
. aA BAY -_A
$4 1
a oe
IZ |G +BA)| 8
Where
aA, . : fication wi
x = Fractional change in amplification with feedback
ae
SA = Fractional change in amplification without feedback
Looking at equation (3) we can say that change in the gain with feedback is less than
the change in gain without feedback by factor (1+fA). The fractional change in
amplification with feedback divided by the fractional change without feedback is called the
sensitivity of the transfer gain, Hence the sensitivity is The reciprocal of the
1
(1+Bay
sensitivity is called the desensitivity D. It is given as
D=1+fA
Therefore, stability of the amplifier increases with increase in desensitivity.
IfBA >> 1, then
A A 1
At = ERK“ BA"B . 4)
and the gain is dependent only on the feedback network. Analog Electronics. 1-11 Feedback Amplifiers
Since A represents either A,, G,, A, or Ry and A, represents the corresponding
transfer gains with feedback either Aj, Guy, Ayp OF Ry the equation signifies that :
= For voltage series feedback
Ay = $ Voltage gain is stabilized a @)
«For current series feedback
Gu, = 3 Transconductance gain is stabilized oe ®
« For voltage shunt feedback
Rue = 3 Transresistance gain is stabilized wi
« For current shunt feedback
Ay = 3 Current gain is stabilized 1 @
1.7 Cut-off Frequencies with Feedback
We know that,
a= WS
* TEA
Using this equation we can write,
= Aria
Aema = TPAwe += (1)
= Atow
Atm = TBA “8
A
and = — 7 + G)
A
th ~ Teas
Now we analyse the effect of negative feedback on lower cut-off and upper cut-off
frequency of the amplifier.
Lower cut-off frequency
We know that, the relation between gain at low frequency and gain at mid frequency,
is given as,
.. (4) Analog Electronics 1-12 Feedback Amplifiers
Substituting value of A,,, in equation (1) we get,
Dividing numerator and denominator by (1+ A... B) we get,
Amis
T+A wa
fow
|
iran
Def me
= ft ve Ap mid Amit,
. T+ Ania B
= 3)
Lower cut-off frequency with feedback w+ (6)
From equation (6), we can say that lower cut-off frequency with feedback is less than
lower cut-off frequency without feedback by factor (1+ A.,;, B). Therefore, by introducing
negative feedback low frequency response of the amplifier is improved. Analog Electronics 1-13 Feedback Amplifiers
Upper Cut-off Frequency
We know that, the relation between gain at high frequency and gain at mid frequency
is given as,
A bien _ 1
Ava ._4 0%
“(i
Lo
Awa = me ”
-fr]
Substituting value of Ajjgh in equation (11) we get,
A; high = A ova = A mia
Dividing numerator and denominator by (1+ A,,,, B) we get,
Ania
1+A nia A
Arhigh = 14 f
“leone “|
Aim A
Arhigh = = © Atm = TB
. f
tl oR apr, |
Where upper cut-off frequency with feedback is given as
9
From equation (8), we can say that upper cut-off frequency with feedback is greater
than upper cut-off frequency without feedback by factor (1+A,, {). Therefore, by
introducing negative feedback high frequency response of the amplifier is improved. Analog Electronics 41-14 Feedback Amplifiers
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of the amplifier is given as
BW = Upper cut-off frequency - Lower cut-off frequency
+. Bandwidth of the amplifier with feedback is given as
f,
L
“TF. ~- 9)
BWy = Fay ~ fle = + Ags BD fy
It is very clear that (fjy-f,,) > (fy-f,) and hence bandwidth of amplifier with
feedback is greater than bandwidth of amplifier without feedback, as shown in Fig. 1.10.
Gain
Anni
0.707 Amig
0.707 ama
Fig. 1.10 Effect of negative feedback on gain and bandwidth
Key Point : Since bandwidth with negative feedback increases by factor (1 + AB) amd gain
decreases by same factor, the gain bandwidth product of an amplifier does not altered, when *
negative feedback is introduced.
1.8 Distortion with Feedback
1.8.1 Frequency Distortion
From equation (8) of previous section 1.7 we can say that if the feedback network does
not contain reactive elements, the overall gain is not a function of frequency. Under such
conditions frequency and phase distortion is substantially reduced.
If Bis made up of reactive components, the reactances of these components will change
with frequency, changing the [i As a result, gain will also change with frequency. This fact
is used in tuned amplifiers. In tuned amplifiers, feedback network is designed such that at
tuned frequency B + 0 and at other frequencies > :. As a result, amplifier provides high
gain for signal at tuned frequency and relatively reject all other frequencies. Analog Electronics 1-15 Feedback Amplifiers
1.8.2 Noise and Nonlinear Distortion
Signal feedback reduces the amount of noise signal and nonlinear distortion. The factor
(14B.A) reduces both input noise and resulting nonlinear distortion for considerable
improvement. Thus, noise and nonlinear distortion also reduced by same factor as the
gain.
1.9 Input and Output Resistances
1.9.1 Input Resistance
If the feedback signal is added
to the input in series with the
applied voltage (regardless of
whether the feedback is obtained
by sampling the output current or
voltage), it increases the input
resistance. Since the feedback
voltage V, opposes V,, the input
current J, is less than it would be if
V, were absent, as shown in the
Fig. 1.11.
Hence, the input resistance
with feedback R,,
Amplifier
is greater
than the input resistance without
feedback, for the circuit shown in
Fig, 1.11.
On the other hand, if the
Fig, 4.12 feedback signal is added to the
input in shunt with the applied
voltage (regardless of whether the feedback is obtained by sampling the output voltage or
current), it decreases the input resistance. Since [, =|, +1,, the current I, drawn from the
signal source is increased over what it would be if there were no feedback current, as
shown in the Fig, 1.12.
Hence, the input resistance with feedback R,, =
is decreased for the circuit shown
in Fig. 1.12. Now we sce the effect of negative feedback on input resistance in different
topologies (ways) of introducing negative feedback and obtain R,, quantitatively.
Voltage series feedback
The voltage series feedback topology shown in Fig. 1.13 with amplifier is replaced by
Thevenin’s model. Here, A, represents the open circuit voltage gain taking R, into Analog Electronics 1-16 Feedback Amplifiers
account. since throughout the discussion of feedback amplifiers we will consider R, to be
part of the amplifier and we will drop the subscript on the transfer gain and input
resistance (A, instead of A,, and Ry instead of R,, }.
Fig. 1.13
Look at Fig. 1.13 the input resistance with feedback is given as
R= = ve (I)
Applying KVL to the input side we get,
Vy-R,-Y = 0
V, = 1,R, +,
= 1 RY @
The output voltage V, is given as
= Ay MRL
Yo = R,+R,
= AIR, = AyV - QB)
Where Ay =
fi
<=
AYR,
Ry +R,
Key Point : A, represents the open circuit voltage gain without feedback and A, is the
voltage gain without feedback taking the load R, into account.
Substituting value of V, from equation (3) in equation (2) we get,
Y= LR +BAY TR,
v
Tt RBA, Analog Electronics 41-47 Feedback Amplifiers
Current series feedback
The current series feedback topology is shown in Fig. 1.14 with amplifier input circuit
is represented by Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and output circuit by Norton’s equivalent
circuit.
Fig. 4.14
Looking at Fig. 1.14 the input resistance with feedback is given as
Ry =
i
Applying KVL to the input side we get,
v,-1,R,-V, = 0
Ve = 1B, +,
= R481, 6)
The output current I, is given as
= GmViRo _
k= Ree, 7 OM Yi + ©
Where
2 GRy
Su = R,+R,
Key Point : G,, represents the open circuit transconductance without feedback and Gy, is
the transconductance without feedback taking the load R, into account.
Substituting value of J, from equation (6) into equation (5) we get,
V, = 1,R, +B Gy V;
= LR +BG,1R, ~ Y=hR Analog Electronics 1-18 Feedback Amplifiers
B= RU +BGy)
MR, (4BGy) @)
Currant shunt feedback
Fig. 1.15
The curredt shunt feedback topology is shown in Fig. 1.15 with amplifier input and
output circuit replaced by Norton's equivalent circuit
Applying KCL to the input node we get
I, = +],
= 1,481, (8)
The output current I, is given as
en
=A], ws (9)
Whee Ae ant
Key Point : A, represents the open circuit current gain without feedback and A, is the
current gain without feedback taking the load R, into account.
Substituting value of 1, from equation (9) into equation (8) we get,
1, = 1, +BA(,
= 1, (+BA,)
The input resistance with feedback is given as
=” ¥,
Ry = 1, “Targa Analog Electronics 1-19 Feedback Amplifiers
+ (10)
Voltage shunt feedback
The voltage shunt feedback topology is shown in Fig, 1.16 with amplifier input circuit
is represented by Norton’s equivalent circuit and output circuit represented by Thevenin’s
equivalent.
Fig. 1.16
Applying KCL. at input node we get,
l= +k
= 1,4+BV, v= (11)
The output voltage V, is given as
ves (12)
Key Point : R,, represents the open circuit transresistance without feedback and Ry, is the
transresistance without feedback taking the load R., into account
Substituting value of V,, from equation (12) into equation (11) we get,
R= W +h Ry]
= 1, 0+B Ry)
The input resistance with feedback Ry is given as
v y,
ay I, a+ i Ry) Analog Electronics Feedback Amplifiers:
(13)
1.9.2 Output Resistance
The negative feedback which samples the output voltage, regardless of how this
output signal is returned to the input, tends to decrease the output resistance, as shown in
the Fig. 1.17.
+
Fig. 1.17
On the other hand, the negative feedback which samples the output current, regardless
of how this output signal is returned to the input, tends to increase the output resistance,
as shown in the Fig. 1.18.
Fig. 1.18
Now, we see the effect of negative feedback on output resistance in different
topologies (ways) of introducing negative feedback and obtain R,, quantitatively.
Voltage series feedback
In this topology, the output resistance can be measured by shorting the input source
V, = 0 and looking into the output terminals with R, disconnected, as shown in the
Fig. 1.19. Analog Electronics 41-21 Feedback Amplifiers
ee
AN v RL
Ret Re
Fig. 4.19
Applying KVL to the output side we get,
A.W +IR,-¥ = 0
V-AY,
Ils = . (14)
The input voltage is given as
Vi = -V,=-BV +¥=0 we (15)
Substituting the V; from equation (32) in equation (31) we get,
V+A,BV_ V(l+ BAY)
“ROR
Vv
Ror
vu (16)
Key Point : Here A, is the open loop voltage gain without taking R, in account,
R,
©
’ Roy XR te =}: Be
Ry = Ry DR, = gt =
of F RL R, +R.
4+pa,) ot
- RR. - RR
~ RoR, C+BA,) ~ R,+R, +BA,R,
Dividing numerator and denominator by (R, +R.) we get
RR
we, = etRr
= TAR
1+ AVR
R +R,
(17)
Key Point : Here A, is the open loop voltage gain taking Ry into account. Analog Electronics 1-22 Feedback Amplifiers
Voltage shunt feedback
In this topology, the output resistance can be measured by shorting the input source
V, = 0 and looking into the output terminals with R, disconnected, as shown in the
Fig, 1.20.
Ror
Fig. 1.20
Applying KVL to the output side we get,
R,1,+1R,-V = 0
v-
” p= YoRal ea (18)
‘The input current is given as
i, = -,=-$V. ves (19)
Substituting I, from equation (19) in equation (18) we get,
p= VtRabY_ VO+RB)
= type ope
vs [20 (a)]
Key Point : Here, R.,, is the open loop transresistance without taking R, in account.
_ Rypx Ry
= RoR, = Rot Ry
R xR.
- TRB | R, Re
TR RF RL FRB
Ter, pt
Dividing numerator and denominator by R, +R, we get,
RR,
RL +R,
re, = othe
“f 4 P Re Ri
R,+R, Analog Electronics 1-23 Feedback Amplifiers
+ 38)
Key Point: Here, R,, is the open loop transresistance taking R, in account.
‘Current shunt feedback
In this topology, the output resistance can be measured by open circuiting the input
source I, = 0 and looking into the output terminals, with R, disconnected, as shown in the
Fig, 1.21,
Ror
Fig. 1.21
Applying the KCL to the output node we get,
l= il ae (21)
The input current is given as
= -l=fl, + l=0
= pl . -> (22)
Substituting value of 1, from equation (22) in equation (21) we get,
v
T= ras BI
1d4+A,— =
. of TTR AHhAYD + 23)
Key Point : Here, A; is the open loop current gain without taking R, in account.
RXR,
Ry = Ry HR, = gt
ee Rot Ry
_ Ry G+BA IR, RAR, U+BA,)
~ RUG+BA FR, RS+R,+BA, R, Analog Electronics 1-24 Feedback Amplifiers
Dividing numerator and denominator by R, +R, we get,
R, R, (1+BA,)
R,+R,
TBARS
Ra =
R,+R,
Key Point: Here, A, is the open loop current gain taking R, in account.
Current series feedback
In this topology the output resistance can be measured by shorting the input source
V, = 0 and looking into the output terminals with R, disconnected, as shown in the
Fig. 1.22.
Fig. 1.22
Applying KCL to the output node we get,
I (25)
The input voltage is given as v
= Bl vde-l .. (26)
Substituting value of V; from equation (26) in equation (25) we get,
Vv
Pe -GaBI
1(14#G,6) = &
©
R R, (1+6G,,B) vs Q7) Analog Electronics 1-25 Feedback Amplifiers
Kay Point : Here, G,, is the open loop transconductance without taking R, in account.
Ry xR,
R Ry +Ry
oe = Roe A Rye
_ RR, C+BG)R, RR, +BG,,)
~ RLCeBG,)*R, BR, 486, R,
Dividing numerator and denominator by R, +R,
R, R, (1+8G,,)
We get
Key Point : Note that here, G,, is the open loop current gain taking R, in account.
1.10 Summary of Effect of Negative Feedback on Amplifier
Table 1.1 summarizes the effect of negative feedback on amplifier.
Current series. Current shunt Voltage shunt
Re
G, Ai =
HBG, Aa SBR Rat = TEPRy
Ss
Gar =
Input resistance | Ry = RHPA) | Rye R(1+h Gy)
increases. increases:
R, Ry = RI+hG,) | Ry = RUI+BA)
‘Output resistance Be TERS a ROG ee
decreases
Table 4.4 Analog Electronics 1-26 Feedback Amplifiers
1.11 Method of Identifying Feedback Topology and Analysis of a
Feedback Amplifier
To analyse the feedback amplifier it is necessary to go through the following steps.
Step 1: Identify Topology (Type of feedback )
a) To find the type of sampling network
1. By shorting the output ie. V, = 0, if feedback signal (x,) becomes zero then we can
say that it is “Voltage Sampling”.
2. By opening the output loop ie. I, = 0, if feedback signal (x,) becomes zero then we
can say that it is “Current Sampling”.
b) To find the type of mixing network
1. If the feedback signal is subtracted from the externally applied signal as a voltage
in the input loop, we can say that it is “series mixing”.
2. If the feedback signal is subtracted from the externally applied signal as a current
in the input loop, we can say that it is “shunt mixing”.
Thus by determining type of sampling network and mixing network, type of feedback
amplifier can be determine. For example, if amplifier uses a voltage sampling and series.
mixing then we can say that it is a voltage series amplifier.
Step 2: Find the input circuit
1. For voltage sampling make V, = 0 by shorting the output
2. For current sampling make I, = 0 by opening the output loop.
Step 3: Find the output circuit.
1. For series mixing make 1; = 0 by opening the input loop.
2. For shunt mixing make V, = 0 by shorting the input
Step 2 and step 3 ensure that the feedback is reduced to zero without altering the
loading on the basic amplifier.
Step 4: Optional. Replace each active device by its h-parameter model at low frequency.
Step 5: Find the open loop gain (gain without feedback), A of the amplifier.
Step 6: Indicate X; and X, on the circuit and evaluate fi = X; X-
Step 7: From A and f, find D, Ap, Ry Ry and RB). Analog Electronics 1-27 Feedback Amplifiers
Characteristics
Voltage shunt
Voltage Current
Sampling signal X, Current
Mixing signal Current Current Voltage
To find input
loop. set
To find output
loop. set
Single source
Ro(1+BGm) | Ro(1+BA)
. Ri (1B)
T+ fGy,
RHR AD
i+Ba,
Table 1.2
1.12 Analysis of Feedback Amplifiers
1.12.1 Voltage Series Feedback
In this section, we will see two examples of the voltage series amplifier, First we will
analyse transistor emitter follower circuit and then source follower using FET.
1.12.1.1 Transistor Emitter Fellower
Fig. 1.23 shows the transistor emitter follower circuit. Here feedback voltage is the
voltage across R,, and sampled signal is V, across R, Analog Electronics 1-28 Feedback Amplifiers
Analysis
Step 1: Identify Topology
By shorting output voltage (V,=0),
feedback signal becomes zero and hence it
is voltage sampling. Looking at Fig. 1.23 we
can see that feedback signal V, is subtracted
from the externally applied signal V, and
hence it is a series mixing. Combining two
conclusions we can say that it is a voltage
series feedback amplifier.
Fig. 1.23
Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit
To find the input circuit, set V, = 0,
and hence V, in series with R, appears
between B and E. To find the output circuit,
set 1, = 1, = 0, and hence R, appears only
in the output loop. With these connections
we obtain the circuit as shown in the
Fig. 1.24.
Fig. 1.24
Step 4: Replace transistor by its h-parameter equivalent circuit
Fig. 1.25 Transistor replaced by its approximate h-parameter equivalent circuit
Step 5: Find open loop voltage gain
Ay = pa ee Analog Electronics 1-29 Feedback Amplifiers
Applying KVL to input loop we get
, = 1,(R,+h,,)
Substituting value of V. we get
hye R, 50x 100
— be Re _ -
Av = Ron, TR+ti kK 238
Step 6 ; Indicate V, and V, and calculate 8
Mv,
We have B= r =1 “ both voltage present across R,
Step 7: Calculate D, A,, .R, Ry, and Ry,
D = 14BAy
= 1+1 238
Ave =
= 07
R= Ry+ he
= IK+11K=21K
k, = 8, D
= 21K 3.38
= 7.096 K
R, =
of =
Ry =
‘ Ris
1.12.1.2 FET Source Follower
Fig, 1.26 shows the FET source follower circuit. Here feedback voltage is the voltage
across R, and sampled signal is Vg across R,. Analog Electronics
Fig. 1.26
Step 2 and Step 3:
594i
t Lit.
Fig. 1.27
Step 4:
G D
1-30 Feedback Amplifiers.
Analysis :
Step 1: Identify Topology
By shorting output voltage V, = 0,
feedback signal becomes zero and hence it is
voltage sampling. Looking at Fig. 126 we
can see that feedback signal V, is subtracted
from the externally applied signal V, and
hence it is a series mixing. Combining two
conclusions we can say that it is a voltage
series feedback amplifier.
Find input and output circuit
To find the input circuit, set V, = 0, and
hence V, appears between G and S. To find
the output circuit, set 1, = 1, = 0, and hence
R, appears in the output loop. With these
connections we obtain the circuit as shown
in the Fig. 1.27.
Replace FET by its equivalent circuit
Fig. 1.28
Step 5 : Find open loop voltage gain
ay = Bee
= tel Ve .@
= HR VHB Ty + Q)
eR, Analog Electronics 1-31 Feedback Amplifiers
Step 6: Indicate V, and V, and calculate
both voltages present across Rg
Step 7: Calculate D, A.,, Ry, R,, and Ri,
D = 1+PaA, =1+1x4.44
.@
Aye =
44d
= say = 0816
; = wand hence R, =R; D= oA)
R, = 1, =40kQ -
ny = hee OK ga5K «6
. RL
Re =o
Where RL = Ril,
_ Ryy _ 5K || 40K
~ Ber, 5k], Kt K
wi, = HK gz 0)
1.12,1,3 Voltage Series Feedback Pair
Fig. 1.25 shows two cascaded stages. The output of second stage is connected through
feedback network to the input of first stage in opposition to the input signal V,.
Fig. 1.29 Voltage series feedback pair Analog Electronics 41-32 Feedback Amplifiers
Analysis :
Step 1: Identify topology
By shorting output voltage V, = 0, feedback signal becomes zero and hence it is
voltage sampling. Looking at Fig, 1.29 we can see that feedback signal V, is subtracted
from the externally applied signal V, and hence it is a series mixing. Combining two
conclusions we can say that it is a voltage series feedback amplifier
Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit
To find input cireuit, set
V, = 0 and hence R,
appears in parallel with R,
at first emitter. To find the
output circuit, set I = 0
and hence R, appears in
series with R, across output.
The resulting circuit is
Fig. 1.30 shown in Fig. 1.30.
For this circuit, feedback factor can be calculated as
=e _*®
Be v-RaR, ~@
nm Example 1.1: Transistors in the feedback amplifier shown in Fig. 1.31 are identical and
their “h’ parameters are h,, = 11009, hy, = 100, ht, = h,,= 0 Neglect capacitances of all
capacitors.
i) State topology with justification.
48) Calculate B Ay, Ayys Rips Ryy and Ry. Analog Electronics 1-33 Feedback Amplifiers
Solution : Step 1; Identify topology
The feedback voltage is applied across the resistance R,, and it is in series with input
signal. Hence feedback is voltage series feedback.
Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit
To find input circuit, set V, = 0 (connecting C, to ground), which gives parallel
combination of R, with R, at E,. To find output circuit, set 1, = 0 (opening the input node
E, at emitter of Q,), which gives series combination of R, and R,, across the output. The
resultant circuit is shown in Fig. 1.32.
Fig, 1.32
Stop 4 : Find open loop voltage gain (A,)
R,, = 47K] (100+ 10K)
= 321 k2
= -h,, = -100
= h, = 1000
AgR,, — -100x 3.21K
Ry Tod
12
fe
7 >
= -291.82
-h,, = 100
Ro, WR, WRz | Ri = 22 K |] 220 K |] 22 K | 1100
= 9952
h,+(+h,)R, Analog Etectronics 41-34 Feodback Amplifiers
= 1100 + (1 + 100) (100. || 10K)
= 11,099 k2
Ay Ry, _ _=100« 995
A = =
11.099 10*
= — 8.96
The overall gain without feedback is given as
A, = AXA, = 2918
¥
= 2614.7
The overall gain taking R, in account is given as
A, =e
Step 5: Calculate B
Looking at Fig. 1.33
p = e100
Vy NV, 100+10 10%
10K = 0.0099
D = 1+BAy = 14+0.0099x 2591.35
y gta = 26.65
4 = . a a Ay 2 259135
. aye D 36-65
Fig. 4.33
= 97.23
Ry = Ry D = 11.099% 10" x 26.65
= 295.788 Ik?
Ri, = Ry || R, || Ry = 295.788 K || 220 K || 22K
= 18.73 kQ
R,. ane
Ra = Dp pe
: RK, :
: Ry = ap where R=,
3
: i, = 22bd0" _ pods 0 Analog Electronics 1-35 Feedback Amplifiers
1.12.2 Current Serles Feedback
In this section, we will see twa examples of the current series feedback amplifier. First
‘we will analyse transistor common emitter circuit with unbypassed emitter resistance and
then common source with unbypassed source resistance.
1.12.21 Common Emitter Configuration with Unbypassed R ,
Fig. 1.34 shows the common emitter
circuit with unbypassed R,. The common
emitter circuit with unbypassed R, is an
example of current series feedback. In this
configuration resistor R, is common to
base to emitter input circuit as well as
collector to emitter output circuit and
input current ], as well as output current
I, both flow through it. The voltage drop
across Ry, Vy = ly + 1) = 1, R, = de Re
= - 1, R- This voltage drop shows that
the output current I, is being sampled
and it is converted to voltage by feedback
network. At input side voltage V; is
subtracted from V, to produce V,.
Therefore, the feedback applied in series.
Analysis
Step 1: Identify topology
By opening the output loop, (output current, 1, = 0), feedback signal becomes zero and
hence it is current sampling. Looking at Fig. 1.34 we can see that feedback signal V, is
subtracted from the externally applied signal V, and hence it is a series mixing. Combining
two conclusions we can say that it is a current series feedback amplifier.
Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit
To find input circuit set I, = 0, then R,
appears at the input side. To find output
circuit set 1, = 0, then R, appears in the
output circuit, The resulting circuit is
shown in the Fig. 1.35. Analog Electronics 1-36 Feedback Amplifiers
Step 4: Replace transistor with its approximate h-parameter equivalent circuit
Fig, 1.36 shows the approximate h-parameter equivalent circuit
Fig, 1.36 Approximate h-parameter equivalent circuit
Step 5 : Find open loop transfer gain
Gy = ge Et 9)
L1K+12K
Step 6: Indicate 1, and V, and calculate 6
B= 2 . tis (19)
= met eR, wI,=-1,
= -12K
Step 7: Calculate D, Gy, Ay / Ry. Ry and R’,
D = 1+PG, =1+(-1.2K)x(-0.015) —... (11)
= 19.18
Gy _ -0.015
Me DF TF = (2)
= -0.782x107 Analog Electronics 1-37 Feedback Amplifiers
The voltage gain Ay, is given as
1,R,
‘
% , a.
Ay type ahs Gan 2 Gy = Es (3)
= -0.782x10 2.2K
= -L7
Looking at Fig. 1.36 R, can be given as
R, = Roth, +R, ve (14)
= 1K+1IK+12K=33K
Ry, = R, D=3.3Kx19.18 ve (15)
= 63.294 K
Looking at Fig. 1.36 R, is given as
R, = we (16)
Ry = RB, D=e - (17)
Rip = Ry Ry ++ (18)
= Rp TR =
= 22K
1.12.2.2 Common Source Configuration with R, Unbypassed
Fig. 1.37 shows the common source circuit with unbypassed R,. Here, the feedback
signal is a voltage across R, and the sampled signal is the load current 1,,.
Analysis
Step 1: identify topology
By setting V, = 0, drain current
does not become zero therefore
feedback does not become zero. Hence
this is not voltage sampling. On the
other hand, by setting I, = 0, we have
V,=0. Hence this is current sampling.
The feedback voltage V, is mixed in
series with the input source. Hence the
topology used is a current series
feedback.
Fig. 1.37 Analog Electronics 1-38 Feedback Amplifiers
Step 2 and step 3: Find input and output circuit
To find input circuit set 1, = 0, then R,
appears at the input side. To find output
circuit set I, = 0, then R, appears in the
output circuit. The resulting circuit is
shown in the Fig. 1.38,
Fig. 1.38
Step 4: Replace FET with its equivalent circuit
Fig, 1.39 shows the equivalent circuit
Fig. 1.39 FET replaced by its equivalent circuit
Step 5 : Find the open loop transconductance
G. < — te Vita
m= FR TR,
%
= (19)
= - (20)
Step 6: Calculate B
pe oot Ry (21) Analog Electronics 1-39 Feedback Amplifiers
Step 7: Calculate D, Guy» Ayy p Ry » Ry and Ri,
D = 1+PG, .- (22)
= 14 (-1K) (-1.09x10%)
= 2.09
= -0.5215x107
Aw = ee “e
= Gy Ry (eae = (24)
\%
= (-0.5215x10)x(4.7 K)
= -2.45
Looking at Fig. 1.39 R, can be given as
Ri = & (25)
R) = Rk, D== +» (26)
Looking at Fig. 1.39 R, can be given as
R, = 4 +R, =40K+1K=41K + (27)
Ry = R, +8G,,) where G, = RT 0 Gye 1. (28)
1spG,, = toon
r+ (1 +p)R,
Rye = 64 R, EE
= yt (ley), .. (29)
= 40K+(1+50)x1K=91K
Ri, = Ry Ry .. (30)
”
47K {91K = 447K
We have seen that the R’, is most easily calculated as R, jj R,,. The same result may
be obtained from the expression in Table 1,2 with R, = R, || R,,. Thus
R’
or =
148G,,
“DO Analog Electronics 1-40 Feedback Amplifiers
where R, = RAR,
(ty +ROR,
= (rg +ROIR, = FR, Re
eR,
and. D = 1+8GM
= -R,) ——
STS CR SSR,
rR,
* ry +R, +R,
_ tytR, ++,
ry +R, +R,
Substituting the values of Rand D we have
Ros (ra +RJR, ry t@+DR, ory +R, +R,
of ry +R +R, tratR, ory +R, +(e +1)R,
Ry [ry + +R,
Wek, GR,
4.7K [40 K+(1+50)x1 K]
40 K+4.7 K+ (1+50)x1K
= 447K
1.12.3 Current Shunt Feedback
Fig. 1.40 shows two transistors in cascade connection with feedback from second
emitter to first base through resistor R’. Here, the feedback network formed by R’ and Ry
divides the current I, Since I, = - I, the feedback network gives current feedback. At
input side, we see that I, = I, - Jj, i.e. I; is shunt subtracted fram I, to get J;. Therefore, this
configuration is a current shunt feedback.
Fig. 1.40 Analog Electronics 1-44 Feedback Amplifiers
Step 1: Identify topology
By shorting output voltage (V, = 0), feedback signal does not become zero and hence it
is not voltage sampling. By opening the output loop (1, = 0), feedback signal becomes zero
and hence it is a current feedback. The feedback signal appears in shunt with input
Gg, -I,}.hence the topology is current shunt feedback amplifier.
Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit
The input circuit of the amplifier without feedback is obtained by opening the output
loop at the emitter of Q, (I, = 0). This places R’ in series with R, from base to emitter of
Q,. The output circuit is found by shorting the input node (the base of Q,), ie. making
¥, = 0. This places R’ in parallel with R,. The resultant equivalent circuit is shown in
Fig, 141.
Fig. 1.41
Step 4: Find open circuit transfer gain
AL = a BI
1 Iya la tay qT, 6 )
‘We know that,
5 = Ag = hp =- 50 and w 32)
im
f= Ay =- hye = - 50
i = 50 .. (33) Analog Electronics 1-42 Feedback Amplifiers.
Looking at Fig. 141 we can write
Ig | _tRa
Ty, 7 RatRa BH
Where Riz = hye + (1 + fgg) (Reg |} R’)
= 1l¢ a ins
= 355K
1 -3K
th = =
1, 3K+355RK 0.457
Looking at Fig. 1.41 we can write
by R =
ju, RL oo 8
1, * Reh, ‘98)
WhereR = RI(R’ 1.2 Kx1.25K
I 0.612 K
bl =
T, = Oelae Lik = 9558
ls
Substituting the numerial values obtained from equations (32), (33), (34) and (35) in
equation (31) we get,
Ay = (~50)X(-0.457} (50) x (0. 358)
= 406
Step 5: Calculate
Looking at Fig. 1.41 we can write,
= ceRe
R,+R’
ai. Ro
R, +R’
1, Re
Ry+R
hy Re _ __50 Analog Electronics 1-43 Feedback Amplifiers
Step 6: Calculate D, Ry Ri, Ay Avg Ry Ror
D = 1+BA,=1 + (0.04)x 406
= 172
A, _ 406
Au = Dp a7
= 23.6
= we. cle Re
At = = ER
= Aw Ra
R,
= (23.6) (500)
12K
= 9.83
0.612 Kx 11K
R= Rill = gage 11k
= 0.394 K
R, _ 0.394 K
Ri = p=
= BOQ
R == wo Nye = 0
Ry = Ry Dao
RL = Ry ll Re = =|] 500 = 5002
From calculation for Ay we note that A, is independent of the load Ry, = Ro. Hence
tim
ARR, Oe A
Ry
= pe LBA,
~ Rapa,
=R,=Ro
= 5002 Analog Electronics. 1-44 Feedback Amplifiers
1.12.4 Voltage Shunt Feedback
Fig. 142 shows a common emitter amplifier with a resistor R’ connected from the
output to the input.
g*Vec
Step 1: Identify topology
The feedback current 1, is given as
Vv. -V,
Woe apt But V, > BV.
=
R
lL =
1
By shorting output voltage (V,=0), feedback reduces to zero and hence it is a voltage
sampling. As 1, =I, -1,, the mixing is shunt type and topology is voltage shunt feedback
amplifier.
Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit.
To find input circuit, set
V, = 0, this places R’ between
base and ground. To find
output circuit, set ¥ = 0, this
places R’ between collector and
ground.
The resultant circuit is
shown in Fig. 1.43. Analog Electronics: 1-45 Feedback Amplifiers
The feedback signal is the current I, in the resistor R’ which is in the output circuit as
shown in the Fig. 1.43.
We have seen that
l= yey
1 -l
ite pelt
v R
R, 1
- Ru! o
Rye = TB Ry 7B Y BRy >> 1
= -R
an
ONO TR,
Step 4: Find the open circuit transresistance
Vo Io Re | ~1 Re
Ry = poe See + (36)
Where Ro = R,YR'=4K 140K
= 3.636 K
and
Ay=— hp =~ 50 and a OF)
hl oR Where R = Rg | ’ = 10K | 40K = 8K
1, 7 Gh, reR= Rs R= -
ty _ 8K
1, ~ BKel1K
= 0.879 ++» (38)
Substituting values of equation (37) and (38) in equation (36) we have
TERE ate Tay pe
i
Ru =
(- 50) x (0.879) x 3.636 K
159.8 K
4 Analog Electronics 1-46
Step 5: Calculate B
= -2.5x10%
Step 6: Calculate D, Rye Ayes Rips Ror and Ri,
D = 14+ BRy
= 1+ (-2.5%107) (-159.8x10*)
= 4.995
_ Ry _ -159.8K
Rue = p= 5
Looking at Fig. 1.43-we can write
= BKe1. 1K 087K
_ R,_ 0.967K
Re = = 995
= 193592
R, == “thy = 0
Ry = BEF
R, = Roll Ry = © |j 3.636 K
= 3.636 K
3.636 K
D 4,995,
= 7282 Analog Electronics 1-47 Feedback Amplifiers
1.13 Nyquist Criterion for Stability of Feedback Amplifiers
A negative feedback amplifier designed for a particular frequency range may break out
into oscillation at some high or low frequency. This stability problem arises in feedback
amplifiers when the loop gain has more than two real poles. The existence of pole with a
positive real part result in a disturbance increasing exponentially with time. When such
transient disturbance persists indefinitely or increases, the system becomes unstable.
Hence, the condition which must be satisfied, if a system is to be stable, is that the
poles of the transfer function must all lie in the left-hand half of the complex-frequency
plane. If the system without feedback is stable, the poles of A do lie in the left-hand half
plane. Therefore, from equation Ay = A/1 + Af we can say that the stability condition
requires that the zeroes of 1 + AB all lie in the left-hand half of the complex-frequency
plane.
The Nyquist criterion forms
the basis of a steady-state method
of determining whether or not an
amplifier is stable. The Nyquist
criteria express condition for
Negative feedback stability in terms of the
steady-state, or frequency response,
characteristics. Let us see the
Nyquist criterion.
TAB)
, Since the product AB is a
4 complex number, it may be
Increasing frequency represented as a point in the
complex plane where the real
Fig. 1.44 Locus of |1 + Aff =1 component being plotted along the
X axis and the j component along
the Y axis. We know that, the AB is a function of frequency. Consequently, points in the
complex plane are obtained for the values of AB corresponding to all values of f from — ~
to + =. The locus of all these points forms a closed curve. The criterion of Nyquist is that
the amplifier is unstable if this curve encloses the point - 1 + j0, and the amplifier is
stable if the curve does not enclose this point. (See Fig. 1.44). Analog Electronics 1-48 Feedback Amplifiers
The Fig. 144 shows the locus of |1 + AB] = 1. It is a circle of unit radius, with its
center at - 1 + jO. If for any frequency, AB extends outside this circle, the feedback is
negative since |1 + AB| > 1. If, however, AB Hes within this circle, then [1 + AB] <1, and
the feedback is positive.
An example of the Nyquist criterion is illustrated in Fig. 1.45. The locus in Fig. 1.45 (a)
is stable since it does not enclose the - 1 + jO point, whereas the locus shown in
Fig. 1.45 (b) is unstable since the curve does enclose the = 1 + j0 point.
Increasing f
Increasing £
{a) Stable (b) Unstable
Fig. 1.45 Stability condition using Nyquist criterion
Examples with Solutions
ium Example 1.2: A feedback amplifier has an open loop gain of 600 and feedback factor
B= 0.01. Find the closed loop gain with negative feedback,
Solution :
= fe
Au = T+Ap ~ T+600x0-01
= 85714
tim Example 1.3: The distortion ir an amplifier is found to be 3%, when the feedback ratio
of negative feedback amplifier is 0.04. When the feedback is removed, the distortion becomes
15 %. Find the open and closed loop gain.
Solution : Given : fi = @.04 Distortion with feedback = 3 %, Distortion without
feedback = 15%
Ds= Beas Where D=1 + Af=5
5 = 1+ABS1+A« 0.04
A = 100 Analog Electronics 1-49 Feedback Amplifiers
mum Example 1.4: An amplifier has mid-band voltage gain (A...) } of 1000 witht, =50 Hz
and fyy = 50 kHz, if 5 % feedback is applied then calculate gain f,, and fy with feedback.
Solution : Given B= >. = 0.05, f, = 50, fy, = 50 kHz and A,.ig = 1000
a) Gain with feedback
A Avni 1000
vmidy TF BAL gaa 1005x1000
= 19.6
_ f _ 50
») fu = T+BA vg 1 +0.05% 1000
= 0.98 Hz
3 fue = Ay OC+BA, gy) = 50% 104 x (1 + 0.05 x 1000)
= 255 MHz
tam Example 1.5: An amplifier with open loop vollage gain of 1000 delivers 10 W of power
output at 10 % second harmonic distortion when ifp is 10 mV. If 40 dB negative feedback is
applied and output power is to remain at 10 W, determine required input signal V, and
second harmonic distortion with feedback.
Solution : Given A, = 1000, Output power = 10 W,
. . 1
a) fi: -40 = 20 toe [ra]
1+PpA = 100
BA = 99
= 9 _
B= jqgg = 9-099
Gain of the atuplifier with feedback is given as
a
wo T+pay i
3
3
A =10
3]
b) To maintain output power 10 W, we should maintain output voltage constant and
to maintain output voltage constant with feedback gain required V, is
Ve
= Vo 100 = L0mV>« 100
=1V Analog Electronics 1-50 Feedback Amplifiers
¢) Second harmonic distortion is reduced by factor 1+ A.
Dy =
oa
joa 7 0.001
= 01%
mp Example 1.6: An amplifier with open loop gain of A = 2000 + 150 is available. It is
necessary to have the amplifier whose voltage gain varies by not more than + 0.2 %.
Calculate Band A ,.
Solution : a) We know that
day | 1 dA
A; 14fA A.
o2 1, 150
Too ~ T+pA * 2000
1+BA = 375
BA = 365
_ 365
B= spay = 001825
= 1.825 %
byAp:
Ap = A 2000
1+BA 1+ 0.01825 x 2000
> Example 1.7: if an amplifier has a bandwidth of 300 kHz and voltage gain of 100; what
will be the new bandwidth and gain if 10 % negative feed back is introduced? What will be
the gain bandwidth product before and after feed back? What should be the amount of
feedback if the bandwidth is to be limited to 800 kHz. .
Solution : The voltage gain of the amplifier with feedback is given as
Aw = Tg Where = 0.1 and A = 100
100
Ave = Tyiooxoi
9.09 Analog Electronics 1-51 Feedback Amplifiers
The bandwidth of an amplifier with feedback is given as
f
Byp = (1+Ania B) fx ~ Aad
Assuming fy >> f, we have
By = fy and By = (1+ Ania B By
Bye (1+100%0.1)x 300 KHz
= 3300 kHz
The gain bandwidth product before feedback can be given as
Gain bandwidth product = A, By
= 100x300 kHz = 30x10°
Gain bandwidth product after feedback
= Ay By;
9.09% 3300 kHz
30x108
If bandwidth is to be limited to 800 kHz we have fyyp = 800 kHz assuming fy >>f
We know that
But = Ais BD fy
800K = (1+1008) 300 K
800
- OL
B = 20 = oot
im Example 1.8: For the feedback amplifier whose block diagram is shown in Fig. 1.46
compute the changes in AA, when
i) Ay changes by an amount AA, and
Hi) Ay changes by an amount &Ay Analog Electronics 1-52 Feedback Amplifiers
Solution : For above circuit voliage gain with feedback is given as
Ay
ale |
Ay =
Ar
wale mi
- 2
| waarmee]
i) AAS = - x
2
HHA, -aA he,
al 1A, ~AAd| |
WT —AA,|XB
ii) AA, = _ +/Az~AA,|XB,
Az lA 2
1+A,|———— |B _—__
‘IFA, 7 | \ a Bs
tm Example 1.9: An amplifier has a voltage gain of 4000. It's input impedance is 2 K and
output impedance is 60 K. Calculate the voltage gain, input and output impedance of the
circuit is 5% of the feedback is fed in the form of series negative voltage feedback.
Solution : The voltage gain with feedback can be given as
A 4000
Au = TER § 7 Teabooxo0s
= 199
Ina voltage series feedback input resistance with feedback is given as
Ry = RUB AY)
= 2 K(1+0.05x 4000)
= 402 kQ
In a voltage series feedback output resistance with feedback is given as
R, 60K
~ Bs _
Rot = Tapa, ~ Te00sx4000
= 29850
ium Example 1.10: An amplifier without feedback gives a fundamental output of 36 V with
7 % second harmonic distortion when the input is 0.028 V.
i) If 1.2 percent of the output is fedback into the input in a negative voltage series feedback
circuit, what is the output voltage
ii) If the fundamental output is maintained at 36 V but the second harmonic distortion is
reduced to 1 percent what is the input voltage? Analog Electronics 1-53 Feedback Amplifiers
Solution : The voltage gain of amplifier can be given as
\,
A= ye
<|
ae
0.028
= 1285.7
i) B= 0012
+. The gain of the amplifier with feedback is given as
Ay
Ar” TeAWB
_ 12857
“ T+12857x 0012
= 78.26
‘The output voltage with feedback is given as
Vy = Ag Vig =78.26 x 0.028
= 219V
ii) If the output remains constant at 36 V, then the distortion produced within the
active devices of the amplifier is unchanged. However, since the distortion at the output is
less than in part i) by a factor of 7, it follows that the feedback now increased by 7 and
hence, the voltage gain decreased by 7. Thus, the input signal required to produce the
same output (as in part i) without feedback must be:
Vin = 7 (0.028 V)
= 0.196 V
iam Example 1.11: Ar amplifier having a voltage gain of 60 dB uses %o"" of it output in
negative feedback, Calculate the gain with feedback, the percentage change in gain without
and with feedback consequent ort 50 % change in Sup
Solution : i) The gain of the amplifier is given as
60 dB = 20 log Ye
7
No
= <= 1000
AB ae
1
B = 55 = 005 Analog Electronics 1-54 Feedback Amplifiers:
«. The gain of amplifier with feedback is
A
v
Aw * eBay
= 00
1+0.05%1000
= 19.6
ii) The gain of the amplifier is directly proportional to the g,.. Therefore, the gain of
the amplifier without feedback changes as same amount as g,, changes
A, = Ay £05Ay
= 1000 +500
‘The gain of the amplifier with feedback is now given as
1000+500 1000+500
Ave = TNS C000E50) 1+ 60225)
= 19.23 or 19.73
i> Example 1.12: A single stage RC coupled amplifier has a midband gain of 1000 is made
into a negative feedback amplifier by feeding 10 % of the output voltage in series with input
opposing.
i) What is the ratio of half power frequencies with feedback to those without feedback?
ii) If f, = 20 Hz and f,, = 50 kHz for the amplifier without feedback, Find the corresponding
values after feedback is incorporated,
Solution: A, = 1000 and fp=0.1
5) fr apa,
Hn
= 140.1 1000
= 101
fie 8 i 1
and 4 7 TSpAy > T +01 «1000
_
~ TOT
= 0.0099
ii) With f,, = 20 Hz and fy = 50 kHz
fur = 20x 0.0099
= 0,198 Hz and fy = 50 kHz x 101
= 5.05 MHz Analog Electronics 1-55 Feedback Amplifiers.
‘mm Example 1.13: An amplifier without feedback gives an output of 50 V into 6 % second
harmonic distortion when the input is 0.2 V. if the negative feedback is applied to amplifier
so that the second harmonic distortion is reduced to 1%. What value of feedback ratio neust
be used? What input voltage will be required to produce the same output vollage of 50 V?
Solution : The voltage gain of the amplifier is given as
B gle
