Preparatory Course

Lecture 2 - Part 2: Equations, Inequalities, Useful

Arithmetical Operators & Binomial Theorem

2.6. Equations
2.7. Inequalities Link zum Download:
https://bitly.cx/OB4D
2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators
*2.9. Binomial Theorem
M.Sc. Ricardo Rose
19.09.2023
2.6. Equations
2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

1 13
2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

‚ Mathematical symbols can designate numbers (constants), variables,

operations, functions, brackets, punctuation, and grouping to help de-
termine order of operations and other aspects of logical syntax

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

‚ Mathematical symbols can designate numbers (constants), variables,

operations, functions, brackets, punctuation, and grouping to help de-
termine order of operations and other aspects of logical syntax
‚ An expression is a syntactic construct. It must be well-formed. For exam-
ple the expression 1 ` 2 ¨ 3 is well-formed, but 4qx `, {y is not

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

‚ Mathematical symbols can designate numbers (constants), variables,

operations, functions, brackets, punctuation, and grouping to help de-
termine order of operations and other aspects of logical syntax
‚ An expression is a syntactic construct. It must be well-formed. For exam-
ple the expression 1 ` 2 ¨ 3 is well-formed, but 4qx `, {y is not
‚ The choice of semantics depends on the context of the expression. The
same syntactic expression 1 + 2 × 3 can have different values (mathe-
matically 1 ` p2 ¨ 3q “ 7 , but also p1 ` 2q ¨ 3 “ 9 )

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

Examples for Mathematical Expression:

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

Examples for Mathematical Expression:

‚ 4`5 (adding constants)

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

Examples for Mathematical Expression:

‚ 4`5 (adding constants)
8 `5 2¨3 (adding fractional numbers)
‚ 2 ` 2

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

Examples for Mathematical Expression:

‚ 4`5 (adding constants)
8 `5 2¨3 (adding fractional numbers)
‚ 2 ` 2
‚ 3x ´ 1 (including one variable)

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

Examples for Mathematical Expression:

‚ 4`5 (adding constants)
8 `5 2¨3 (adding fractional numbers)
‚ 2 ` 2
‚ 3x ´ 1 (including one variable)
‚ 9x 2 ` 8x ` 7 (including one variable)

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

Examples for Mathematical Expression:

‚ 4`5 (adding constants)
8 `5 2¨3 (adding fractional numbers)
‚ 2 ` 2
‚ 3x ´ 1 (including one variable)
‚ 9x 2 ` 8x ` 7 (including one variable)
2 y
‚ 2x ` 2 (including two variables)

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

Examples for Mathematical Expression:

‚ 4`5 (adding constants)
8 `5 2¨3 (adding fractional numbers)
‚ 2 ` 2
‚ 3x ´ 1 (including one variable)
‚ 9x 2 ` 8x ` 7 (including one variable)
2 y
‚ 2x ` 2 (including two variables)
ˆ ˙
řn n
‚ k “0 x n ´k y k (a bunch of „new“ formalisms)
k
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2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

‚ If E contains only constants, they can be summarised to one constant c. The set
tc u can be than associated to E as a statement in sense of propositional logic.

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

‚ If E contains only constants, they can be summarised to one constant c. The set
tc u can be than associated to E as a statement in sense of propositional logic.

‚ If E contains one variable x & the domain get mapped to the range (see 2.4). Each
element of the range can be than associated to E in sense of propositonal logic.

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Mathematical Expression

A mathematical expression E is a finite combination of symbols that is well-
formed according to rules that depend on the context.

‚ If E contains only constants, they can be summarised to one constant c. The set
tc u can be than associated to E as a statement in sense of propositional logic.

‚ If E contains one variable x & the domain get mapped to the range (see 2.4). Each
element of the range can be than associated to E in sense of propositonal logic.

‚ If E contains more variables, the binary relation between domain and set becomes
an finitary relation. Each variable has it’s own domain and all variables build a
finitary relation that maps into the range of E. Each element of the range can be
associated again to E in sense of propositional logic.

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Equation
An equation express the equality of two mathematical expressions, by connec-
ting them with „““ (the equal sign). Let E and E 1 be mathematical expressions.
Than E “ E 1 means, that the mathematical expressions are equal.

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Equation
An equation express the equality of two mathematical expressions, by connec-
ting them with „““ (the equal sign). Let E and E 1 be mathematical expressions.
Than E “ E 1 means, that the mathematical expressions are equal.

Examples Equations:
‚ 4`5“9 (comparing counting lead to N)

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Equation
An equation express the equality of two mathematical expressions, by connec-
ting them with „““ (the equal sign). Let E and E 1 be mathematical expressions.
Than E “ E 1 means, that the mathematical expressions are equal.

Examples Equations:
‚ 4`5“9 (comparing counting lead to N)
1 1
‚ 2 ` 2 “1 (comparing parts of a whole leads to Q )

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2.6. Equations

Definition: Equation
An equation express the equality of two mathematical expressions, by connec-
ting them with „““ (the equal sign). Let E and E 1 be mathematical expressions.
Than E “ E 1 means, that the mathematical expressions are equal.

Examples Equations:
‚ 4`5“9 (comparing counting lead to N)
1 1
‚ 2 ` 2 “1 (comparing parts of a whole leads to Q )
‚ 3x ´ 1 “ 2 (variables lead to „solving“ the equation)

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2.6. Equations

What does it mean to solve an equation?

‚ In case of counting is the definition of „the equation is true“ intuitive!

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2.6. Equations

What does it mean to solve an equation?

‚ In case of counting is the definition of „the equation is true“ intuitive!

‚ In case of one variable like in the equation 3x-1=2 we have on each side mathematical
expressions. On the right side, the range contains only the set t2u. But on the left side, we have
up to infinity elements depending on the domain of the left expression. Solving the equation
means here to build the intersection of the ranges of both expressions! If the intersection is
empty, no solution exists.

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2.6. Equations

What does it mean to solve an equation?

‚ In case of counting is the definition of „the equation is true“ intuitive!

‚ In case of one variable like in the equation 3x-1=2 we have on each side mathematical
expressions. On the right side, the range contains only the set t2u. But on the left side, we have
up to infinity elements depending on the domain of the left expression. Solving the equation
means here to build the intersection of the ranges of both expressions! If the intersection is
empty, no solution exists.

‚ Also in the case of more than one variable or more than two mathematical statements,
solving means technically to build the intersection between each range of all mathematical
statements

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2.6. Equations

Solving of Linear Equations

Example: 4 ´ 2x “ 2x

Method 1: Graphical Solving (left)

Method 2: Equivalent Transformations (below)

4 ´ 2x “ 2x
4 ´ 2x `2x “ 2x `2x
4 “ 4x
x “ 1

f p1q “ g p1q “ 2 “ y

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2.6. Equations

x 2 ` 8x ´ 5 “ 4 Solving of Quadratic Equations

2
x ` 8x ´ 9 “ 0
Example: x 2 ` 6x ´ 5 “ 4
2
x ` px ` q “ 0
c
p pp 2 Method 1: Graphical Solving
˘ q ´q “ 0
2 ?2
3 ˘ 16 ` 9 “ x1,2 Method 2: p-q-formula
(Equivalent Transformation doesn’t work anymore)

ñ x1 “ 8 , x2 “ ´2

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2.7. Inequalities
2.7. Inequalities

Solving Inequalities
‚ While solving equations can be interpreted as building the intersection between the ranges
of the investigated mathematic expressions, an inequality has on one side the range of a
mathematical expression E and on the other side a condition C, that tells when the statement
is true and when not

‚ Solving the inequality means technically building the set difference between the range of E
and the range of the condition C

Eo1n, E ă E 1 , E ď E 1 , E ě E 1 , E ‰ E 1
‚ Possible conditions for E are: E loąomo
C

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2.7. Inequalities

Solving Inequalities - Example: 3x ą 2

3
‚ equivalent transformations are possible similar to linear equations: x ą 2

Solving Inequalities - Example: ´4x ě 4

‚ be aware of, that the conditions change under dividing by a negative number!
´4x ě 4 | : p´4q
x ď ´1

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2.7. Inequalities

Triangle Inequality
One „famous“ inequality is the triangle inequality:

|x ` y | ď |x | ` |y |

Applied on a triangle:
a ` b ě c, b ` c ě a, c ` a ě b

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2.7. Inequalities

Triangle Inequality
One „famous“ inequality is the triangle inequality:

|x ` y | ď |x | ` |y |

Applied on a triangle:
a ` b ě c, b ` c ě a, c ` a ě b

An example for the violation of the triangle

inequality can be found on the world map
(mercator projection)

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators
2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Summation Operator

n
ÿ
ai “ am ` am`1 ` am`2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an´1 ` an
i “m

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Summation Operator

n
ÿ
ai “ am ` am`1 ` am`2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an´1 ` an
i “m

Examples:
100
ÿ
‚ i “ 1 ` 2 ` ... ` 98 ` 99 ` 100 “ 5050
i “1

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Summation Operator

n
ÿ
ai “ am ` am`1 ` am`2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an´1 ` an
i “m

Examples:
100
ÿ
‚ i “ 1 ` 2 ` ... ` 98 ` 99 ` 100 “ 5050
i “1
5
ÿ i2
‚ 2i ´ “ 2 ` 1.5 ` 0 ´ 2.5 “ 1
i “2
2

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Summation Operator

n
ÿ
ai “ am ` am`1 ` am`2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an´1 ` an
i “m

Examples:
100
ÿ
‚ i “ 1 ` 2 ` ... ` 98 ` 99 ` 100 “ 5050
i “1
‚ sometimes it is possible to find an explicit formula (49 ¨ 100 ` 50 ` 100):
n
ÿ ´n ¯ n n n npn ` 1q
i“ ´1 n` `n “ n` “
i “1
2 2 2 2 2

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Summation Operator

n
ÿ
ai “ am ` am`1 ` am`2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an´1 ` an
i “m

Aritmethical Rules:
n
ÿ n
ÿ n
ÿ n
ÿ n
ÿ
‚ pak ` bk q “ ak ` bk & λ ¨ ak “ λ ¨ ak
k “m k “m k “m k “m k “m

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Summation Operator

n
ÿ
ai “ am ` am`1 ` am`2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an´1 ` an
i “m

Aritmethical Rules:
n
ÿ n
ÿ n
ÿ n
ÿ n
ÿ
‚ pak ` bk q “ ak ` bk & λ ¨ ak “ λ ¨ ak
k “m k “m k “m k “m k “m
˜ ¸
n
ÿ n
ÿ n
ÿ
‚ ai ,j “ a i ,j
i ,j “1 i “1 j “1

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Summation Operator

n
ÿ
ai “ am ` am`1 ` am`2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an´1 ` an
i “m

Aritmethical Rules - Examples:

5 ˆ ˙ 5 5
ÿ 1 ÿ 3 ÿ 3 3
(1) 3 `k 2
“ ` 3k 2 “ 1 ` ` ` 27 ` 48 ` 75 “ 152.35
k “3
k k “3
k k “3
4 5

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Summation Operator

n
ÿ
ai “ am ` am`1 ` am`2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an´1 ` an
i “m

Aritmethical Rules - Examples:

˜ ¸ ˜ ¸
3
ÿ 3
ÿ 3
ÿ 3
ÿ 3
ÿ 3
ÿ 3
ÿ
2 2 2
(2) i ` 3ij “ i ` 3ij “ i ` 3ij
i ,j “1 i , j “1 i , j “1 i “1 j “1 i “1 j “1
ÿ 3 3
ÿ
“1`4`9` p3i ` 6i ` 9i q “ 14 ` 18 i “ 14 ` 18 ¨ 6 “ 122
i “1 i “1

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Product Operator

n
ź
ai “ am ¨ am`1 ¨ am`2 ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ an´1 ¨ an
i “m

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Product Operator

n
ź
ai “ am ¨ am`1 ¨ am`2 ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ an´1 ¨ an
i “m

Examples:
5
ź 2 2 2 2 8 2
‚ “ ¨ ¨ “ “
i “3
i 3 4 5 60 15

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Product Operator

n
ź
ai “ am ¨ am`1 ¨ am`2 ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ an´1 ¨ an
i “m

Examples:
5
ź 2 2 2 2 8 2
‚ “ ¨ ¨ “ “
i “3
i 3 4 5 60 15
8
ź 4k 2
‚ 2 “π (one representation of „wallis product“)
k “1
p2k ´ 1qp2k ` 1q

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Product Operator

n
ź
ai “ am ¨ am`1 ¨ am`2 ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ an´1 ¨ an
i “m

Aritmethical Rules:
˜ ¸˜ ¸
n
ź n
ź n
ź
‚ xi yi “ xi yi
i “1 i “1 i “1

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Product Operator

n
ź
ai “ am ¨ am`1 ¨ am`2 ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ an´1 ¨ an
i “m

Aritmethical Rules:
˜ ¸˜ ¸
n
ź n
ź n
ź
‚ xi yi “ xi yi
i “1 i “1 i “1
˜ ¸a
źn n
ź
‚ xi “ xia
i “1 i “1

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Factorial Operator

0! “ 1 (defined)
n
ź n
ź
n! “ i“ i “ 1 ¨ 2 ¨ 3 ¨ ... ¨ pn ´ 1q ¨ n
i “0 i “1

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Factorial Operator

0! “ 1 (defined)
n
ź n
ź
n! “ i“ i “ 1 ¨ 2 ¨ 3 ¨ ... ¨ pn ´ 1q ¨ n
i “0 i “1

Examples:
‚ 6! “ 720

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Factorial Operator

0! “ 1 (defined)
n
ź n
ź
n! “ i“ i “ 1 ¨ 2 ¨ 3 ¨ ... ¨ pn ´ 1q ¨ n
i “0 i “1

Examples:
‚ 6! “ 720
3!
‚ “ 1.5
2p4 ´ 2q!

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Factorial Operator

0! “ 1 (defined)
n
ź n
ź
n! “ i“ i “ 1 ¨ 2 ¨ 3 ¨ ... ¨ pn ´ 1q ¨ n
i “0 i “1

Examples:
‚ 6! “ 720
3!
‚ “ 1.5
2p4 ´ 2q!
8
ÿ 1 1 1 1 1 1
‚ e“ “ ` ` ` ` ` ¨ ¨ ¨ « 2.718281828
k “0
k! 0! 1! 2! 3! 4!
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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Factorial Operator

0! “ 1 (defined)
n
ź n
ź
n! “ i“ i “ 1 ¨ 2 ¨ 3 ¨ ... ¨ pn ´ 1q ¨ n
i “0 i “1

Arithmetical Rules:
‚ n! “ npn ´ 1q! “ npn ´ 1qpn ´ 2q! “ ¨ ¨ ¨ “ npn ´ 1qpn ´ 2q . . . 2 ¨ 1

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2.8. Useful Arithmetical Operators

Definition: The Factorial Operator

0! “ 1 (defined)
n
ź n
ź
n! “ i“ i “ 1 ¨ 2 ¨ 3 ¨ ... ¨ pn ´ 1q ¨ n
i “0 i “1

Arithmetical Rules:
‚ n! “ npn ´ 1q! “ npn ´ 1qpn ´ 2q! “ ¨ ¨ ¨ “ npn ´ 1qpn ´ 2q . . . 2 ¨ 1
‚ n!pn ` 1q “ pn ` 1q!

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*2.9. Binomial Theorem
*2.9. Binomial Theorem

The 3 binomial formulas are mathematical transformations of particular interest:

1.) pa ` b q2 “ a 2 ` 2ab ` b 2
2.) pa ´ b q2 “ a 2 ´ 2ab ` b 2
3.) pa ` b qpa ´ b q “ a 2 ´ b 2

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*2.9. Binomial Theorem

The 3 binomial formulas are mathematical transformations of particular interest:

1.) pa ` b q2 “ a 2 ` 2ab ` b 2
2.) pa ´ b q2 “ a 2 ´ 2ab ` b 2
3.) pa ` b qpa ´ b q “ a 2 ´ b 2

Examples:
1.) 4x 2 ` 8x ` 4 “ p2x ` 2q2
2.) 81x 2 ´ 95x ` 25 “ p9x ´ 5q2 ´ 5x
4x 2 ´25
3.) 2x ´5 “ 2x ` 5

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*2.9. Binomial Theorem

Definition of Binomial Coefficent

The binomial coeeficant is defined as:
ˆ ˙ k kź ´1
n n! ź n´l`1 n´l
“ “ “
k k !pn ´ k !q l k ´l
l “1 l “0

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*2.9. Binomial Theorem

The binomial theorem are the generalisation of the binomial formulas:

The Binomial Theorem

n ˆ ˙ n ˆ ˙
n
ÿ n n ´k k
ÿ n
pa ` b q “ a b “ a k b n´k
k k
k “0˙
ˆ ˆ ˙ k “0 ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
n n 0 n n ´1 1 n n´2 2 n 1 n´1 n
“ a b ` a b ` a b `¨ ¨ ¨` a b ` a0b n
0 1 2 n´1 n

Examples:
ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
3 3 3 3
‚ pa ` b q3 “ a3b 0 ` a2b 1 ` a1b 2 ` a 0 b 3 “ a 3 ` 3a 2 b ` 3ab 2 ` b 3
0 1 2 3

‚ pa ` b q4 “ a 4 ` 4a 3 b ` 6a 2 b 2 ` 4ab 3 ` b 4
‚ pa ` b q5 “ a 5 ` 5a 4 b ` 10a 3 b 2 ` 10a 2 b 3 ` 5ab 4 ` 5b 5

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