Lectures on Quantum Mechanics:

Lesson 3

Itzhak Roditi

Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Fı́sicas

(Brazilian Center for Physics Research)

COMAN

Rio de Janeiro

2024

c
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Postulates of Quantum Mechanics

From Nielsen & Chuang

Postulate 1: Associated to any isolated physical system there is a complex
vector space with inner product (a Hilbert space in the finite dimensional
space, H) known as the state space of the system. The system, at a time
”t”, is completely described by its state vector, |Ψi which is a unit vector in
the system’s state space. For the infinite dimensional case one has additional
requirements to define H, essentially that every Cauchy sequence converges
with respect to the norm in H.

Postulate 2: The evolution of a closed quantum system is described by a

unitary transformation. That is, the state |Ψi of the system at time tA is
related to the state |Ψ0 i of the system at time tB by a unitary operator U
which depends only on the times tA and tB , such that
|Ψ0 i = U |Ψi . (1)
Postulate 2’: The time evolution of the state of a closed quantum system is
described by the Schrödinger equation,

d |Ψi
i~ = H |Ψi . (2)
dt
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Postulates of Quantum Mechanics

Postulate 3: Quantum measurements are described by a collection {Mm } of

measurement operators. These are operators acting on the state space of the
system being measured. The index m refers to the measurement outcomes
that may occur in the experiment. If the state of the quantum system is |Ψi
immediately before the measurement then the probability that result m
occurs is given by
†
p(m) = hΨ| Mm Mm |Ψi , (3)

and the state of the system after the measurement is

Mm |Ψi
q . (4)
†
hΨ| Mm Mm |Ψi

The measurement operators satisfy the completeness equation

X
†
Mm Mm = I. (5)
m

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Postulates of Quantum Mechanics

Postulate 4: The state space of a composite physical system is the tensor

product of the state spaces of the component physical systems. Moreover, if
we have systems numbered 1 through n, and system number i is prepared in
the state |Ψi i, then the joint state of the total system is

|Ψ1 i ⊗ |Ψ2 i ⊗ · · · ⊗ |Ψn i (6)

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Finite-dimensional complex(real) linear vector spaces

Denote by V a set with elements |v i and F denotes a field of numbers that

could be real R, or complex C. Addition on V , means an operation that
assigns to a pair of elements |v i and |w i ∈ V an element |v i + |w i ∈ V .
Scalar multiplication on V, means an operation that assigns an element
av ∈ V to each a ∈ F and each v ∈ V .
With the above definitions, V is a vector space when the following properties
hold:
1 Commutativity: |v i + |w i = |w i + |v i for all |v i , |w i ∈ V
2 Associativity: (|ui + |v i) + |w i = |ui + (|v i) + |w i) and (ab) |v i = a(b |v i)
for all |ui , |v i , |w i ∈ V and all a, b ∈ F
3 Additive identity: there exists an element ~0 ∈ V , such that, |v i + ~0 = |v i for
all |v i ∈ V
4 Additive inverse: for every |v i ∈ V , there exists a |w i ∈ V , such that,
|v i + |w i = ~0
5 Multiplicative identity: 1 |v i = |v i for all |v i ∈ V , 1 ∈ F
6 Distributive property: a(|v i + |w i) = a |v i + a |w i and
(a + b) |v i = a |v i + b |v i for all a, b ∈ F and |v i , |w i ∈ V
When F is C the vector space is complex, when F is R it is real.

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Linear independence

A set of n vectors |a1 i , |a2 i , · · · , |an i ∈ V are said to be linearly independent

when the relation

α1 |a1 i + α2 |a2 i + · · · + αn |an i = 0, (7)

where α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ∈ C, holds if and only if α1 = α2 = · · · = αn = 0.

The maximum number, n, of linearly independent vectors defines the dimension

D = n of a vector space.

A basis for the a vector space V of dimension n is a set of n linearly independent

vectors. One can obtain all the other vectors in v as linear combinations of this
set.
Inner product

An inner product on V is a map that takes each ordered pair |v i , |w i ∈ V to a

number hv |w i ∈ F , with the following properties:
∗
1 Conjugate symmetry: hv |w i = hw |v i
2 Linearity: hu|αv + βw i = α hu|v i + β hu|w i
3 Positivity hv |v i ≥ 0
Note that hv | is the dual vector to the vector |ai; i.e., hv | is a linear operator
(functional) from the vector space V to C, such that, hv | (|w i) = hv |w i for any
w ∈ V.

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Norm

The norm of a vector |v i may be defined as

p
k |v i k = hv |v i. (8)
|v i
In order to normalize the vector one can divide it by the norm k|v ik this vector will
be then a unit vector.
Example: The space Cn of complex n-tuples |αi = (α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ).
The inner product between |αi and |βi = (β1 , β2 , · · · , βn ) is
n
X
hα|βi = αj∗ βj (9)
j=1

If the vector |αi is normalized its norm is given by

v
u n
uX
hα|αi = t |αj |2 = 1 (10)
j=1

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Norm

Exercise: Prove the Cauchy inequality for a complex vector space V ,

| hv |w i |2 ≤ hv |v i hw |w i , (11)

valid for any |v i , |w i ∈ V .

Exercise: Show that when the inner product is real one can write it as,

hv |w i = k |v i k k |w i k cos(θ). (12)
Orthogonal and orthonormal

One says that, if the inner product of two non-zero vectors |v i , |w i ∈ V is null,
hv |w i = 0, they are orthogonal.

Now, for a set of orthogonal vectors |v1 i , |v2 i · · · |vk i ∈ V satisfying

hvj |vk i = δj,k , one says that the set is orthonormal.
Operators

An operator A is a map that takes each vector |v i ∈ V to another vector

|w i ∈ V . Such that |w i = A |v i .

A linear operator A is an operator for which the following property holds,

A(α |v i + β |w i) = αA |v i + βA |w i . (13)
Projectors

An important class of operators in Quantum Mechanics are projectors, P. Which

can be defined in the one dimensional case as Pv = |v i hv |, if hv |v i = 1 for
|v i ∈ V . One has that for any |w i ∈ V ,

Pv |w i = |v i hv |w i = hv |w i |v i , (14)

I.e., the projection of |w i along the direction of |v i .

For any |w i orthogonal to |v i, Pv |w i = 0. A projector is idempotent,

Pv2 = Pv (15)

For a k-dimensional subspace, W , of V one has,

k
X
Pw = |wj i hwj | , (16)
j=1

the set {w1 , w2 , · · · , wk } is an orthonormal basis of W .

A subset W of V is a subspace if it is also a vector space under the same addition

and scalar multiplication as those of V .
Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues

For a linear operator A an eigenvector |v i ∈ V is a non-zero vector that satisfies

A |v i = λ |v i , (17)

λ ∈ C is called an eigenvalue of A. Very often one uses the same label for the
eigenvector end eigenvalue, for instance, λ and |λi .
Let us expand A |v i and |v i over an orthonormal basis of V , {|v1 i , |v2 i , · · · , |vn i},
n
X
A |v i = aj |vj i ak = hvk | A |v i (18)
j=1

n
X
v= λj |vj i λk = hvk |v i (19)
j=1
P P
So, aj = k hvi | A |vk i λk ≡ Ajk λk , which substituting in A |v i = λ |v i , gives
k

n
" n #
X X
Ajk λk − λj λ |vj i = 0 (20)
j=1 k=1
Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues

The previous equation has a solution iff

n
X n
X
Ajk λk − λj λ = [Ajk − δkj λ]λk = 0, (21)
k=1 k=1

which also has a solution iff det(A − λI) = 0 (called the characteristic equation).
Now, det(A − λI) is a single variable polynomial of degree n with complex
coefficients, then by the fundamental theorem of algebra it has n complex roots.
These roots are the eigenvalues of A.
More operators

A positive linear operator, A is one that for all |v i ∈ V , hv | A |v i ≥ 0 .

A positive definite linear operator A that for all non-zero |v i ∈ V , hv | A |v i > 0.
The support of a linear operator is defined to be the vector space orthogonal to its
kernel (the vector space spanned by the vectors for which A |w i = 0).
For any linear operator A on a Hilbert space V , there exists a unique linear
operator denoted A† on V , and called the adjoint or Hermitian conjugate of A,
one has

hv |Aw i = A† v |w , ∀ |v i , |w i ∈ V . (22)

An Hermitian, or self-adjoint operator, is an operator H such that H = H † .

More operators

The inverse of a linear operator A exists iff its kernel is only ~0. We denote the
inverse by A−1 , and it satisfies A−1 A = AA−1 = I.
A unitary operator, U, is one that satisfies U † U = UU † = 1. So, its adjoint
coincides with its inverse.
A normal operator, A, is one that satisfies A† A = AA† .
Unitary and Hermitian operators are normal.
Spectral decomposition theorem: A linear operator, A on V , is diagonalizable,
with respect to an orthonormal basis of V , iff it is normal.
Let {λj } and {vj } be respectively the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a normal
operator A, with respect to this basis one can write,
n
X
A= λj |vj i hvj | (23)
j=1

Simultaneously diagonalization theorem Two normal operators A and B

commute ([A, B] = AB − AB = 0) iff there exists an orthonormal basis with
respect to which both A and B are diagonal.
More operators

P
The completeness relation I = j=1 n |vj i hvj |, where {vi } i = 1, 2, · · · , n is a
basis of V , may be viewed as the spectral decomposition of the identity operator.
The trace P
of a matrix, M, is the sum of its diagonal elements
Tr (M) = j=1 nMjj . The following properties hold,

Tr (M1 + M2 ) = Tr (M1 ) + Tr (M2 ) (24)

Tr (cM) = cTr (M) c ∈C
Tr (M1 M2 ) = Tr (M2 M1 )
More operators

The trace of a linear operator A is obtained by the trace of its matrix

representation Aij =Phvi | A |vj i and it is independent of the basis. As we can see
by insertion of i = i |wi i hwj |
n
X n
X n X
X n X
n
Tr (A) = Ajj = hvj | A |vj i = hvj | (|wl i hwl |)A(|wk i hwk |) |vj i
j=1 j=1 l=1 k=1 j=1
(25)
n X
X n X
n n X
X n X
n
= hvj |wl i hwl | A |wk i hwk |vj i = hwk |vj i hvj |wl i hwl | A |wk i
l=1 k=1 j=1 l=1 k=1 j=1
Xn X n n X
X n n
X
= hwk |wl i hwl | A |wk i = δkl hwl | A |wk i = hwl | A |wl i .
l=1 k=1 l=1 k=1 l=1

The properties of the trace apply, for instance, when U is unitary

Tr (U † AU) = Tr (UU † A) = Tr (A).

More operators

P
The spectral decomposition Pof a normal operator, A = λi |vi i hvi | , can be used
to define a function f (A) = f (λi ) |vi i hvi | .
√ P√
For instance, the square root of a positive operator A = λi |vi i hvi | .

Polar decomposition:
A linear operator, A, on V can be decomposed as
√ √
A = U A† A = AA† U. (26)

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Tensor product

Let us concentrate on two Hilbert spaces H1 and H2 , with dimensions m and n

respectively, but notice that the definition is valid for linear vector spaces. The
tensor product of H1 and H2 is a Hilbert space H = H1 ⊗ H2 , if it is possible to
associate to each pair of elements |v1 i , |v2 i ∈ H1 and H2 , respectively, an
element(vector) of H denoted |v1 i ⊗ |v2 i, called the tensor product of the vectors
|v1 i and |v2 i , such that,
For any |v1 i and |v2 i ∈ H1 and H2 , respectively, and z ∈ C, one has,

z(|v1 i ⊗ |v2 i) = (z |v1 i) ⊗ |v2 i = |v1 i ⊗ (z |v2 i). (27)

For any |v1 i and |w1 i ∈ H1 and for any v2 ∈ H2 ,

(|v1 i + |w1 i) ⊗ |v2 i = |v1 i ⊗ |v2 i + |w1 i ⊗ |v2 i . (28)

For any |v1 i ∈ H1 and for any v2 and w2 ∈ H2 ,

|v1 i ⊗ (|v2 i + |w2 i) = |v1 i ⊗ |v2 i + |v1 i ⊗ |w2 i . (29)

Very often instead of |v i ⊗ |w i, one uses |v w i, |v , w i, or |v i |w i .

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Density Operator

Associated to a given ensemble {pi , |Ψii } the positive operator ρ with trace equal
1, is a density operator.
Postulates using a density operator

Postulate 1ρ : Associated to any isolated physical system there is a complex

vector space with inner product (a Hilbert space, H) known as the state
space of the system. The system, at a time ”t”, is completely described by
its density operator ρ which is a positive operator with trace one, acting on
the state space of the system. If a quantum system is in the state ρP i with
probability pi , then the density operator for the system is given by, i pi ρi

Postulate 2ρ : The evolution of a closed quantum system is described by a

unitary transformation. That is, the state ρ of the system at time tA is
related to the state |ρ0 i of the system at time tB by a unitary operator U
which depends only on the times tA and tB , such that

|ρ0 i = U |ρi . (30)

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Postulates using a density operator

Postulate 3ρ : Quantum measurements are described by a collection {Mm }

of measurement operators. These are operators acting on the state space of
the system being measured. The index m refers to the measurement
outcomes that may occur in the experiment. If the state of the quantum
system is |Ψi immediately before the measurement then the probability that
result m occurs is given by
†
p(m) = tr (Mm Mm ρ), (31)

and the state of the system after the measurement is

†
Mm ρMm
†
. (32)
tr (Mm Mm ρ)

The measurement operators satisfy the completeness equation

X
†
Mm Mm = I. (33)
m

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Postulates using a density operator

Postulate 4ρ : The state space of a composite physical system is the tensor

product of the state spaces of the component physical systems. Moreover, if
we have systems numbered 1 through n, and system number i is prepared in
the state ρi , then the joint state of the total system is

ρ1 ⊗ ρ2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ ρn (34)

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