Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets& Nozzles

Inlets
The inlet interchanges the organized kinetic and random thermal energies of the gas in
an essentially adiabatic process. The perfect (no-loss) inlet would thus correspond to an
isentropic process. The primary purpose of the inlet is to bring the air required by the
engine from free stream conditions to the conditions required at the entrance of the fan
or compressor with minimum total pressure loss. The fan or compressor works best with
a uniform flow of air at a Mach number of about 0.5 The Requirements of the inlets:

• high total pressure ratio πd,

• controllable flow matching of requirements,
• good uniformity of flow,
• Low installation drag,
• Good starting and stability,
• Low signatures (acoustic, radar, etc.),
• Minimum weight and cost while meeting life and reliability goals.

A list of the major design variables for the inlet and nacelle includes the following:

• Inlet total pressure ratio and drag at cruise

• Engine location on wing or fuselage (avoidance of foreign-object damage,
• inlet flow up wash and downwash, exhaust gas re ingestion, ground clearance)
• Aircraft attitude envelope (angle of attack, yaw angle, cross-wind takeoff)
• Inlet total pressure ratio and distortion levels required for engine operation
• Engine-out wind milling airflow and drag (nacelle and engine)
• Integration of diffuser and fan flow path contour
• Integration of external nacelle contour with thrust reverser and accessories Flow
field interaction between nacelle, pylon, and wing Noise suppression
requirements.

Design considerations:

• The airflow entering the compressor or fan must have low Mach number, in the range
0.4 to 0.7, Part of this deceleration occurs upstream of the inlet entrance plane.
• The inlet must be designed to prevent boundary layer separation, even when the axis of
the intake is not perfectly aligned with the streamline direction far upstream of the inlet.
• It is important that the stagnation pressure loss in the inlet be small.

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets& Nozzles

• It is even more important that the flow velocity and direction leaving the inlet be
uniform, since distortions in the velocity profile at the compressor inlet can severely
upset the compressor aerodynamics and may lead to failure of the blades due to
vibrations.
• Design of inlets that must operate efficiently in both supersonic and subsonic flight
poses special problems;

Subsonic Inlets:
Internal flow and Stall in subsonic inlet sand Boundary layer Separation

Depending on the flight speed and the mass flow demanded by the engine, the inlet may have
to operate with a wide range of incident stream conditions. The Figure shows the streamline
patterns for two typical subsonic conditions and the corresponding thermodynamic path of an
“average” fluid particle.

During level cruise the streamline pattern may include some deceleration of the entering fluid
External to the inlet plane and hence low mass flow rate[Fig. a]. During low-speed high-thrust
operation (e.g., during take-off and climb), the same engine will demand more mass flow and
the streamline pattern may resemble Fig. b, which illustrates external acceleration of the stream
near the inlet. .

For given air velocities external acceleration raises the inlet velocity and lowers the inlet
pressure, thereby increasing the internal pressure rise across the diffuser. If this pressure
increase is too large, the diffuser may stall because of boundary layer separation; stalling usually
reduces the stagnation pressure of the stream as a whole.

Conversely, external deceleration requires less internal pressure rise and hence a less severe
loading of the boundary layer.

Therefore the inlet area is often chosen so as to minimize external acceleration during take-off,
with the result that external deceleration occurs during level-cruise operation. Under these
conditions the “upstream capture area” Aa is less than the inlet area A1, and some flow is spilled
over the inlet, accelerating as it passes over the outer surface

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets& Nozzles

In the actual engine inlet, separation can take place in any of the three zones shown in Fig. 2.
Separation of the external flow in zone 1 may result from local high velocities and subsequent
deceleration over the outer surface. Separation on the internal surfaces may take place in either
zone 2 or zone 3, depending on the geometry of the duct and the operating conditions.

Zone 3 may be the scene of quite large adverse pressure gradients since the f low accelerates
around the nose of the centre body, then decelerates as the curvature decreases

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets& Nozzles

Major features of external flow near a subsonic inlet

Figure shows a typical streamline pattern for large external deceleration. In flowing over the
lip of the inlet, the external flow is accelerated to high velocity, much as the flow is accelerated
over the suction surface of an airfoil. This high velocity and the accompanying low pressure
can adversely affect the boundary layer flow in two ways:

For entirely subsonic flow, the low-pressure region must be followed by a region of rising
pressure in which the boundary layer may separate. Hence one might expect a limiting low
pressure Pmin or, equivalently, a maximum local velocity Umax, beyond which boundary layer
separation can be expected downstream.

For higher flight velocities (or higher local accelerations), partially supersonic flow can occur.
Local supersonic regions usually end abruptly in a shock, and the shock-wall intersection may
cause boundary layer separation. One might expect a limiting local Mach number that should
not be exceeded.

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets& Nozzles

Relation for minimum area ratio (Amax/Ai) in terms of external deceleration (Ui/Ua )

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets& Nozzles

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets& Nozzles

The main point here is that the larger the external deceleration (i.e., the smaller the value of
Uj/Ua), the larger must be the size of the nacelle if one is to prevent excessive drag. Even in the
absence of separation, the larger the nacelle, the larger the aerodynamic drag on it. But if the
external deceleration is modest (e.g., U/ISa > 0.8), its effect on minimum nacelle size is quite
small.

it shows that the performance of an inlet depends on the pressure gradient on both internal and
external surfaces. The external pressure rise is fixed by the external compression and the ratio,
Amax/Ai of maximum area to inlet area. The internal pressure rise depends on the reduction of

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets& Nozzles

velocity between entry to the inlet diffuser and entry to the compressor (or burner, for a ramjet).
Nacelle size required for low drag can be quite strongly dependent on the degree of external
deceleration
Diffuser Efficiency

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets& Nozzles

Isentropic efficiency:we can define the isentropic efficiency of a diffuser in this form:

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets& Nozzles

Diffuser:
The flow within the inlet is required to undergo diffusion in a divergent duct. This reduction
in flow velocity creates an increase in static pressure that interacts with the boundary layer. If
the pressure rise due to diffusion occurs more rapidly than turbulent mixing can reenergize the
boundary layer, the boundary layer will assume the configurations shown in Fig. .

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets& Nozzles

The rate of area increase in a diffuser has a direct effect on the behavior of flow in the
diffuser, as shown in Fig.

. If the rate of area increase is greater than that needed to keep the boundary layer
Energized and attached, the flow may be characterized by unsteady zones of stall. The turbulent
mixing is no longer able to overcome the pressure forces at all points in the flow, and local
separation occurs at some points. The total pressure decreases markedly due to the
irreversible mixing of a fairly large portion of low-velocity fluid with the main flow. If
the diffuser walls diverge rapidly, the flow will separate completely and behave much as
a jet, as shown in Fig. d. The rate of area increase without stall for a diffuser depends on
the characteristics of the flow at the entrance and on the length of the divergent section

Use Of Vortex Generators As A Mechanical Mixing Device To Supplement The

Turbulent Mixing

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets

In the presence of an adverse pressure gradient (static pressure increasing in the direction
of flow), boundary layers tend to separate when the boundary layer is not reenergized
rapidly enough by turbulent mixing. Taylor proposed the use of vortex generators as a
mechanical mixing device to supplement the turbulent mixing. If vortices are generated
by vortex generators in pairs, regions of inflow and outflow exist. These carry high
energy air into the boundary layer and low-energy air out. Figure shows how vortex
generators reenergize a boundary layer.

By using vortex generators together with a short, wide-angle diffuser, it may be possible
to have a lower total pressure loss than with a long diffuser without vortex generators.
Here, the reduced skin friction losses associated with flow separation are traded against
vortex losses. The use of shorter diffusers may reduce weight and facilitate engine
installation.

Supersonic Inlets

The supersonic inlet is required to provide the proper quantity and uniformity of air to the
engine over a wider range of flight conditions than the subsonic inlet is. In addition, the
nature of supersonic flow makes this inlet more difficult to design and integrate into the
airframe. In supersonic flight, the flow is decelerated by shock waves that can produce
a total pressure loss much greater than, and in addition to, the boundary-layer losses.

Working Principle of Supersonic Inlets:

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets

A supersonic inlet is made up of two distinct parts. First the flow is compressed supersonically
from the velocity of the flight vehicle or, in other words, the free stream Mach number. This is
done by reducing the flow area as the flow proceeds downstream. In this region the flow
velocity is reduced through a series of compression waves and/or oblique shocks. Flow velocity
is reduced to a minimum speed at the duct minimum area, called the throat of the inlet, where
the flow approaches sonic velocity or a Mach number of one. At this point the flow Mach
number will be reduced from supersonic, above one, to subsonic, below one, through a normal
shock. This begins the second part of the inlet, the subsonic diffuser. In this region the velocity
is reduced as the flow area is increased. The result of this process is conditioned air, smooth,
subsonic air at high pressure, which is then delivered to the engine.

Supersonic Inlet Types:

Internal compression inlet: The internal compression inlet shown in Figure achieves
compression through a series of internal oblique shock waves followed by a terminal
normal shock positioned downstream of the throat (its stable location). This type of
inlet requires variable throat area to allow the inlet to swallow the normal shock (during
starting). Fast reaction bypass doors are also required downstream of the throat to permit
proper positioning of the normal shock under varying flight and engine conditions.

External compression inlet. The compression of the external compression inlet is

achieved through either one or a series of oblique shocks followed by a normal shock,
or simply through one normal shock

Mixed compression inlet. : At flight Mach numbers above 2.5, the mixed compression
inlet is used to obtain an acceptable total pressure ratio (by utilizing the required number
of oblique shocks) while obtaining acceptable cowl drag. The mixed compression inlet
is more complex, heavier, and costlier than the external compression inlet. The typical

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets

mixed compression inlet achieves compression through the external oblique shocks, the
internal reflected oblique shocks, and the terminal normal shock. The ideal location of
the normal shock is just downstream of the inlet throat, to minimize total pressure loss
while maintaining a stable operating location of this shock. Similar to the internal
compression inlet, the mixed compression inlet requires both fast-reacting bypass doors (to
Maintain the normal shock in a stable location) and variable throat area

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets

Successive steps in the acceleration and over speeding of a one-dimensional

supersonic inlet.

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets

Condition (a) illustrates low subsonic speed operation, for which the inlet is not choked. In
Condition (b), though the flight velocity is still subsonic, the flow is assumed to be accelerated
to sonic velocity at the minimum area At and the inlet mass flow rate is limited by the choking
condition at At. Once the shock is established, the flow entering the inlet is no longer isentropic.
Hence when the design Mach number of the aircraft is first reached, as at condition (d), the
“reversed isentropic nozzle” mass flow cannot pass through the throat area At. At the Design
Mach number , the inlet is capable of ingesting the entire incident mass flow without spillage.
The shock position will be just on the lip of the inlet, as in condition (e), and a slight increment
in speed, as to condition (e’), will cause the shock to enter the convergence. Since a shock
cannot attain a stable position within the convergence it will move quickly downstream to come
to rest within the divergence, at a position determined by downstream conditions. Having thus
attained isentropic flow in the inlet, the Mach number may be reduced from M0 to MD, as at
condition (f). At exactly the design speed, the throat Mach number would be just unity and
isentropic deceleration from supersonic to sub sonic flow would exist. Even for this simplified
model, however, this condition.

The Starting Problem / Shock swallowing by area variation

Internal supersonic deceleration in a converging passage is not easy to establish. In fact design
conditions cannot be achieved without momentarily over speeding the inlet air or varying the

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets

diffuser geometry. This difficulty is due to shocks that arise during the deceleration process,
supersonic flight velocities, since Aa/At, will always pass through a minimum of 1 just as sonic
flight velocity is attained. It is necessary to perform some operation other than simply
accelerating to the design speed in order to “swallow” the starting shock and establish
isentropic flow. Over speeding is one such operation, but there are others.
while we examine the starting behavior of a converging-diverging diffuser

An inlet having Ai/At, greater than 1 ( Ai>At ) will always require spillage upon reaching

If over speeding is not it might be possible to swallow the shock by a variation of geometry at
constant flight speed. The principle is easily seen in terms of simple one-dimensional analysis.

Suppose the inlet is accelerated to the design Mach number MD with the starting shock present,

as at point (d) in the above figure, if the actual area ratio can be decreased from Ai/At to the
value that can ingest the entire inlet flow behind the shock, the shock will be swallowed to take
up a position downstream of the throat. This variation would normally involve a momentary

increase of throat area from At to a new value that we will call At* Having thus achieved
isentropic flow within the convergence, the throat Mach number M, is greater than 1, and a
relatively strong shock occurs farther downstream. Completely isentropic flow can then be

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets

achieved by returning the area ratio to its original value, while the operating conditions move
from (d) to (f).

If the shock should undergo a momentary motion into the converging section of the diffuser
the shock Mach number will be lowered and the down-stream stagnation pressure increased.
This will increase the mass flow through the diffuser throat, lowering the density and the static
pressure downstream of the shock. To accommodate this, the shock must move further down
the converging section. From these arguments there is no location in the converging section at
which the shock will be stable so the shock will move through the throat. If no adjustments are
made in conditions downstream of the diffuser, the shock will move to a location in the
diverging section of the diffuser at an area corresponding to the test section area, where it will
then be stably positioned. This process is known as swallowing the shock. Once it occurs the
shock can be positioned by changing the operating conditions of the exhauster.

In practice the shock must be maintained somewhat downstream of the diffuser throat because
the shock is unstable in the converging part of the diffuser. If the shock moves upstream
slightly, the shock Mach number increases, increasing the stagnation pressure loss and
decreasing the mass flow capacity of the diffuser throat.

The Shock—Boundary Layer Problem

Across a shock wave of appreciable strength, the boundary layer separates, and this
separation may have a large effect on the structure of the shock. Consider the interaction of a
weak shock with a boundary layer .The following figure shows a series of schiieren
photographs of the interaction of a shock wave and a boundary layer for upstream free-stream
Mach numbers.

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets

For M > 1, the shock wave near the boundary layer has taken up a “lambda” shape, with an
oblique shock reaching ahead of the main shock location. Because a large fraction of the
boundary layer is subsonic, the pressure rise due to the shock is sensed (near the wall) some
distance ahead of the main shock wave. This upstream pressure gradient causes the boundary
layer to grow rapidly,

As the free-stream Mach number increases above 1.25, the boundary layer thickens very
rapidly under this lambda shock system, and causes the boundary layer to separate. The
pressure gradient near the wall has become too large for the slow-moving fluid near the wall
to continue moving in the main flow direction.

The above figure shows the effect of a strong shock in a diverging duct. The interaction between
the “shock” and the boundary layer results in Large separation zones .Large separation zones
cause a highly distorted, and probably unsteady, flow field that may require an axial distance

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets

of 10 duct widths or more to return to reasonable uniformity of flow. The flow field
disturbances and distortions shown in above figure would have seriously harmful effects on the
behavior of a compressor or combustor placed immediately downstream.

Unless one makes a strenuous effort to remove the wall boundary layer, strong shocks may
have disastrous effects on duct flow. If a shock wave must be placed in a supersonic stream
of given Mach number, then:
a. An oblique shock is much better than a normal one because the pressure rise is less;

b. The shock should interact with the wall at the point where the boundary layer is thinnest —
preferably at the leading edge for the simple diverging inlet

External Deceleration

External deceleration must occur upstream of the inlet plane in order to reduce the Mach
number of the normal shock to a suitable value. The simplest and most practical external
deceleration mechanism is an oblique shock or, in some cases, a series of oblique shocks.
Though such shocks are not isentropic, the stagnation pressure loss in reaching subsonic
velocity through a series of oblique shocks followed by a normal shock is less than that
accompanying a single normal shock at the flight velocity. The losses decrease as the number
of oblique shocks increases, especially at high flight Mach numbers.

In the external compression process, shocks and boundary layers may inter act strongly, so that
it is highly desirable to locate the oblique shocks at points where boundary layers are absent

The shape, size, and the number of the oblique planes influences the normal shocks

Considering the typical single oblique shock system and the double oblique shock systems. The
double shock systems theoretically give better performance. . If the deceleration had been
achieved by a single normal shock, the overall stagnation pressure ratio would have been only
0.33. But in case of double oblique shock systems the overall stagnation pressure ratio would
have been only 0.875

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets

The following figure provides a ideal geometry to achieve low losses, while at the same time
avoiding the starting problems of an internal convergence.

However, several practical difficulties would be encountered in the operation of such an inlet.
This geometry, like that of the isentropic internal flow diffuser, would function properly at only
one Mach number, and performance would be very sensitive to angle of attack. Furthermore,
the boundary layer along the curved surface, unlike that along plane or conical surfaces, would
be subject to a high adverse pressure gradient, which might cause separation. Finally, for high
flight Mach numbers it would be necessary that the flow turn through large angles before
reaching sonic velocity

The Flow Stability Problem

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets

. Consider a fixed geometry inlet designed for shock-free operation at Compressible internal
flow. At supersonic Mach numbers below the design value the inlet cannot pass the flow in the
upstream stream tube and the excess must be diverted around the inlet. A shock therefore stands
in front of the inlet, as in Figure (a). This mode is known as subcritical mode

As the Mach number is increased towards MD ,the corrected flow per unit area of the incoming
stream decreases, reducing the flow that must be spilled round the inlet, and allowing the shock
to move closer to the inlet. At the design Mach number, the shock will sit on the inlet lip. In
this position it is unstable, because a small perturbation that moves it into the inlet causes a
decrease in shock Mach number, this mode is known as Critical mode

With achieving shock swallowing in the diffuser, the consequence of the transient is shock
motion through the throat to a downstream position determined by the variable nozzle. To
achieve the best recovery, the nozzle is adjusted to position the shock at the throat. The mode
is known as supercritical Mode.

Working Principle of Supersonic Inlet of Concorde Aircraft

The above figure shows the design of the two-dimensional intake adopted for the Concorde
aircraft, whose design flight Mach number is 2; the Concorde is also required to cruise over
certain land areas at subsonic speeds. The Figure shows the intake geometry during takeoff;

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Subject: A/C propulsion Inlets

here the ramp assembly is raised to allow as much air as possible to the engine. Shock waves
are of course absent as the air enters the engine with a Mach number of about 0.5. As the
Concorde reaches a flight Mach number of about 0.7, the auxiliary door closes. Above a flight
Mach number of 1.3, the ramps are progressively lowered; the forward ramp controls the
position of the oblique shock waves that decelerate the airstream from supersonic to subsonic
speeds at the engine intake.

Name of Faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engineering

Module: 3 - Nozzles

Nozzles

The task of the exhaust nozzle is to convert gas potential energy into kinetic energy (i.e. gas
velocity) necessary for the generation of thrust. This is accomplished solely by the
geometrical shape of the nozzle, which is basically a tube of varying cross-section. Not every
nozzle type performs in the same manner. Depending on the type of aircraft, and design flight
speed, different types of nozzles are employed.

To illustrate the nature of the flow in the different regions of Nozzle we consider the case of a
nozzle designed for air (Ɣ = 1.4) and ait exit Mach number M = 3 under different back
pressure

a. Pa/Pt, = I: The hack pressure is equal to the supply stagnation pressure and there is no
flow in the Nozzle.
b. Pa/Pt = 0.987: The back pressure is low enough to have the flow accelerate and choke
the throat
c. Pa/Pt = 0.70: Here the back pressure is low enough to ensure starting but not low enough
to permit supersonic flow throughout the nozzle. The supersonic flow must “shock
down.” that is. a normal shock must appear to bring down the Mach number to an
appropriate subsonic level so that a higher static pressure is produced behind the shock.
Further diffusion through the increasing area duct serves to bring the pressure at the
exit up to the appropriate level.

1 | Name of the faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg

Module: 3 - Nozzles

d. Pa/Pt = 0.28: In this instance. the back pressure is low enough to ensure supersonic flow
throughout the nozzle but still higher than the pressure at the end of the nozzle.
e. 0.28 :> Pa/Pt > 027: In this range of hack pressure the flow is continuously supersonic
throughout the nozzle and the adjustment of the exhaust pressure takes place through
shock waves occurring outside the nozzle proper. Because the back pressure is higher
than the exit pressure. the nozzle is said to be “over expanded.”
f. Pa/Pt = 0.027: Here the exit pressure is exactly equal to the back pressure, the flow is
continuously supersonic throughout. and the exhaust stream is perfectly adapted to the
surrounding ambient pressure. This case is called the perfectly expanded nozzle.
g. Pa/Pt< 0.027: For all back pressures below the perfectly expanded value the flow
through the nozzle is supersonic and the adjustment to the low back pressure takes place
outside the nozzle. This case is called the underexpanded’ nozzle.

Functions of the Nozzles:

• Accelerate the flow to a high velocity with minimum total pressure loss
• Match exit and atmospheric pressure as closely as desired
• Permit afterburner operation without affecting main engine operation
• Allow for cooling of blades
• Mix core and bypass streams of turbofan if necessary
• Allow for thrust vectoring
• Suppress jet noise and infrared radiation Thrust vector control.

The exhaust nozzles may be classified as

1. Convergent or C-D types

2. Axisymmetric or two-dimensional types

3. Fixed geometry or variable geometry types

Convergent nozzle

2 | Name of the faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg

Module: 3 - Nozzles

In a convergent nozzle that the cross-section of a duct decrease in the stream wise direction if
a subsonic fluid flow is to be accelerated. A convergent nozzle is fitted to all airliners which
fly at subsonic or transonic speeds. Thus it is either of the axisymmetric or annular geometry.
All subsonic/ transonic turbojets and turboprop engines have one axisymmetric convergent
nozzle

Convergent-Divergent Nozzles

For higher exhaust velocities above Mach 1.5. Convergent-Divergent nozzle shape is
required. The geometric characteristic of this nozzle is a decreasing cross- sectional area in its
forward part (much like a convergent nozzle), followed by a cross-sectional increase in its
rearward portion (the divergent section).

In this nozzle, the subsonic flow is accelerated in the converging section up to the minimum
area or throat. It reaches a sonic speed exactly at the throat In the divergent section, pressure
is allowed to decrease below its critical value, with fluid velocity continuing to accelerate to
supersonic values.

3 | Name of the faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg

Module: 3 - Nozzles

Variable Geometry Nozzles

Variable area nozzle, which is sometimes identified as adjustable nozzle, is necessary for
engines fitted with afterburners. Generally, as the nozzle is reduced in area, the turbine inlet
temperature increases and the exhaust velocity and thrust increase.

Three methods are available, namely:

1. Central plug at nozzle outlet

2. Ejector type nozzle

3. IRIS nozzle

Central plug at nozzle outlet

The plug nozzle is the exact analogue of the

isentropic spike inlet. The improvement in otT
design performance results from the flow
remaining attached to the spike at pressure
ratios below design, while the stream tube
leaving the nozzle contracts to satisfy the requirements for lower expansion ratio.

Variable geometry ejector nozzle with tailflaps:

This type of nozzle is effective through a secondary airflow and spring-loaded petals. At
subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the exhaust to a convergent shape. As the aircraft
speeds up, the two nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a C-D shape, speeding
the exhaust gases past Mach 1 (Figure 11.7). Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative

4 | Name of the faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg

Module: 3 - Nozzles

simplicity and reliability. Disadvantages are average performance (compared to the other
nozzle type) and relatively high drag due to the secondary airflow

IRIS nozzle

Iris nozzle, which is used for higher performance nozzles. This type uses overlapping,
hydraulically adjustable “petals.” Although more complex than the ejector nozzle, it has
significantly higher performance and smoother airflow. It is employed primarily on
highperformance fighters such as F-16. Some modern iris nozzles have the ability to change
the angle of the thrust

Choking Condition:

Ambient pressure is not a constant but decreases with altitude. If the aircraft flies at high
altitude, lower ambient pressure will cause exhaust velocity Ve to increase accordingly. This
process cannot go on indefinitely, however. There is a limit when the jet discharges at sonic
velocity. Static pressure at nozzle discharge is then said to be critical. When nozzle mass flow
rate is at its maximum, the nozzle is said to be ‘choked’, i.e. mass flow cannot be increased
any more. When a jet is discharging from the nozzle at a higher static pressure than ambient
pressure, its expansion is incomplete or under-expanded.

Thrust Reversers

A jet powered aircraft, during its landing run, lacks the braking action afforded by slow
turning propellers, which on larger aircraft are capable of going into reverse pitch, thus giving
reverse thrust. The problem is further compounded by the higher landing speeds due to the high
streamlined, low drag fuselage and the heavier gross weights common to modern jet airplanes.
Standard wheel breaks are no longer adequate under these adverse conditions, and larger breaks
would incur a severe weight and space penalty and decrease the useful load of the aircraft. In
addition, breaks can be very ineffective on wet or icy runways.

5 | Name of the faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg

Module: 3 - Nozzles

Types of thrust reversers

The two basic types of thrust reversers are as follows:

 Postexit or target type/clamshell

 Preexit using cascades or blocker/deflector doors

Post exit reversing is accomplished simply by placing an obstruction in the jet exhaust
stream about one nozzle diameter to the rear of the engine. The gas stream may be deflected in
either a horizontal or vertical direction, depending on the engine's placement on the airframe.

In the preexit type, the gases are turned forward by means of doors that are normally
stowed or airfoils that are normally blocked during forward thrust operation. During reverse
thrust, doors are moved so that they now block the exhaust gas stream. The gas now exits and
is directed in a forward direction through turning vanes or by deflector doors.

Thrust Reverser Designs and Systems

A good thrust reverser should do the following:

 Be mechanically strong and constructed of high-temperature metals to take the full

force of the high-velocity jet and, at the same time, turn this jet stream through a large
angle
 Not affect the basic operation of the engine, whether the reverser is in operation or not.
 Provide approximately 50 percent of the full forward thrust
 Operate with a high standard of fail-safe characteristics

 Not increase drag by increasing engine and nacelle frontal area

 Cause few increased maintenance problems

6 | Name of the faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg

Module: 3 - Nozzles

 Not add an excessive weight penalty

 Not cause the reinjection of the gas stream into the compressor nor cause the gas stream
to impinge upon the airframe. That is, the discharge pattern must be correctly
established by the placement and shape of the target or vane cascade.
 Allow the pilot complete control of the amount of reverse thrust
 Not affect the aerodynamic characteristics of the airplane adversely.

pivoting reverser.

7 | Name of the faculty: Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg

Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

Thrust Vectoring:

Thrust vectoring is a technique whereby the orientation of the primary exhaust jet from a propulsive unit is
varied in order to provide useful aircraft control moments.

1. Mechanical thrust vectoring is achieved by mechanically deflecting the exhaust flow of an

aircraft using some sort of physical object changes in nozzle geometry. This is usually achieved
using various nozzles or vanes.
2. On the other hand, fluidic thrust vectoring systems use a secondary air jet to control the direction of the
primary jet. Fluidic control in exhaust nozzles includes throat area, expansion ratio, and thrust vector
angle.

Mechanical Thrust Vectoring Methods

1. Flaps :Flaps deflect the engines flow in much the same way as wing flaps deflect the external air
flow see figure (15 a). This type of system introduces a thrust loss of approximately 3-6% when vectored
to 90 degrees. The vectoring flaps can also be external to the nozzle as a part of the wing flap.
2. Bucket :The bucket thrust vectoring mechanism is similar to the commonly used clamshell thrust
reverser see figure(15 b).The great advantage to this concept is that all the force is transmitted through
the hinge line of the bucket meaning actuators can be reasonably small. Another advantage of this
system is that the turning surface can be made very efficient. This method can be used to create 90 degree
vectoring with about 2-3% thrust loss.
3. Axisymmetric: In this type of nozzle (figure 15 c) the tailpipe is broken along slanted lines into three
pieces as shown. The three pieces are connected with circular rotatingring bearings so that the middle
(shaded) piece can be rotated about its longitudinal axis while the other parts remain un-rotated. This
causes the middle and end parts of the nozzle to vector thrust downward. This vectoring nozzle has a
3-5% thrust loss when vectoring at 90 degrees
4. Ventral :The ventral nozzle (figure 15 d ) is simply a hole in the bottom of the tailpipe leading
to a downward facing nozzle. The normal exhaust opening is blocked by some sort of valve. These valves
can be used easily on aircraft with afterburners because they can be placed upstream of the afterburner.
These ventral nozzlesan help solve the balance problem of VTOL aircraft. The ventral nozzle has
a thrust loss of 3-6% when vectored to 90 degrees
3. Elbow Nozzle: This type of nozzle is used on the AV-8 Harrier. The elbow nozzle is simple and
lightweight and doesn’t require much actuating force. A disadvantage of this design is the fact that
the flow is always being turned through a total of 180 degrees, even in forward flight. Because
the flow is always being turned this nozzle type suffers 6-8% thrust loss at all times. All the other
types of vectoring nozzle only impose a thrust loss during vertical flight.
Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

Losses in a Nozzle

• Thrust loss due to exhaust velocity vector angularity.

• Thrust loss due to the reduction in velocity magnitude caused by friction in the boundary layers
• Thrust loss due to loss of mass flow between nozzle entry and exit from leakage through the nozzle
walls
• Thrust loss due to flow no uniformities.

Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

Behavior of the Nozzles at different altitudes

When exit pressure, Pe, is greater than the

ambient pressure, Pa, the expansion
process to the ambient pressure is
incomplete. The nozzle is then said to be
an under-expanded nozzle. The opposite
conditions prevail when Pe<Pa The exit
pressure is lower than the ambient
pressure and the nozzle is said to be
overexpanded.

A rocket traverses different altitudes, and

the ambient pressure decreases as the
rocket moves away from the surface of
the Earth. If the area ratio of the nozzle is
designed for optimum conditions at a
given altitude of operation, it will be operating in an 'under-expanded' condition for altitudes higher than the
design altitude (Pe=Pa) whereas it will function as an 'over-expanded' nozzle for the lower altitudes (Pe<Pa).

Engine backpressure control:

The throat area of the nozzle is one of the main means available to control the thrust and fuel
consumption characteristics of an existing engine. In preliminary engine cycle analysis, selection of
specific values for the engine design parameters and the design mass flow rate fixes the throat area of
the nozzle. This assumption of constant areas establishes the off-design operating characteristics of the
engine and the resulting operating lines for each major component. Changing the nozzle throat area from
its original design value will change the engine design and the operating characteristics of the engine at
both on- and off-design conditions.

At reduced engine corrected mass flow rates, the operating line of a multistage compressor moves
closer to the stall or surge line. Steady-state operation close to the stall or surge line is not desirable
because transient operation may cause the compressor to stall or surge. The operating line can be
moved away from the stall or surge line by increasing the exhaust nozzle throat area. This increase in
nozzle throat area reduces the engine backpressure and increases the corrected mass flow rate through
the compressor.

Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

Large changes in the exhaust nozzle throat area are required for afterburning engines to compensate for
the large changes in total temperature leaving the afterburner. The variable-area nozzle required for an
afterburning engine can also be used for back pressure control at its no afterburning settings.

One advantage of the variable-area exhaust nozzle is that it improves the starting of the engine. Opening the
nozzle throat area to its maximum value reduces the backpressure on the turbine and increases its expansion
ratio. Thus the necessary turbine power for starting operation may be produced at a lower turbine inlet
temperature. Also, because the backpressure on the gas generator is reduced, the compressor may be
started at a lower engine speed, which reduces the required size of the engine starter.

Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number: