Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

Learning Objective of the Class:

Module 4

GAS TURBINE ENGINE COMPRESSORS

Syllabus:
Centrifugal compressors: Principle of operation of centrifugal compressors. Work done and pressure rise
-Velocity diagrams, Diffuser vane design considerations. Performance characteristics. Concept of Pre-
whirl, Rotating stall.

Axial flow compressors: Elementary theory of axial flow compressor, Velocity triangles, Degree of
reaction, three dimensional flow. Air angle distribution for free vortex and constant reaction designs,
Compressor blade design. Axial compressor performance characteristics.

4.1 Principle of operation of centrifugal compressor

Essential parts of a centrifugal compressor:

• The inlet casing with converging nozzle, whose function is to accelerate the fluid to the impeller inlet.
The outlet of the inlet casing is known as the eye.

• The impeller, in which the energy transfer takes place, resulting in a rise of fluid kinetic energy and
static pressure.

Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

• The diffuser, whose function is to transform the high kinetic energy of the fluid at the impeller outlet
into static pressure.

• The outlet casing, which comprises a fluid collector known as a volute or scroll.
• The impeller vanes help to transfer the energy from the impeller to the fluid.
• The hub, which is surface AB.
• The shroud, which is surface CD. Impellers enclosed on the surface CD are known as shrouded
impellers, but the surface CD is referred to as the shroud in descriptions of impeller geometry whether
the impeller is enclosed or not.

• The inducer, the section EF. whose function is to increase the angular momentum
of the fluid without increasing its radius of rotation.

Principle of Operation:

• Air is sucked into the impeller eye through an accelerating nozzle and whirled round at high speed by
the vanes on the impeller disc.

• At any point, in the impeller, the flow experiences a centripetal acceleration due to a pressure head.

• Hence, the static pressure of the air increases from the eye to the tip of the impeller.
The remainder of the static pressure rise is obtained in the diffuser.
• It may be noted that air enters the impeller eye with a very high velocity.
• The friction in the diffuser will cause some loss in stagnation pressure.
Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

• It is a normal practice to design the compressor such that 50% pressure rise occurs in the impeller and
another 50% in the diffuser.
• It is to be understood that owing to the action of the vanes in carrying the air around, with the impeller,
there will be a slightly higher static pressure on the forward face of a vane than the trailing face.

• This pressure differential will make the air to flow around the space between the impeller and the
casing. This naturally results is a loss of efficiency.

• Therefore, the clearance must be kept as small as possible to reduce such a loss.
• The manufacturing difficulties are greatly increased to achieve this. Further there
would be a disc friction or windage loss associated with the shroud .

Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

4.2 Work done and pressure rise of centrifugal compressor

Since no work is done on the air in the diffuser, the energy absorbed by the compressor will be determined
by the conditions of the air at the inlet and outlet of the impeller. Figure 4.2 shows the nomenclature
employed.

In the first instance it will be assumed that the air enters the impeller eye in the axial direction, so that the
initial angular momentum of the air is zero. The axial portion of the vanes must be curved so that the air can
pass smoothly into the eye. The angle which the leading edge of a vane makes with the tangential direction
α will be given by the direction of the relative velocity of the air at inlet, V1, as shown in fig. 4.2.

If the air leaves the impeller tip with an absolute velocity C2, it will have a tangential or whirl component Cw2, and a
comparatively small radial component Cr2. Under ideal conditions C2 would be such that the whirl component is equal
to the impeller tip speed U.

Due to its inertia, the air trapped between the impeller vanes is reluctant to move round with the impeller, and we
have already noted that this results in a higher static pressure on the leading face of the vane than on the trailing face.
It also prevents the air from acquiring a whirl velocity equal to the impeller speed. This effect is known as slip. How
far the whirl velocity t the impeller tip falls short of the tip speed depends largely upon the number if vanes on the
impeller.

The greater the number of vanes, the smaller the slip, i.e the more nearly Cw2 approaches U. It is necessary in design
to assume value for the slip factor σ, where σ is defined as the ratio of Cw2 /U.

Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

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4.3 Diffuser vane design consideration

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4.4 Performance parameters/characteristics of centrifugal

compressor

Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

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Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

Rotating stall:

The important cause of instability and poor performance, which may contribute to surge but can exist in the
nominally stable operating range: this is the rotating stall. When there is any no uniformity in the flow or
geometry of the channels between vanes or blades, breakdown in the flow in one channel, say B as shown in
figure causes the air to be deflected in such a way that channel C receives.

Fluid at a reduced angle of incidence and channel A at an increased incidence. Channel A then stalls,
resulting in a reduction of incidence to channel B enabling the flow in that channel to recover. Thus the stall
passes from channel to channel: at the impeller eye it would rotate. In a direction opposite to the direction of
rotation of the impeller. Rotating stall may lead to aerodynamically induced vibrations resulting in fatigue
failures in other parts of the gas turbine.

4.5 Concept of Prewhirl

The tangential component of velocity at the inlet to the impeller is usually zero as the flow enters the
impeller axially. If prewhirl (or inlet guide) vanes are installed to the inlet duct before the impeller, then the
incoming air has a tangential component of velocity. This velocity component depends on the vane outlet
angle. Prewhirl may be positive or Positive prewhirl reduces the inlet relative velocity, while negative
prewhirl increases the inlet relative velocity. In aero engines, positive prewhirl is frequently used to reduce
the inlet relative speed.

The objective here is to avoid the formation of shock waves on the blade suction side. The designer of
compressor seeks for a small inlet area of the engine to reduce the drag force. At the same time, the air mass
flow rate is chosen as maximum as possible to maximize the thrust force. Both factors led to an increase in
the axial absolute velocity at inlet, and this in turn increases the relative velocity. Since the relative velocity
is maximum at the tip radius of the inlet than when accelerated, there is always a tendency for the air to
break away from the convex face of the curved part of the impeller vane. Here a shock wave might occur,
which upon interaction with the boundary layer over the convex surface of blades, causes a large increase in
boundary layer thickness. Thus, excessive pressure loss occurs.

The value of the inlet relative Mach number must be in the range from 0.8 to 0.85 to avoid the shock wave
losses described previously, or where T1 is the static inlet temperature. Though this Mach number may be
satisfactory on ground operation, it may be too high at altitude as the ambient temperature decreases with
altitude. For this reason, IGVs are added to decrease the Mach number. These IGVs are attached to the
Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

compressor casing to provide a positive prewhirl that decreases the magnitude of the maximum relative
velocity (W1) at the eye tip.

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Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

4.6 The effect of impeller blade shape on performance

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Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

4.7 Problems on centrifugal compressor: (study all problems from V

Ganesan, page no. 313 to 336)

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Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

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4.8 Construction and working of Axial Compressors

A axial Compressor consists of stator and rotor blades placed alternatively from the Inlet end to the exit end
It has a moving inner core called rotor and static outer portion called stator or casing. The rotor has a set of
blades mounted on it which rotate with the rotor. The casing or stator has static blades mounted on it. The
fluid is admitted in the compressor from the inlet end through the inlet guide vanes smoothly impinge upon
rotor blades. Flows over the rotor blades to the Stator blades and then again on rotor blade, and Stator blade

The working of axial flow compressors is based upon the addition of kinetic energy to the flowing fluid by
the rotor blades and its subsequent conversion into the pressure rise. Here the fluid enters axially. Through
the inlet guide Vanes, to the rotor blades at a suitable angle to ensure smooth flow. Then the fluid is rotated
by the rotor blades and its kinetic energy gets increased. During this process, there occurs a very small rise
in the pressure too. The rotor blades then discharge the fluid to the stator blades where the maximum rise in
the pressure occurs due to the diffusion in the stator section.

The fluid subsequently enters into the rotor blades which are followed by the stator blades and the process
continues so on till the exit end. The change in the total values of the pressure and temperature, and
enthalpy occurs only in the rotor section. In an axial flow compressor, the fluid successively passes through
the compressor stages causing slight rise in the pressure and temperature. This low pressure ratio of the
order of 1.1 to 1.4 offers high efficiency and the high pressure ratio up to 40 may be obtained.

Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

4.9 Velocity Triangles of axial compressors

The flow geometry at, the entry and exit of a turbomachine stage is described by the velocity triangles at
these stations. As already mentioned earlier, the velocity triangles for a turbomachine contain the following
three components:

• The peripheral velocity, (u), of the rotor blades,

• The absolute velocity, (c), of the fluid, and The relative
Velocity, (w), of the fluid.

These velocities are related by the following well-known vector equation:

This simple relation is frequently used and is very useful in drawing the velocity triangles for
turbomachines. The notation used here to draw velocity triangles correspond to the x-y coordinates; the
suffix (a) identifies components in the axial direction and the suffix (t) refers to the tangential direction. Air
angles in the absolute system are denoted by alpha (α), where as those in the relative system are represented
by beta (β).

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Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

4.10 Degree of Reaction

A degree of Reaction for axial compressors can also be defined a ratio of actual change of the enthalpy in
the rotor to actual change of enthalpy in the stage.

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Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

4.11 Blade Design Process

• Choice of rotational speed and annulus dimensions;
• Determination of number of stages, using an assumed efficiency;
• Calculation of the air angles for each stage at the mean radius;
• Determination of the variation of the air angles from root to tip;
• Investigation of compressibility effects;
• Selection of compressor blading, using experimentally obtained cascade data; Check on efficiency
previously assumed, using the cascade data;
• Estimation of off-design performance;
Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

• Rig testing

4.12 Free Vortex Theory (3D Flow)

Generally, the flow through compressor annulus is assumed to be two dimensiona1 considering that there is no effect
due to the radial movement of the flow. This radial movement of the Fluid can be ignored in the later stages.

Consider a fluid element of unit width with density p as shown in Figure. The fluid element shown here has
whirl component of velocity Ct, and axial component of velocity Ca Small radial component of the velocity
given by Cr. is there in the fluid element due to curvature (r) of the stream line. Here the element will be in
equilibrium when the pressure forces and inertia forces are equal

The inertia force will be consisting of (a) the centripetal force due to the circumferential flow, (b) the radial
component of the centripetal force due to the flow along the curved stream line and (c) the radial component
of the force causing linear acceleration along the streamline.

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4.13 Axial Compressor Characteristics

• The characteristic curves indicate that the pressure rise is quite steep at higher speeds of the rotation.
• Surging starts occurring even before the curves achieve the maximum value and due to this the design
point is close to the peak of characteristic curve near the surge line.

• Even a small reduction in the mass flow will show the increase in the pressure ratio and density and
this will cause reduction in the axial velocity causing stalling
Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

• Even small increase in the mass flow will cause drop in the pressure ratio and so reduction in the
density causing increase in the axial velocity causing stalling at later stages

• The reduction in the speed of rotation will cause reduction in the mass flow, axial velocity and blade,
thus stalling in the initial stage

• The stable operation range is quite narrow and so the use of axial flow compressor needs high care
while operating at off design conditions.

• Quite large speed of rotation leads to nearly vertical characteristic curve, thus increase in the density
pressure ratio, speed U and so increased mass flow leading to choking.

Consequences of Surge:

• There is no steady operating point once surge occurs. Thus, it is impossible to achieve design pressure
rise and mass flow and consequently the thrust of the engine.

• Transient consequences such as inlet overpressure can be severe.

• Surge may damage blades due to vibrational stresses (aero-elastic flutter and divergence).
• Internal component damage due to hot air passing upstream through the cold sections of the engine.

• Other consequences of surge include power loss and engine flame out

Consequences of rotating stall are:

• Reduced pressure rise in the stage affected.

• Vibrations: The stall cells rotate at a fraction of the rotor speed. As the blade passes in and out of these
stalled regions, vibrations are induced. If the natural frequency of blades coincides with which stall
cell crosses a blade, resonance occurs leading to possible fatigue failure.

Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

• Hysteresis: Throttling is used to correct rotating stall. However, to recover from stall, the corrected
mass flow (or flow coefficient) has to be much larger than that at which the compressor would stall.
This phenomenon is known as hysteresis.

4.14 Problems on axial compressor from V. Ganesan .

Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
Subject Title & Code: Aircraft Propulsion [15AE43] Class Number: Date: __/__/____

Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shivaji Lamani Department: Aeronautical Engg. Page Number:
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