DHARMSINH DESAI UNIVERSITY, NADIAD

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY MANUAL

FLUID FLOW OPERATIOM

[CH-501]
 : LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:

1. Reynold’s Experiment

2. Verification of Bernoulli’s Theorem

3. Orifice meter

4. Venturimeter

5. Rotameter

6. V-notch

7. Pitot-Tube

8. Energy losses due to pipe friction in pipelines

9. Equivalent length of pipe fittings

10. Flow through Packed Bed

11. Centrifugal pump test rig

12. Determination of Drag co-efficient .

 REYNOLDS’S EXPERIMENT:

AIM : Determine different regimes of flow using Reynold’s Apparatus.

APPARATUS: Reynold’s experiment set-up.

CHEMICALS: Water, Water soluble Dye .

THEORY: Sir Osborne in 1883 conducted an experiment for observation and determination of
different regimes of flow. The flow of real fluids can basically occur under two very different regimes
namely laminar and turbulent flow.

The laminar flow is characterized by fluid particles moving in the form of laminae sliding
over each other , such that at any instant the velocity at all the points in a particular laminae is the
same. This type of flow occurs in viscous fluids, fluids moving at slow velocity and fluid flowing
through narrow passage. There is no back mixing take place.

The turbulent flow is characterized by constant intermixing of fluid particles such that their
velocity changes from point to point and even at the same point from time to time. This type of flow
occurs in low density fluids, flow through wide passages and in high velocity flows.

Reynold Number is defined as the ratio of inertial force per unit volume to the viscous force
per unit volume and is given by

Re = ρVD / μ = VD / ν

Where, Re = Reynold Number

V = Velocity of flow m/sec
ρ = Density of fluid kg/m3
μ = Dynamic viscosity of fluid, kg/m-sec
ν = Kinematic viscosity of fluid

For flow through pipe,

If Nre ≤ 2100 the flow is Laminar .

If Nre ≥ 4000 the flow is Turbulent.

If 2100 < NRe < 4000 then flow regime is transition. (where the flow may be
either laminar or turbulent, depending upon the conditions at the
entrance of the tube and on the distance from the entrance.
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP :
The experimental setup is consist of horizontal/vertical glass tube with flared entrance
immersed in constant overhead tank filled with water. The flow of water through glass tube can be
adjusted at the outlet. The capillary tube connected to small reservoir containing water soluble dye is
provided at the centre of flared entrance of glass tube for injecting dye solution in the form of fine or
thin filament into stream of water . By introducing a water soluble –dye into flow of water, the nature
of flow could be observed and flow pattern can be predicted.

PROCEDURE :
1. Fill the tank with water and start the pump.
2. Partially open the outlet valve of the glass tube and allow the flow at a very low rate.
3. Allow the flow to stabilize then open the valve at the inlet of the dye injector and allow the
dye to move through the tube . Also observe the nature of filament.
4. Measure the discharge by collecting water for a known period of time.
5. Repeat the same procedure for different flow rates.

PRECAUTION :

1. During the experiment the flow rate should remain constant and the position of the head also
exist at the same level.
2. The glass pipe should run full.

RESULTS :

Reynold Number Flow pattern

OBSERVATION :
1. Temperature of water = ------------- ˚C
2. Density of water = ------------- kg/m3
3. Dynamic viscosity of water = -------------- kg/m- sec
4. Inside diameter of glass tube Di = 0.0254 m
5. Outside diameter of glass tube D0 = 0.028 m

OBSERVATION TABLE :

Sr. No. Volume of Time

water (Sec)
collected
( ml)
1.
2
3.
4.
5.

CALCULATION :

∗ 2
1. Cross-sectional area of glass tube = , m

3
2. Volumetric flow rate Q = Volume of water collected in m3 / Time , m / sec

3. Velocity u = Q/A , m /sec.

4. Reynold Number Re = ρVD / μ

CALCULATION TABLE :

Sr. No. Volume of Time Volumetric Velocity Reynold Flow

water (Sec) flow rate (m/sec) Number pattern
3
collected (m /sec)
( m3)
1.
2
3.
4.
 : BERNOULLI’S THEOREM:

AIM: - To verify the Bernoulli’s theorem.

APPARATUS: - Bernoulli’s apparatus

CHEMICALS: - Water

THEORY: -
The Bernoulli theorem states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the
total energy at any point is constant. The total energy is consist of pressure energy, kinetic
energy and potential energy or datum energy.
The assumption made in Bernoulli’s equation are :
1. Steady potential flow.
2. Incompressible fluid.
3. The cross section of tube increases constantly in the direction
of flow.
Mathematically, the Bernoulli’s equation can be written as,
2
+ + =
2

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP:
There are two vertical water tanks which are joined though their bottom with a
horizontal tube varying in cross-section area. Vertical tubes of same height are fitted on the
horizontal tube at different place of equal spacing between each. The water from the overhead
tank flows to the outlet water tank which is controlled by valve.
PROCEDURE: -
 Open the inlet valve to fill the supply tank up to a High level.
PRECAUTION:
[ The outlet valve of apparatus should be closed till both tanks are
filled.]
 Open the outlet valve and regulate both the inlet and outlet valve in
such a way that the head in both the tank remains constant.
 Note the time to collect water for a specific rise in the collecting
tank. Find the discharge through the duct.
 At that time the entire capillary will show some level height of water
in it. Note down the piezometer reading in all capillary tube.[1-11]
 Repeat the experiment for a medium and low head levels in the supply
tank.

RESULT TABLE: -

Head, H Flow rate

(cm3 /
V2
H z
sec) 2g
OBSERVATIONS: -

1. Temperature of water T = ------------------ ˚ C

2.
Density of water ρH2O = ------------------- Kg/m3
3. Inside diameter of pipe Di = 2.54 cm
∗
4. Cross-sectional area of the pipe A= = ------ m2
5. Collecting tank size = 30*30 cm2

OBSERVATION TABLE: -

No. Duct Diameter, D Area of Height of

No. duct, A water in
piezometer
cm cm2 mm
Height of water in 1 3.6
collection tank (cm) h = 2 3.0
3 2.6
Time for collecting 4 2.2
Volume (sec) = 5 1.7
1. 6 0.8
Volume of water 7 1.7
Collected ( V cm3) = 30*30*h 8 2.2
9 2.6
10 3.0
Volumetric flow rate Qac = cm3/sec 11 3.6
Height of water in 1 3.6
collection tank (cm) h = 2 3.0
3 2.6
Time for collecting 4 2.2
Volume (sec) = 5 1.7
2. 6 0.8
Volume of water 7 1.7
Collected ( V cm3) = 30*30*h 8 2.2
9 2.6
10 3.0
Volumetric flow rate Qac = cm3/sec 11 3.6
CALCULATIONS: -

1. Velocity = Actual Volumetric flow rate / area of Duct= Qac /A, cm/sec

2. Velocity Head Hv = V2/2*g , cm

3. Pressure head Hp = Height of water in piezometer tube,cm

4. Elevation head Z = it remains zero for same elevation.

5. Hp+ Hv+ Z = cm

CALCULATIONS TABLE: -
No. Head, H Duct Velocity, Velocity Head Pressure Head
No. V Hv Hp V2/2g + H +Z
cm /sec cm cm
1
2
3
4
5
1. 6
High 7
8
9
10
11
10
11
1
2
3
4
5
2. Low 6
7
8
9
10
11
 : ORIFICEMETER:

AIM: - To obtain the discharge coefficient for the given orifice meter.

APPARATUS:
 Orifice meter

CHEMICALS: - Water

THEORY :

A standard sharp edged orifice consists of an accurately machined and drilled plate
mounted between two flanges with the hole or opening concentric with the pipe in which it is
mounted. The opening in the plate may be beveled on the downstream side. The pressure taps are
provided at the section where the converging jet of the fluid has the minimum cross sectional
area called vena –contracta. . The position of the taps is arbitrary and connected to a manometer.
The coefficient of the meter will depend upon the position of the taps.
 Flat-plate, sharp-edge orifice

Note:

 Formation of Vena-contracta- Fluid stream separates from the downstream side of the
orifice plate and forms a free-flowing jet in the downstream side.
 Orifice coefficient, generally, is 0.61 in case of flange taps and vena-contracta taps for
NRe< 30,000.

Limitation:

 An orifice only works well when supplied with a fully developed flow profile. This is
achieved by a long upstream length (20 to 40 pipe diameters, depending on Reynolds
number) or the use of a flow conditioner.
  Orifice plates are small and inexpensive but do not recover the pressure drop as well as a
venturi nozzle does. If space permits, a venturi meter is more efficient than a flowmeter.

PROCEDURE:

1. Fill the overhead tank with water and adjust the valve to maintain the constant head by
overflow in the overhead tank.
2. Connect the manometer to the two pressure tappings of the orifice meter . Ensure that the
manometer indicates zero reading at no flow through the orifice meter.
3. Open the inlet valve to a certain valve opening and wait till the flow is stabilized. This is
indicated by the steady levels of the manometric fluid in the limbs of the manometer.
4. After ensuring steady state, measure the volumetric flow rate for a known period of time.
5. Note down manometer reading corresponding to that flow rate.
6. Repeat the procedure for different flow rates. The last reading should be taken at the
maximum permissible manometer reading.

PRECAUTION:

1. Ensure that there is no air bubbles in the manometer.

2. After each change in the valve opening with for sometime for the flow to stabilize before taking
readings.
3. Use carbon tetrachloride (as manometric fluid ) at low flow rates and mercury( as manometric fluid)
at higher flow rates.

GRAPHS:
Plot the following graphs:
1. Manometer reading versus Volumetric flow( ΔH Q)
2. Nre vs. Co.

RESULTS:
1. The discharge coefficient of orifice = ------------
 OBSERVATIONS:

1. Temperature of water T = ----------------- ˚C

2. Density of water ρH2O = ------------------ kg/m3
3. Density of Mercury ρHg = ------------------ kg/m3
4. Viscosity of water μH2O = ---------------- kg / m sec
5. Perimeter of the pipe πDo = 18.5 m
6. Outside diameter of the pipe Do = 0.058 m
7. Inside diameter of the pipe Di = 0.054 m
8. Cross-sectional area of the pipe A= π/4 Di2 = ---------- m2
9. Diameter of the orifice do = 0.0254 m
10. Cross-sectional area of orifice Ao= π/4 Do2 = ---------- m2
orificedia meter
11. β = = 0.4703
pipediamet er

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. Volume of water Time of Volumetric Difference in

No. Collected Collection Flow rate Manometer
3
V (m ) t (sec) Q = v/t Reading
(m3/sec) Δh Hg (m)

CALCULATION:

1. Velocity through orifice uo = Q/Ao = ------------ m/sec

2. Reynolds number NRe = ρu0 do/μ = ----------------

Manometer reading in terms of m of water

Hg  H 2O
ΔH = ΔhHg
H 2O

3. Discharge coefficient through orifice

uo
Co 
2 * g * H
1  4
CALCULATION TABLE:

Sr. No. Velocity through ΔH Discharge

Orifice m of water Co-efficient
uo = Q/Ao, Co
m/sec
 :VENTURIMETER:

AIM: - To obtain the discharge coefficient for the given venturimeter.

APPARATUS:
 Venturimeter
 Stop-watch

CHEMICALS: - Water, Mercury

THEORY :

 A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a

fluid flowing through a pipe.
 It consists of three parts: (1) A short converging part: It is
constructed from a flanged inlet section consisting of a short
cylindrical portion and a truncated cone; (2) A flanged throat section;
(3) Diverging part consisting of a long truncated cone.
 In the upstream section, at the junction of the cylindrical and conical
portions, an angular chamber is provided, and a number of small holes
are drilled from the inside of the tube in to the annular chamber. The
annular ring and the small holes constitute a piezometer ring, which has
the function of averaging the individual pressures transmitted through
the several holes. The average pressure is transmitted through the
upstream pressure connection.
 A second piezometer ring is formed in the throat section by an integral
annular chamber and a linear.
 In the venturimeter, the velocity is increased, and the pressure
decreased, in the upstream cone. The pressure drop in the upstream cone
is utilized to measure the rate of flow through the instrument. The
velocity is then decreased, and the original pressure largely recovered,
in the downstream cone.
 To make the pressure recovery large, the angle of downstream cone is
small, so boundary layer separation prevented and friction minimized.
Since separation does not occur in contracting section, the upstream
cone can be made shorter than the downstream cone.
 .

PROCEDURE:

1. Fill the water in supply tank and start the pump.

2. Open the inlet valve to a certain opening and wait till the flow becomes steady. This is
indicated by the steady levels of the manometric fluid in the limbs of the manometer.
3. Note down manometer reading corresponding to steady flow.
4. Measure the volumetric flow rate for a known period of time.
5. Repeat the procedure for different flow rates.

PRECAUTION:

1. Ensure that there is no air bubbles in the manometer.

2. After each change in the valve opening with for some time for the flow to stabilize before taking
readings.
3. Use carbon tetrachloride at low flow rates and mercury at higher flow rates.
4. Ensure that the manometer indicates zero reading at no flow through the venturimeter.

GRAPHS:
Plot the following graphs:
1. Manometer reading versus Volumetric flow( ΔH Q)
2. NRe vs. Cv.

RESULTS:
The discharge coefficient of venturimeter is = ------------
 OBSEVATIONS: -
1. Temperature of water T = ---------------- ˚ C
2. Density of water ρH2O = ------------------- kg/m3
3. Density of Mercury ρHg = ------------------- kg/m3
4. Viscosity of water μH2O = ----------------kg/m sec
5. Diameter of pipe D1 = 0.025 m
6. Diameter of throat D2 = 0.016 m
7. Area of cross section of pipe A1 = ---------- m2
8. Area of cross section of throat A2 = ---------- m2
9. β = throat diameter / pipe diameter = 0.64
10. Area of measuring tank A= 30 cm*40 cm

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. Height of water in Time of Volumetric Flow rate Difference in
No. Collection tank Collection Q = [ h*A] / t Manometer
h,m t (sec) (m3/sec) Reading
ΔhHg (m)
1
2
3

CALCULATION:

1. Velocity u = Q/A2, m/sec

2. Manometer reading in terms of m of water

Hg  H 2O
ΔH = ΔhHg
H 2O

3. Discharge coefficient through venturimeter

u
Cv 
2 * g * H
1  4

CALCULATION TABLE:
Sr. No. Velocity ΔH Discharge Co-efficient
u m/sec m of water Cv
1
2
3
 : ROTAMETER:
AIM: To calibrate the given Rotameter.

APPRATUS:
 Rotameter
 Stop-watch

CHEMICALS: Water

THEORY:
 The Rotameter is an variable area meter used to measure the flow rate of liquids and
gases.
 The rotameter's operation is based on the variable area principle: fluid flow raises a float
in a tapered tube, increasing the area for passage of the fluid.
 The rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass, with a float inside that
is pushed up by flow and pulled down by gravity. The height of the float is directly
proportional to the flowrate. The greater the flow, the higher the float is raised.
 With liquids, the float is raised by a combination of the buoyancy of the liquid and the
velocity head of the fluid.
 With gases, buoyancy is negligible and the float responds to the velocity head alone.
 The float moves up or down in the tube in proportion to the fluid flowrate and the annular
area between the float and the tube wall.
 The float reaches a stable position in the tube when the upward force exerted by the
flowing fluid equals the downward gravitational force exerted by the weight of the float.

 For a given flow rate, the equilibrium position of the float in a

rotameter is established by a balance of the three forces: (1) the
weight of the float, (2) the buoyant force of the fluid on the float,
(3) the drag force of the float. Force 1 acts downward, and forces 2 and
3 acts upward.
 the projected area of the velocity past the float, which occurs at the
largest diameter edge
PROCEDURE:

1. Make sure that the rotameter is in vertical position and float is at the bottom position in
the rotameter.
2. Open the inlet valve to start the flow.
3. Float moves upwards with the fluid which passed through an annular passage between
the wall of tapered glass tube and float periphery.
4. Now stop the valve adjustment and observe that the float comes to dynamic equilibrium
position. The float gives readings on a calibrated scale in terms of flow rate ( LPH).
5. Collect the volume for a known period of time and calculate volumetric
flow rate.
6. Repeat the procedure for the different flowrate.

GRAPH: float position vs. volumetric flow rate

RESULT:

Sr. Calculated flowrate Float position

No. (L/hr) ( L/hr)
1
2
3
4
5
6

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Area of collection tank A= 30 cm * 30 cm

Sr. Height of water in Time of Volumetric Flow rate Volumetric Flow rate Float
No. collection tank Collection Q = [h*A] / t Q ( L/hr) position
h,m t (sec) (m3/sec) ( L/hr)
1
2
3
4
5
6

CALCULATION:

1. Volumetric flow rate = volume/ time = --------------- L/ hr

 : V-NOTCH :

AIM: To determine the discharge coefficient of V-notch.

APPARATUS: V-notch apparatus.

CHEMICALS : Water

THEORY:

Notches or Weirs are typically installed in open channels such as streams to determine discharge
(flowrate). The basic principle is that discharge is directly related to the water depth above the crotch
(bottom) of the V; this distance is called head (h). The V-notch design causes small changes in discharge
to have a large change in depth allowing more accurate head measurement than with a rectangular weir.

The volumetric flow rate Q through v-notch is given by

8 5
Q  Cd 2 g tan( / 2) H 2
15

Where Cd= Discharge co-efficient

θ = Angle of v-notch
g = Acceleration due to gravity , m/s2
H = Height of free surface of approach channel over the vertex
of the notch
PROCEDURE:
 Fill water in the supply tank. Make sure that bypass valve is fully open and control valve is fully closed.
 Switch on the pump. Close the bypass valve and keep the delivery valve open to have maximum flow rate
through the open channel.
 Shut off the delivery valve once the water start flowing over the notch.
 Drain the water from the open channel till one get exact mirror image of notch in the water with
two apex points touching each other.
 Note the reading of water level in the open channel.
 Open the delivery valve and allow the water to spill over the notch. Wait for the steady state to achieve by
a constant height over the notch. Note down the height of the liquid in the open channel.
 Close the drain valve of collection tank , collect a known quantity of water and note down the time
required for the same.
 Repeat the procedure for different flow rates.
RESULT:
 Discharge co-efficient for v-notch =---------
 OBSERVATIONS:

1. Angle of V-notch ϴ= 60˚

2. Cross sectional area of collection tank A = 0.30 m *0.30 m

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. Height difference Time of Initial reading of Final reading of
No. of water in collection Collection water in open channel h1 water in open channel
tank Δ h , m t (sec) ( Before over flow (After steady state
through notch) through Notch)
h1 (mm) h2 (mm)
1
2
3
4

CALCULATION:

1. Volume of water collected V = A*Δh

2. Volumetric flow rate of liquid Q = volume of water collected/time = V/t = ------ m3 /sec
3. Discharge coefficient Cd:

Cd = Q
8 5
2 g tan( / 2) H 2
15
CALCULATION TABLE:
Sr. Volume of water Volumetric Flow rate Difference of water Co-efficient of discharge H(
No. collected V , m3 Q , (m3/sec) level in open channel Cd
H (m) = h2 - h1
1
2
3
4
 :PITOT TUBE :

AIM : To determine the point velocity in a given pipe line.

APPARATUS :
Air blower, U-tube manometer, Pitot tube

THEORY :
Pitot tube is used for determining the local velocity at various points in a pipe. It consists of an
impact tube, which is positioned perpendicular to the direction of flow and a static tube, which is
positioned parallel to the direction of flow. One end of the manometer is connected to the impact tube and
the other end to the static tube. The resultant difference in manometer level indicates the difference
between the sum of kinetic and pressure heads registered by the impact tube and the pressure head as
registered by the static tube,

hm = hm1 – hm2 V=2*g*h , Where h = hm (m - a)/ a

The velocity V is point velocity and not the average velocity. It is the velocity corresponding to the
position of impact tube.

Experimental setup:
The air blower is supplying air at variable discharge. The velocity distribution across the
pipe diameter connected at the blower outlet is measured by the Pitot - static tube provided with
sliding arrangement. The U-tube manometer senses the difference of static pressure and dynamic
pressure in terms of Manometric fluid (water in the current setup).

Procedure:

1. Start the blower with zero opening

2. Adjust the pitot-static tube in front of the exit of blower pipe.
3. Measure the difference in level of Manometric fluid, hm in U-tube manometer
4. Measure the hm across the diameter of the blower pipe.
5. Calculate the velocity of air at each location across the diameter.
6. Increase the blower opening and reapeat the steps: 2 to 5 for different discharges.

Observations:

1. Density of Manometric fluid, ρm = __________________________ kg/m3

2. Density of flowing fluid in pipe, ρf = __________________________ kg/m3
3. Differential pressure head in manometer, hm = ____________ m
4. Distance from top edge of pipe = ______mm

Calculations:
Velocity of flowing fluid, = 2 ℎ ( − )/

RESULT: The point velocity of the flowing fluid is = _____ m/sec.

 : ENERGY LOSSES DUE TO PIPE FRICTION IN PIPELINES:

AIM: To determine relation between friction factor and Reynolds number for an
Incompressible fluid flowing through a circular pipe.

APPARATUS: A test section of smooth circular pipe with two pressure tapings and different
diameter, U-tube manometer , Pump, reservoir, Stop-watch.

CHEMICALS: Water, Mercury.

THEO RY:
In hydraulic engineering practice, it is frequently necessary to estimate the head loss
incurred by a fluid as it flows along a pipeline.
When a fluid flows in a steady state through a pipe, there is a loss of energy (or pressure)
in the fluid. This is because energy is dissipated to overcome the frictional forces exerted by the
walls of the pipe as well as the moving fluid layers itself. The energy dissipated depends on the
properties of flowing fluid and the confining pipe and their relative motion. The significant
properties of the pipe are their internal diameter, length and roughness ratio  / D (where D is the
inside diameter of the pipe and  is the average height of the projection of roughness inside the
pipe) and of the fluid are its density and viscosity. In addition to the energy lost due to frictional
forces, the flow also losses pressure as it goes through fittings, such as valves, elbows,
contractions and expansions. The pressure loss in pipe flows is commonly referred to as head
loss. The frictional losses are referred to as major losses while losses through fittings etc, are
called minor losses. Together they make up the total head losses.

The head loss due to friction for a fluid flowing through a pie is given by:

H = P/  g = 4 f (L/ D) (V2/ 2 g) -------- (1)

This equation is called Fanning’s Equation. f is called the Fanning’s friction factor and it is a
function of Reynolds Number and the roughness factor.
f = (NRe)  ( / D) ---------- (2)

The friction factor can be calculated : (From eq.1)

∆P D 2
f exp = ∗ ∗
4∗ρ L v

Where, fexp = friction factor (experimentally)

L = length of pipe under consideration, m
V = average velocity of fluid, m/sec
D = inside diameter of the tube, m
ρ = density of fluid , kg/m3
ΔP = Pressure drop, N/m2
For laminar flow, the friction factor can be estimated using

16
f theo 
Re
 *V * D
Where Re = Reynolds Number =

For turbulent flow, friction factor can be estimated using the following equations:

1. For hydraulically smooth pipes:

f theo  0.046 * (Re) 0.2 4000<Re< 105

2. For rough pipes:

0.33125
f theo  10 - 6  e/D  10  2
e 5.74
{ln[  0.9 ]}2
3.7 D Re
5000  Re  10 8

Where e = roughness of pipe material

PROCEDURE:

1. Fill the sump tank with water

2. Switch on the pump and adjust the flow through the pipe with the help of supply valve and
bypass valve provided.
3. Open the desired pressure tap valve from the pipe line to the manometer. Make sure only one
is open at a particular time and Remove any air from the system by opening the valve
provided on the manometer.
4. After steady state is achieved record the difference in manometer limbs.
5. Collect about known quantity (height difference) of water in the collection tank and note
down the time required for the same.
6. Repeat the procedure for different flow rates.
7. Repeat the same procedure for other pipe of different diameter also.

GRAPH:
Log f vs log Re for both the pipes

RESULT:
Sr. Reynold Number Friction Factor Friction Factor
No ( Theoretical) (Experimental)
1
2
3
4
5
OBSERVATION:

1. Temperature of water T = ------------------ ˚ C

2. Density of water ρH2O = ------------------- Kg/m3
3. Viscosity of Water μH2O = ------------------- kg / m * sec
4. Collection tank area A = 30 cm * 30 cm
5. Length of test section L = 1 meter
6. Diameter of pipes
Diameter of pipe -A = 32 mm
Diameter of pipe -B = 26 mm
Diameter of pipe -C = 22 mm

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Pipe Sr. Height Difference Time of Volumetric Flow rate Difference In manometer
No. in collection tank Collection Q = Δh *A/t Reading
Δh , m t (sec) (m3/sec) Δ HHg , cm Hg
1
Pipe A 2
1
Pipe B 2
1
Pipe C 2

CALCULATION:
1. Velocity through pipe V = volumetric flow rate/ cross section area of pipe
= Q/A
= --------------- m/sec
2. Reynolds number NRe = ρVD/μ = ----------------
3. Friction factor f ( Theoretical)

Laminar flow f = 16/ NRe

Turbulent flow f = 0.046 NRe-0.2
4. Pressure drop P   w * g * H w

 Hg   water 
P   w * g * H Hg *
w

P  H Hg * g *  Hg   water 
∆
5. friction factor f exp = ∗ ∗
∗ρ

CALCULATION TABLE:

Pipe Sr. Velocity Reynolds ΔP f f Log Re Log f

No. V , m/sec Number N/m2 ( Theo.) (Exp.)
1
Pipe A 2
1
Pipe B 2
1
Pipe C 2
 :EQUIVALENT LENGTH OF PIPE FITTINGS:

AIM: To determine the equivalent length for various pipe fittings and valves of the given
piping system.

APPARATUS: Experimental set-up includes various valves like globe valve, gate valve etc.
and fittings like Enlarger, Reducer , elbow etc., U- tube manometer, Pump, reservoir, Stop-
watch.

CHEMICALS: Water, Mercury.

THEORY:

When a fluid flow through a pipe, resistance is offered to the flow which is estimated by
the Fanning’s equation. Fluid also flows through various fittings and valves in the pipe line. The
fitting such as coupling, union, enlarger, reducer and elbow are used to join two pipe lengths, to
vary the area of cross-section of flow or to change the direction of flow. The valves such as globe
valve, gate valve, needle valve, check valve are used to control the rate of flow. Fittings and
valves disturb the normal flow lines and cause friction. In short lines with many fittings, the
friction loss from the fittings may be greater than that from straight pipe. This friction can not be
calculated directly. Hence the frictional resistance of a fitting or a valve is expressed as equivalent
to the frictional resistance offered by a length of a straight pipe of the same diameter as that of
fitting. This length is called “ Equivalent length” of fitting or valve and length is expressed as
the number of diameter of the pipe.
The friction loss from fittings is found from as equation similar to
friction loss due to sudden expansion of cross section and friction loss from
sudden contraction of cross-section as follows respectively,
PROCEDURE:

1. Start the pump and run it at low speed so that water flows through the
test section at a very low flow rate.
2. Remove the air bubbles and attach the tapings to the respective
manometers.
3. Pressure tapping of fitting A is kept open while for other fittings
tapping are closed.
4. Adjust the flow rate through test section to its maximum value.
5. After steady state is attained, measure flow rate by collecting water from outlet in a
collection tank for a know time .
6. Note down the flow rate and corresponding manometer reading for fitting A.
7. Repeat the same procedure for different fittings at the same flow rate and note down
corresponding manometer reading.
8. Repeat the same procedure for different flow rates for all fittings.

PRECAUTION:

1. Check the manometer for air bubbles and remove if any.

2. The inlet valve, globe valve & gate valves are kept open completely before start of the
experiment.
3. Ensue that there is no leakage from any pipe fittings.
4. Keep the time for discharge measurement sufficiently large especially for low flows.

GRAPH: Leq vs NRe (for all fittings and valve).

RESULT:

Sr. No. Flow rate m3 Equivalent length of fittings / valves (m)

Bend Globe valve Elbow Enlarger
1
2
3
4
5

CONCLUSION:
OBSERVATIONS:

1. Temperature of water T = ---------------- ˚C

2. Density of water ρH2O = ---------------- kg/m3
3. Density of mercury ρ Hg = ---------------- kg/m3
4. Viscosity of water μH2O = ---------------- kg / m sec
5. Length of pipe L = 1.4 m
6. Inside diameter of the pipe Di = 0.0254 m
7. Cross sectional area of pie A = -------- m2
8. Area of collection tank = 30 cm * 30 cm

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. Volume of Time of Volumetric Manometer readings

No Water collected Collection Flow rate Δ H (m Hg)
V (m3) t (sec) Q (m3/sec) Bend Valve Elbow Enlarger

1
2
3

CALCULATION:

1. Volumetric flow rate Q = volume of water collected/time of collection

= V/t = -------------- m3/sec
2. Velocity through pipe = volumetric flow rate/ cross section area of pipe
= Q/A = --------------- m/sec
3. Reynolds number NRe = ρVD/μ = ----------------
4. Friction factor f
Laminar flow f = 16/Re where, Re = Reynolds’s number

Turbulent flow f = 0.079 Re-0.25 (smooth pipe)

5. ΔPf = ΔHHg *g* (ρHg – ρH2O) = ------------ N/m2

6. ΔP = ------------- N/m2
32 * L *  * V
For laminar flow : ΔP =
D2

4 * f * L *  *V 2
For turbulent flow : ΔP =
2 * Di

L * Pf
7. Leq 
P

CALCULATION TABLE:
Sr. Velocity Reynolds f ΔPf ΔP Equivalent length of fittings Leq. (m)
No V , m/sec Number N/m2 N/m2
Bend Valve Elbow Enlarger
1
2
3
 :FLOW THROUGH PACKED BED:

AIM: To determine the effect of modified Reynolds number on modified friction factor for fluid
flow through a packed bed.

APPARATUS: A packed bed column with two pressure tapping, manometer, stop watch., water
circulation system.

THEORY:
Packed bed column is a cylindrical column packed with certain packing material. The
packing can be randomly filled with small objects like Rashing rings or else it can be a
specifically designed structured packing. Several chemical engineering unit operations such as
absorption, adsorption, distillation and extraction are carried out in packed columns. These
packings enhance the surface area available for transfer operations. Packed columns are also
used for heterogeneous catalytic reactions.
Flow through a packed bed can be regarded as fluid flow past some number of submerged
objects. When there is no flow through the packed bed, the net gravitational force (including
buoyancy) acts downward. When flow begins upward, friction forces act upward and
counterbalance the net gravitational force. The frictional force can be expressed in terms of a
friction factor.
There are several approaches to treating fluid flow through packed beds. The most
successful of these is the Ergun Equation, which describes flow in both the laminar and
turbulent regimes. From a fluid mechanical perspective, the most important issue is that of the
pressure drop required for the liquid or the gas to flow through the column at a specified flow
rate. To calculate the pressure losses, we rely on a friction factor correlation attributed to
Ergun.

The Ergun equation that is commonly employed is given below.

 Here, the friction factor fp for the packed bed, and the Reynolds number Re,p , are defined
as follows.

PROCEDURE:

1. Fill the sump tank with water.

2. Keep the bypass valve completely open and the main valve completely closed. Switch on
the pump.
3. Open the main valve and allow the fluid to flow through the bed.
4. Wait till steady state is attained. Note down the manometer reading and the flow rate using
the rotameter.
5. Increase the flow rate by opening the main valve and throttling the bypass valve suitably
and repeat step (4).
6. After completing the experiment, close the main valve. Switch off the pump. Determine
the void volume by draining water from the column.

PRECAUTION:
1. Ensure that there is no air bubbles in the manometer.

GRAPH: friction factor vs Reynolds number on log-log plot.

RESULT:

Sr Flow rate Modified NRe Modified

No Friction factor
1
2
3
 OBSERVATION:
1. Density of water = 1000 kg/m3
2. Density of mercury = 13600 kg/m3
3. Viscosity of water = 8.9*10-4 kg/m.s
4. Length of packed column (L) = 0.75 m
5. Outside Diameter of packed column (D) = ____ m
6. Thickness of packed column = 0.004 m
7. Inside diameter of packed column (Di) = _____ m
8. Total volume of column = (Л /4)*D2*L = _____m3
9. Void volume = ____ m3
10. Porosity of bed (ε ) = void volume/total volume = _____
11. Diameter of Particle (Dp) = 0.00847 m

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. Rotameter Manometer

No reading Reading
∆hHg , m
1
2
3

CALCULATION :

1. Cross sectional area of column Ac = (П/4) Di2 = ----------- m2

2. Superficial velocity of the fluid = Vs = volumetric flow rate/ C.S.A.(Ac)

 Hg   water 
3. Head loss in terms of meter of water =∆Hw = h Hg *
w
4. Pressure drop = P  h Hg * g *  Hg   water 

5. Modified Reynolds number NRe,p= Dp*Vs*ρ / μ*(1- ε)

6. Modified Friction factor :

Calculation Table:

Sr. Superficial Velocity Head loss of ∆P NRe Modified NRe Friction factor
No. Vs, m/sec Water N/ m2
∆Hw m
1
2
3
 : CENTRIFUGAL PUMP TEST RIG:
AIM : To obtain efficiency for a centrifugal pump.
APPARATUS :
 Centrifugal pump test rig

CHEMICALS: Water

THEORY :

Pump: The hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy are called pumps.
Centrifugal Pump: If the mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy by means
of centrifugal force acting on the fluid, the hydraulic machine is called centrifugal pump.
The main parts of the centrifugal pump are:
1. Impeller: The rotating part consists of a series of backward curved vanes. The
impeller is mounted on a shaft which I turn connected to the shaft of an electric motor.
2. Casing: It is an air-tight passage surrounding the impeller. Three types of
casing are : Volute casing, Vortex casing, Casing with guide blades
3. Suction pipe with foot valve and strainer: One end of the suction pipe is
connected to the inlet of the pump and the other end dips into water sump. Foot valve is a
non-return valve at the bottom of the suction pipe.
4. Delivery Pipe: A pipe whose one end is connected to the outlet of the pump and the
other end delivers the water at required height.

Working of centrifugal pump:

 A centrifugal pump works on the principle of conversion of the kinetic energy of a
flowing fluid into pressure energy.
 Its purpose is to convert energy of an electric motor or engine into velocity or kinetic
energy and then into pressure of a fluid that is being pumped.
 The energy changes occur into two main parts of the pump, the impeller and the volute.
The impeller is the rotating part that converts driver energy into the kinetic energy. The
volute is the stationary part that converts the kinetic energy into pressure.
 The rotation of the pump impeller accelerates the fluid as it passes from the impeller eye
(centre) and outward through the impeller vanes to the periphery. As the fluid exits the
impeller, a proportion of the fluid momentum is then converted to (static) pressure.
Typically the volute shape of the pump casing, or the diffuser vanes assist in the energy
conversion. The energy conversion results in an increased pressure on the downstream
side of the pump, causing flow.
Characteristics curves of a centrifugal pumps:

They are defined those curves which are plotted from the results of a number of test on the
centrifugal pump. These curves predict the behavior and performance of the pump when the pump
is working under different flow rate, head and speed. The main characteristic curves of a
centrifugal pump are the total head [H], power [P] and the efficiency [η] plotted against the flow
rate [Q] (at constant speed). If the pump is driven under variable speed then the parameter of
speed is also important.
PROCEDURE :

1. Check that all valves of the experimental setup are fully open.
2. Fill the storage tank with liquid. Switch on the pump and operate it at selected value of RPM.
3. By operating the valve on the delivery line note down the pressure at fully open and shut-off
condition of valve. Take three to four points between this pressure ranges for experiment.
4. For particular set pressure, note down the initial and final level of the liquid in the tank for
particular time interval (use stopwatch for recording time).
5. Also note down the readings of the vacuum gauge.
6. Also note the energy input for this time from energy meter.
7. Repeat the experiment for different positions of delivery line valve.
8. Also repeat experiment for different value of RPM.
PRECAUTIONS:
I. Keep rpm regulator at zero before starting the pump.
II. Keep the discharge valve fully open before starting the pump for prevention of blockage
of water inside the pipe line.
III. Do Priming for the removal of air .

RESULT:

The condition at which the pump is to be operated is as follows:

1. The capacity of pump Q = -------- m3 / hr

2. The RPM = --------

3. The efficiency of pump = ---------

Data:

Cross-sectional area of collection tank A: 400 mm *480 mm

Density of water ρ = 1000 kg/m3

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. RPM Height difference of Time Pressure Vacuum Initial Final
No. liquid in collection tank t Gauge Gauge Energy Energy
h, m (sec) Reading Reading Meter Meter
(kg/cm2) (mmHg) Reading Reading
(E0) (E)
kWh kWh

CALCULATION:

1. Capacity of the pump :


Q = Height differenceof liquid in collectiontank * A

t

= ---------- m3 / s
2. Total head developed by the pump:
H = Pressure Gauge Reading((kg/cm2) + Vacuum Gauge Reading((mmHg)
= ------ meter of water column
3. The power delivered to the fluid ( Fluid Horse Power/power output)
F.H.P. = Pw *(No. of hours) *10-3 , kWh
Where, Q = Flow rate in m3 / s,
 = Density in kg / m3
H = Head in meter of water
Pw = (  *g*Q* H ), W
4. Actual power delivered to the pump: (Break Horse Power/power input)
B.H.P. = PA = (E - E0), in kWh
5. Efficiency :
 = F.H.P./B.H.P. * 100
CALCULATION TABLE:

Sr. RPM Capacity Total Head developed Efficiency

No. (Q) (H) ()
 : DRAG-COEFFICIENT APPARATUS:

AIM : To determine drag coefficients of spherical objects over a wide range of

Reynolds’ Number.

APPARATUS :
 Drag co-efficient apparatus
 Metal spheres of different diameters,
 Stop-watch
 Vernier Caliper
 Beaker.

CHEMICALS : Liquids with different viscosity

THEORY :

 The movement of a particle through a fluid requires external force acting on the particle.
This force may come from a density difference between the particle and the fluid or it
may be the result of electric or magnetic fields.
 There are three forces acting on the particle moving through a fluid:
o The external force (FE): gravitational or centrifugal ( arise due to density
difference).
o The buoyant force (FB): It acts parallel with the external force but in the opposite
direction.
o The drag force (FD) : It appears whenever there is relative motion between particle
and the fluid. The drag force acts parallel with the direction of movement but in
the opposite direction.

FE

FD

Solid
Particle
FB

 For a particle falling freely through a medium, a resultant force acting on it is

proportional to the acceleration of the particle i.e.(dV/dt )
 ∑F ∝
FE – FB – FD  dV/ dt
dV
FE  FB  FD  m
dt
Substituting the values of FE , FB and FD in above equation gives,
   1 dV
m(a E )  ma E     C D . . AP .v 2  m
 P   2  dt
On Simplification,
dV   P     1  C D . . AP .v 2
 a E     
dt   P  2 m
If the external force is gravity than aE = g
dV       1  C D . . AP .v 2
 g . P    
dt   P  2 m
where,
m = mass of the particle, kg
g = gravitational acceleration
 = density of the fluid, kg/ m3
P = density of the particle, kg/ m3
CD = coefficient of drag
AP = projected area of the particle, m2
v = velocity of free fall

A particle falling freely in a gravitational field, the acceleration decreases with time and
approaches to zero. The particle quickly reaches a constant velocity, which is maximum
attainable under the circumstances. This velocity is known as “ Terminal velocity.”
dV
During free fall with terminal velocity,  0 , v = Vt
dt
2
  P     1  C D . . AP .Vt
g .    
  P  2 m
2 g  P    m
Vt =  
 C D   P  AP
If the particles are sphere of diameter Dp,

Substituting m and Ap in terminal velocity equation,

 4 gDP   P   
Vt =  
3 C D   P 
In the general case, the terminal velocity can be found by trial and error after guessing NRe to get
initial estimate of CD. For the limiting cases of very low or very high Reynolds number, equation
can be used to get terminal velocity directly.
At low Reynolds number , the drag coefficients varies inversely with NRe,P .The equation for CD
and Vt are as follows:
24 gDP2   P   
CD  and Vt =
N Re, p 18
PROCEDURE :

1. Close the bottom valve of the glass tube and fill it with the three different liquids having
different viscosities.
2. Take metal balls of 5mm diameter and drop them through each tube .
3. Measure the time required for the particle to travel 1000 mm of distance.
4. Repeat the procedure with different diameter of particles for all different liquids.

RESULT:

Liquid Reynolds Number Drag Co-efficient

CD
Water
Red
Yellow
OBSERVATION :

1. Diameter (internal) of the glass tube Di = 52 mm

2. Density of Ball ( Density of particle)  P = 7970 kg/m3
3. Density of liquid -1 ρ1 = 1000 kg/m3
Density of liquid -2 ρ2 = 880 kg/m3
Density of liquid -3 ρ3 = 840 kg/m3

OBSERVATION TABLE:

For Ball 1: ( 5 mm diameter)

Liquid Time Test section length Terminal velocity Reynolds Drag Co-efficient
t (sec) L (mm) Vt (m/sec) Number CD

Water 1000
Red 1000
Yellow 1000

For Ball 2: ( 8 mm diameter)

 Liquid Time Test section length Terminal velocity Reynolds Drag Co-efficient
t (sec) L (m) Vt (m/sec) Number CD

Water 1000
Red 1000
Yellow 1000

CALCULATION:

6. Terminal velocity:

Vt = L / t = --------- m/sec

7. Viscosity μ =

8. Reynolds number:
VtDp
N Re, p 

9. Drag co-efficient:
24
CD 
N Re, p