Introduction to Computer

Science Concepts

Agber Selumun
Ge Tivlumun
 Academic Press Ltd

Abuja,lagos,Ibadan and Makurdi.

Introduction to Computer
Science Concepts

Agber
Selumun
Ge Tivlumun,2019

First Published 2019 by

Selfers Academic Press Ltd
#39 David Mark By-Pass,
Makurdi.
 All right reserved
No part of this book should be reproduced,stored
transmitted in any form including photo copying
without the written permission of the author.Ths
book shall be also be sold at approved bookshops c

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DEDICATION

To all who seek to know what was and is,

before and now,

in computing for the benefit of the future.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
 The project of developing a bookofthis nature was
conceived a long time ago.Plans were mad efforts
of implementation hadcommenced and crashed until
now.

We want to acknowledgethatstudents introductory

courses in ComputerSciencekept seeking and demanding
for a book in the sule area to enable easy access to
materials andto improve in knowledge in the subject.We
therefore took time to put the teaching materials
together and update them into a handy book.
We acknowledge the staff of Selfers Academi Press Ltd
for te patience and dedication they exhibited and the
useful suggestions they proffered in making the book
improve in its outlooks
that you truly seek for knowledge and we belieie you will
be glad to have read the book.
Contents

Dedication v

Acknowledgements...............................vi

Foreword.......................................vi

Contents.......................................viii

vi
Preface.........................................x

Chapter One

History of Computers............................1

Chapter Two

Generations of Computers........................10

Chapter Three

Classification of Computers.......................15

Chapter Four The Computer

System...........................21

Chapter Five

Representing Data...............................42

Chapter Six

Computer Number Systems.......................52

Chapter Seven Programming

Languages.........................60

Chapter Eight

Program Development Life Cycle..................68

Chapter Nine

Computer Networks.............................80

Chapter Ten

The Internet...................................91

vii
Bibliography..................................106

Index 110

PREFACE

This book "Introduction to Computer Science Concepts"

provides an insight to the concept of computing devices
and Computer Science. It is meant to stir the thoughts of
its readrs and stimulate them to search for more
knowledge regarding each of the topics therein.
The book is written for students and all others who
are interested in computers and should serve as a
stepping stone for better understanding of the concepts.
The book is divided into 10 chapters with each
chapter introducing a different concept. Chapter One
discusses the origins of computers and computing
devices, Chapter Two and Three considers the
classification of computers using the various criteria
while Chapter Four deals with the computer system and
its components. Chapter Five considers the methods of
data representation in the computer. Chapter Six
discusses the different Number systems as Chapter Seven
considers the different levels of programming
languages.Chapter Eight discusses the processes of
solving
computer science problems.Chapter Nine and Ten introduces
the conceptComputerNetworks and the Internet
respectively.

material for students and reference material fo researchers.

Chapter One

HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
The first counting device was used by the primitive
people. They used sticks, stones and bones as counting
tools. As human mind and technology improved with
time more computing devices were developed. Some
of the popular computing devices starting with the first
to recent ones are described below;

Abacus
The history of computer begins with the birth of
abacus which is believed to be the first computer.It is
said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years

ix
ago.
It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with
beads mounted on them. The beads were moved by
the abacus operator according to some rules to
perform arithmetic calculations. Abacus is still used in
some countries like China,Russia and Japan. An image
of this tool is shown below;
Fig. 1: Abacus invented by the Chinese around

4,000years ago
Source:(Zhang,2016)

Napier's Bones
It was a manually-operated calculating device which
was invented by John Napier (1550-1617)of
Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used
9different ivory strips or bones marked with numbers
to multiply and divide. So,the tool became known as
"Napier's Bones. It was also the first machine to use
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

the decimal point.

Fig.2: Napier's Bones manually-operated calculating
device

Source:(Seckington,2008)

Pascaline
Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding
Machine. It was invented between 1642and 1644 by a
French mathematician-philosopher Blaise Pascal. It is
believed that it was the first mechanical and automatic
calculator.
Pascal invented this machine to help his father,a tax
accountant. It could only perform addition and
subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears
and wheels. When a wheel is rotated one revolution, it
rotates the neighbouring wheel.A series of windows is
given on the top of the wheels to read the totals. An
 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS 3

image of this tool is shown below;

Fig.3: Pascaline Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine.

Source:(Pascaline-Complete History of the Pascaline

Calculator,n.d.)
Stepped Reckoner or wheel It was developed
by9Germanmathematician-philosopher Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibnitz in 1673.He improved Pascal's
invention develop this machine. It was a digital
mechanical calculator which was called the stepped
reckoner as instead of gears it was made of fluted
drums. See the following image;

Fig.4: Stepped Reckoner digital mechanical calculator

 INTRODUCTION TOCOMPUTERSCIENCE

4 Leibnitz

Source: (Jamaul & Caldwell, 2015)

Difference Engine
In the early 1820s,iitwasdesigned by Charles Babbage
who is known as "Father of Modern
Computer". It was a mechanical computer which could
perform simple calculations. It was a steam driven
calculating machine designed to solve tables of
numbers like logarithm tables.

Fig.5:Charles Babbage steam driven mechanical

computer (Difference Engine) of 1820
 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS 5

Source:(Detwiler,2010)

Calculating machine
This calculating machine was also developed by
Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a mechanical
computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving
any mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent
memory.

Fig.6: Charles Babbage Calculating machine of 1830

 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

Source: (Babbage's Analytical Engine, 1834-1871 (Trial Model))

Tabulating Machine

It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith an American statistician.

It wasamechanical tabulator based on punch cards.It couldtabulate
statistics and record or sort data or information.This machine was
used in the 11890U.S.Census.Hollerith also started the
Hollerith'sTabulating

Machine Companywhich later became International

Business Machine (IBM) in 1924

Fig.7:Herman Hollerith punch cards based mechanical

 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS 7

Source:(Stromberg, 2011)

Differential Analyzer
It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United
States in 1930. It was an analog device invented by
Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to switch
electrical signals to perform calculations. It could do 25
calculations in few minutes.

Fig.8:Vannevar Bush vacuum tubes analog

electronic
 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS 7

HISTORY OF COMPUTERS 9

advances are
discussed on the
basis of
improvement in
Fig.9:Mark I First
the technology for
Programmable
which they were
Digital Computer
developed.
built as a
partnership between
Source: (Bush's Analog Solution-CHM Revolution)
IBM and Harward
Mark I
1944
The next major changes in the history of
computer began in 1937 when Howard Aiken planned
to develop a machine that could perform calculations
Source:(Brookshear,
involving large numbers. In 1944,Mark I computer was
2009)
built as a partnership between IBM and Harward. It
was the first programmable digital computer.
Computers at this pointbecamemostly electronic
and as such used digital data.The next

Chapter Two
 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS 7

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
A generation of computers refers to the specific
improvements in computer technology with time.In
1946, electronic pathways called circuits were
developed to perform the counting. It replaced the
gears and other mechanical parts used for counting in
previous computing machines.
In each new generation, the circuits became
smaller and more advanced than the previous
generation circuits. The miniaturization helped increase
the speed, memory and power of computers. There are
five generations of computers which are described
below;

First Generation Computers

The first generation(1946-1959)computers were
slow,huge and expensive. In these computers,vacuum
tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and
memory. Thesecomputerswere mainly depended on
batch operating system and
punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as
output and input devices in this generation.
 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS 11

Some of the popular first generation computers are:

O ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
O EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer)
O UNIVACI(Universal Automatic Computer)
O IBM-701
O IBM-650

Second Generation Computers

The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the
transistor computers. These computers used transistors
which were cheap, compact and consuming less power; it
made transistor computers faster than the first
generation computers.
In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the
primary memory and magnetic disc and
tapes were used as the secondary storage.Assembly
languageand programming languages like COBOL and
FORTRAN,and Batch processing and multiprogramming
operating systems were used in these computers.
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

12

Some of the popular second generation computers

are;
IBM 1620
O IBM 7094
O CDC 1604
O CDC 3600
O UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers

The third generation computers used integrated circuits
(ICs) instead of transistors. A single IC can pack huge
number of transistors which increased the power of a
computer and reduced the cost. The computers also
became more reliable,efficient and smaller in size.These
generation computers used remote processing time-
sharing,multi programming as operating system.Also,the
high-levelprogramming
languages like FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL,PASCAL
PL/1,ALGOL-68 were used in this generation.
 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS 13

Some of the popular third generation computers

are:
O IBM-360 series
O Honeywell-6000 series
O PDP(Personal Data Processor)
IBM-370/168
TDC-316

Fourth Generation Computers

The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very
large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits; a chip containing
millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These
chips made this generation computers more compact,
powerful, fast and affordable.These generation
computers used real time, time sharing and distributed
operating system.The programming languages like
C,C++,DBASE were also used in this generation.
Some of the popular fourth generation computers
are:
14 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

O DEC 10
 O STAR 1000
O PDP 11
O CRAY-1(Super Computer)
O CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation Computers

In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI
technology was replaced with ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
Integration). It made possible the production of
microprocessor chips with ten million electronic
components. This generation computers used parallel
processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
software. The programming languages used in this
generation were C,C++, Java,.Net,etc.
Some of the popular fifth generation computers
are:
O Desktop
O Laptop
O NoteBook
O UltraBook
O ChromeBook
 Chapter Three

CLASSIFICATION OF
COMPUTERS

Computers can be classify in three ways:

Type of data,Purpose and Size.

Classification by Type of Data

On the basis of data handling capabilities,the computer is
of three types:
O Analogue Computer
Digital Computer
O Hybrid Computer

Analogue Computer
Analogue computers are designed to process the analogue
data. Analogue data is continuous data that changes
continuously and cannot have discrete values such as
speed, temperature,pressure and current.
The analogue computers measure the continuous
changes in physical quantity and
generally render output as a reading on a dial or scale.
Analogue computers directly accept the data from the
measuring device without first converting it into numbers
and codes.
Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples
of analogue computers.

Digital Computer
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and
logical operations at high speed.It accepts the raw data as
digits or numbers and processes it with programs stored in its
memory to produce output. All modern computers like
laptops and desktops that we use at home or office are digital
computers.

Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital
computer. It is fast like analogue computer and has memory
 16 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both

continuous and discrete data. So it is widely used in

specialized applications where both analogue and digital

data is processed. For example, a processor is used in
petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel
flowinto quantity and price.

Classification by Purpose
On the basis of purpose, the computer is of two types:
O General Purpose Computer
O Special Purpose Computer (Dedicated Computers)

General Purpose Computer

General purpose computers are used for carrying out
multiple tasks. They have functionalities that make them
useful in diverse areas and places.For example, a
personal computer can be used for different operations
including editing text,graphic designs as well as viewing
and editing multi-media.
 TYPES OF COMPUTER 17

Special Purpose Computer

Special purpose computers are used for a single
task. They are designed to be used for a particular
task and cannot be used to perform any other
operation. For example, a processor in a weaving
loom can be used only for designing different
patterns to be weaved as well as controlling the
weaving loom.

Classification by Size

On the basis of size, the computer can be of five

types:

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest
computers.They are designed to process huge
amount of data.A supercomputer can process
trillions of instructions in a second. It has thousands
of interconnected processors.
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

18

Supercomputers are particularlyused in

scientific and engineering applications such as
weather forecasting,scientific simulations and
nuclear energy research. First supercomputer was
developed by Roger Cray in 1976.
Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds
or thousands of users simultaneously.They can support
multiple programs at the same time. It means they can
execute different processes simultaneously. These
features of mainframe computers make them ideal for
big organizations like banking and telecom sectors,which
need to manage and process high volume of data.

Miniframe computer
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of
two or more processors and can support 4 to 200 users at
one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes
and departments for the tasks such as billing, accounting
and inventory management.
 TYPES OF COMPUTER 19

Workstation
Workstation is a single user computer that is de signed
for technical or scientific applications.It has faster
microprocessor, large amount of RAM and high speed
graphic adapters. It generally performs a specific job with
great expertise;
accordingly, they are of different types such as
graphics workstation, music workstation and
engineering design workstation.
Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as personal computer.
It is a general purpose computer that is designed for
individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central
processing unit,memory, storage area, input unit and
output unit.Laptops and desktop computers are
examples of microcomputers.
Chapter Four

THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

The computer system is a collection of several

components working together to perform the
functions that are accrued to a computer. The
components of a computer are categorised into
two:hardware and software.

Hardware:the electronic and mechanical parts of the

computer. These are physical and can be moved
around.

Software: the instructions that direct the operations of

the hardware and the data which is supplied and
stored on the hardware. However,generally speaking,
the components of a computer refer to the hardware
components of the computer.

Hardware Components of a Computer

The major hardware components of a computer are:

OInput devices/unit

o Output devices/unit

Memory

Central Processing Unit

The arrangement of these components and how information is passed

between them is referred to as the architecture of the system and is
shown in the diagram below.

Fig. 9: Architecture diagramme of a Computer system

22 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

Central Processing Unit(CPU)

This design was proposed by0physicist,John von Neumann and serves

as the basis for almost all modern computers.It showsthetheoretical
design for a stored program computer.

THE COMPUTER SYSTEM 23

Input Devices/Unit

This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit creates a
link between the user and the computer.The input devices translate the information into a form
understandable by the computer. Some input devices are discussed summarily in the following table

Table 1:Summary of Computer Input Devices/Unit

Keyboard
A common input device. Used to input
mainly alphabets,numbers and other special characters.
The keyboard has a similar layout as the traditional
typewriter,with some additional keys for performing
additional functions.
 Mouse Debatably the most common input device.It is a pointing
device that is used to send signals to the CPU by pressing its
buttons.
Joystick
Has similar function as the mouse and is used mostly for
Computer Aided Designing and playing computer games. It
is a stick with spherical balls at both ends.The lower
spherical ball rotates in a socket allowing for the stick to be
moved in all foru directions.

Light Pen Used mainly to draw pictures and write on the monitor or
screen. It has the shape of a pen with a photocell and an
optical system.
Scanner
This device works like a photocopy machine.It is used to
transfer information on papers to the computer.The
information from scanners,these days, can be stored either
as images or text.

Microphone This is used to input sound that is converted to digital

signals for further manipulation.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
This is a special type of optical scanner that is used to
recognize the marks made by pen or pencil. It is most
suitably used for checking the answer sheets of
examinations containing multiple choice questions.

Output Devices/Unit
Output devices display information from the computer
to the user. The main output devices display data on a
screen, print data on paper,and play data as sound.
Examples include monitors,screens, printers and
speakers. Some examples of output devices are
discussed following.

Monitors
Most desktop computers use a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
monitor to display an image. Flat-panel displays take up
a lot less space, but do not generally give as sharp a
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

24

picture.Flat-Panel Displays are most commonly used as

the display screen on laptops and palmtops. There are
two categories of flat-panel displays:
o Emmissive Displays - these convert electrical energy
into light
o Non-Emissive Displays - these use optical effects to
convert light from other source into
graphic patterns

Printers
A printer allows the user to produce on paper
(hardcopy) the data that is being processed by the
computer. Modern printers can print text and pictures.
There are several types of printers available in both
colour and black and white. The two most commonly-
used types are inkjet and laser. Printers will be
categorized generally into two types namely, impact
printers and non-impact printers.

a. Impact Printers
These printers display the characters by striking them on
a ribbon, which is then pressed on a paper. They are
further divided into two types:character printers and line
 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM 25

printers.
Character printers print one character at a
time.Examples include Dot Matrix Printer (DMP) and
Daisy Wheel printer.
Line printers print one line at a time.Examples
include Drum printer and Chain printer.

b. Non-Impact Printers
These can also be called Page printers because they print
one whole page at a time. They display the information
on the page without using a
ribbon. There are basically two types of non-impact
printers-laser printers and inkjet printers.

i. Laser Printer
These printers use laser lights to produce
dots needed to form the characters to be
printed on a page. Most laser printers
produce only black and white
output,meaning they mostly cannot
produce coloured documents.
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

26

ii. Inkjet Printer

These printers print characters by spraying
small drops of ink onto paper.They produce
high quality output which could be either
coloured or black and white.

Speakers
Many computers,especially home computers, are
equipped with external speakers. Speakers take the
analogue signal generated by a computer and convert
it into sound. If your computer has speakers,you can
listen to music CDs or hear sound effects generated by
software. This
capability is often used by educational
software,computer gaming and multimedia
applications.All laptop computers have speakers that
are seamlessly integrated into the case. Headphones
can also be connected to the speaker port located on
the desktop computer or laptop.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is mostly referred to as the "brain"of the
computer.It is the part of the computer that controls
 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM 27

the operations of all the other parts of the computer. It

stores data, intermediate results from operations and
instructions. It also performs all types of data processing
operations that are carried out on the computer. The
CPU has three components-Control Unit,Arithmetic and
Logic Unit and Memory (Registers).

a. Control Unit
This unit is the backboneof computers. It is
responsible for coordinating tasks between
all components of a computer system.The
control unit collects data from input units
and sends it to processing units depending
on its
nature.The functions of the CUinclude:controlling the
transferof data and instructions among theunits of
the computer, interpretinginstructions obtained
from memory and coordinating the operations of
the other units of the computer to execute these
instructions and also communicates with
input/output devices for transfer of data and
results to and from storage/users.
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

28

b. Arithmetic and Logic Unit

This part of the CPU performs arithmetic
operations. It does basic mathematical
operations like addition, subtraction,
division,multiplication,etc. Complex arithmetic
operations are carried out by repeatedly
executing any of the previous
operations.Further, it can even perform logical
functions like the comparison,
selection,matching and merging of data.The
arithmetic part of the unit is responsible for all
arithmetic operations while the logic part is
responsible for all logical operations.
C. Memory (Registers)
This unit is used to store instructions that are
being executed, data to be used for operations
as well as intermediate results. Data from input
devices is stored in its memory unit until other
components of CPU process it or it is
transmitted to storage units outside the CPU.

Memory Unit
 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM 29

The memory unit stores the data and instructions that

are used by the computer. This data and information is
transmitted to the other components of the computer
for processing and the results from processing
operations are transmitted back for storage. The
memory devices of a computer system are broadly
classified in to two types; namely the primary memory
and the secondary memory.

Primary Memory
The primary, also referred to as main memory,of a
computer is made up of Random Access Memory (RAM)
and Read Only Memory (ROM)and Cache. The RAM is a
workspace which store
data and instructions on a temporary basis.In the event
of an unexpected shutdown, the content of RAM before
the shutdown are usually lost to the user/processor.The
ROM is memory from which information can only be
read. The information on ROM is necessary for starting
up the computer and as such allowing for this
information to be edited could cause problems for
booting the computer.Cache memory is used by the
CPU to reduce the cost (both in time and energy)
required to access data from main memory.A Cache is a
30 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

very fast type of RAM directly attached to the CPU, hard

disk, or graphics card. It enables data to be quickly
copied from the processor to and from the primary
memory.Data that is frequently used is ideally kept in
the cache so the components can access it more
quickly.Cache memory balances the ability of slower
components, such as disk and ROM drives,to keep up
with the faster CPU and RAM.Different modern
computers implement cache memory differently to suit
their designs and processor speeds.
Secondary Memory
The secondary memory, also referred to as auxiliary
memory, is the other storage devices that are used to
store programs and massive amounts of data; these
devices provide relatively permanent storage until the
user decides to erase the data and/or programs. There
are different auxiliary memory devices in use today
including:

a. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

A hard disk drive (HDD) is a non-volatile
computer storage device containing magnetic
 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM 31

disks or platters rotating at high speeds. It is used

to store data permanently meaning data is
retained when the computer is turned off. The
hard drive is fitted inside a computer case and
firmly attached using braces to prevent it from
being jarred as the disks spin. There are also hard
disk drives that are external to the computer
case and are referred to as External HDDs.
b. CD - ROM (Compact Disc - Read Only Memory)
This is a pre-pressed optical compact disc that is used
to hold data. Initially,they were used to distribute
software, video games and data for computers but
have been adapted to contain graphics as well as hi-
fi stereo and multimedia. Computers can only read
from, but cannot write to or erase CD-ROMS.

C. DVD - ROM (Digital Versatile Disc-Read Only Memory)

DVDs are commonly used for storing large software
applications. It is similar to a CD-ROM but has larger
capacity. It also only allows for reading but data
cannot be erased or written over.
 32 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

d. USB Flash Discs

A USB flash drive is a data storage device that
includes flash memory with an integrated USB
interface. It is typically removable, rewritable and
much smaller
than an optical disc.Flash memory is an
electronic (solid-state) non-volatile computer
storage medium that can be electrically erased
and reprogrammed. USB flash drives are often
used for storage, data back-up and transfer of
computer files. Compared with floppy disks or
CDs, they are smaller,faster, have significantly
more capacity,and are more durable due to a
lack of moving parts.

Units of Memory Devices

A computer processor is made up of multiple decisive
circuits, each one of which may be either OFF or ON.
These two states in terms of memory are represented
by a 0 or 1. In order to count higher than 1, such
bitsare suspended together.A group of eight bits is
known as a byte. 1 byte can represent numbers
between zero (00000000)and 255 (11111111), or
 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM 33

28=256 distinct positions.Of course, these bytes may

also be combined together to represent larger
numbers.
In practical, memory is measured in KiloBytes
(KB) or MegaBytes (MB). A kilobyte is not exactly,
as one might expect,1000 bytes.Rather,the correct
amount is 210 i.e. 1024bytes.Similarly,a megabyte is not
10002 i.e.1,000,000 bytes,but instead 10242 bytes i.e.
1,048,576 bytes.This is a remarkable difference. By the
time we reach to a gigabyte (i.e. 10243 bytes), the
difference between the base two and base ten amounts
is almost 71MegaBytes.
Both computer memory and disk space are
measured in these units. But it's important not to
confuse between these two. "12800 KB RAM"refers to
the amount of main memory the computer provides to
its CPU whereas"128 MB disk" symbolizes the amount of
space that is available for the storage of files, data, and
other type of permanent information.

Bits
Bit is a short form of BInary digiT. It is the basic
building block for any type of data that can be processed
by digital computers. It is either a zero (0) or a one (1). A
 34 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

combination of four bits is called a nibble,while a

combination of eight bits is called a byte. Bytes are
normally used to represent
characters, such as letters from the alphabet.For
example, 01000001 is used to represent the letter A in
binary code.

Kilobyte (KB)
A kilobyte (KB) is made up 1024 bytes. The size of a data
file is often measured in kilobytes.

Megabyte (MB)
A megabyte (MB) is often used to measure the amount
of primary memory or small memory devices such as
floppy discs, zip discs, Compact discs (CD) or even small-
capacity flash drives.Sometime,the size of a collection of
files within a Folder can also be measured in megabyte.
A megabyte is made up 1,048,576 bytes
(1024kilobytes).

Gigabyte (GB)
 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM 35

The memory capacity of most storage devices,such as

hard drives, digital versatile discs (DVD),flash drives are
measured in gigabytes. A gigabyte (GB) is equivalent to
1,024 MB.
Terabyte (TB)

The capacities of hard drives,othermemory devices used in

cooperate computing firms are quickly approaching
terabyte.Terabyte (TB)is equivalent to 1,024 GB.

Table 2: Shows the different memory sizes.

.
Name Equal to Size (in Bytes)

Bit 1 bit 1/8

Nibble 4 bits 1/2
Byte 8 bits 1
Kilobyte 1024 bytes 1,024
Megabyte 1024 kilobytes 1,048,576
Gigabyte 1024 megabytes 1,073,741,824
Terabyte 1024 gigabyte 1,099,511,627,776
112,589,906,842,62
Petabyte 1024 terrabytes
4
Software Components of A Computer

The hardware componentsasdiscussed previously are driven

and controlled by software in the same way human body is
been driven by souls (non-physical aspect of human beings).A
 36 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

human body without soul is a lifeless body,in the same way; a

computerwithoutsoftware is nothing but an empty box with
some wires and chips. Software is a set of programs that
execute

and enable computer to carry out important and useful

tasks.
Software are broadly classified into two categories
- System software and Application software.

System software is a collection of programs that control

the general activities and functions of the various
hardware components. An example of system software
is the operating system, such as Unix, Windows, MacOS,
OS/2, Android etc. It manages the system's resources.

Application software on the order hand consists of

those programs that solve specific problems for the
users.These programs execute under control of the
system software. Application programs are developed
by individuals and organizations for solving specific
problems. They also provide interfaces for computer
users to interact with the system.
The general layer of computer systems is as shown
below;
 38 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

Fig. 10: Layers of a Computer System

Source:(O'Leary & O'Leary, 2004)

Operating Systems (OS)

The operating system provides a set of basic features that all
application software must use.In one sense, this is an
advantage, as it maintains a degree of compatibility between
applications.On the other hand, it can make innovation
harder and can limit the uptake of new ideas.
The operating system controls the computer and
provides an interface so that the user can interact with
the computer's main components.It is essential to the
computer's function because it
 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM 39

provides a common environment for different software applications to work in and it controls

the computer's hardware. It also provides its own interface to allow the user to configure the

computer's components and to organise the storage of data. The operating system sends

instructions to the hardware,which processes and calculates the data and passes theresult back

up the chain.

Some basic features of Operating Systems (OS)are as tabulated below;

FUNCTION DESCRIPTION
Hardware Management
Provide shared access to computer hardware resources
such as memory, disk drives, CPU,and peripherals to
applications software compatible with the OS.

Computer Management
Allow the user to install new hardware,applications, and
files,customise the interface,manage multiple users of the
system, and access common tools (such as anti-virus, data
backup utilities,and so on).

File Management Provide an interface to the user to organise data on the

computer's storage devices, using files,directories, and
disks.
Network Access Integrate with other computer systems, such as a network
server or workgroup,and connect with public networks,
such as the internet
Integrate Data
Allow the user to work with different software applications
at the same time. Examples include being able to open
different files and applications at the same time (multi-
tasking)and transfer data from a file of one type to one of
another type (Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) or
automation).

Applications Software
Application software gives the user a set of commands
to work with (an interface) and then translates those
commands into instructions,which are passed to the
computer's operating system software. It also provides
users with interfaces for selecting commands.Each
 40 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

command represents a different function of the

application.There are many different commands,
performing many different functions in different
applications.Some common application software from
popular manufacturers are as outlined below;

Word Processing
Word processing means creating, formatting, and
editing text-based documents, while word processors
are set of application software used for word
processing. Examples of some popular word processors
include Microsoft Word,Lotus WordPro,and Corel
WordPerfect.

Spreadsheet
A spreadsheet consists of a table containing
rows,columns, and cells.When numbers are entered
into the cells, formulas can be applied to them,enabling
complex calculations to be carried out.Spreadsheet
packages can be used for many tasks including tracking
 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM 41

and analyzing sales data, and working on company

accounts. Examples of some popular spreadsheet
include Microsoft Excel,Lotus 1-2-3, and Corel
QuattroPro.

Database
Database packages enable the user to store,organise,
and retrieve information and can search through
thousands of records very quickly and display data in a
format specified by the user.They can store many
different types of information, such as timetables,
customer details,and patient records. Fast and reliable
database products are as important as operating
systems for large (and small) organisations. Set of
application software used to create and manage
databases are called Database Management System
(DBMS). Examples of some popular DBMS include
Microsoft Access,Lotus Approach, and Corel
Paradox,MySql,Oracle etc

Chapter Five

REPRESENTING DATA
The computer uses electricity for its data processing and
storage. It has some mechanical parts, like its disk drive
(which are often the sources for computer failures), but
the internal data processing and storage is electronic,
which is fast and reliable (as long as the computer is
plugged in).
Electricity can flow through switches: if the switch is
closed, the electricity flows; if the switch is open, the
electricity does not flow. To process real-world data in
the computer, we need a way to represent the data in
switches. Computers do this representation using a
binary coding system.
Binary is a mathematical number system:a way of
counting. We have all learned to count using ten digits:0-
9.One probable reason is that we have ten fingers to
represent numbers.The computer has switches to
represent data and switches have only two states: ON
and OFF.
Binary has two digits to do the counting:0 and 1- a
natural fit to the two states of a switch (0=OFF,1=ON).
One binary digit (0 or 1) is referred to as a bit,which
is short for binary digit. These bits can be grouped
 REPRESENTING DATA 43

together into larger chunks to represent data and the

byte is used as the basic unit of data.A byte is
implemented with eight switches.
Fig. 11: Implementing a Byte in a Computer
One bit

One byte

Source:(Data in the Computer)

Representing Data In Bytes
A single byte can represent many different kinds of data.
What data it actually represents depends on how the
 44 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

computer uses the byte.

For instance,the byte 01000011 can represent the
integer 67, the character'C', the 67th decibel level for a
part of a sound, the 67th level of darkness for a dot in a
picture, an instruction to the computer like "move to
memory",and other kinds of data too.

Characters
The computer uses a single byte to represent a single
character. But what particular set of bits is equivalent to
which character? We could each make up our own
definitions, declaring certain bit patterns to represent
certain characters but this would be about as practical as
each person speaking his or her own special
language.Since we need to communicate with the
computer and with each other, it is appropriate that we
use a common scheme for data representation.
The ASCII code (pronounced"AS-key"),which stands
for American Standard Code for
Information Interchange, uses 7 bits for each character. Since there are exactly 128 unique

combinations of 7 bits, this 7-bit code can represent only characters. A more common version is

ASCII-8, also called extended ASCII,which uses 8 bits per character and can represent 256 different

characters. For example, the letter A is represented by 01000001. The ASCII representation has
 REPRESENTING DATA 45

been adopted as a standard and is found in a variety of computers,particularly minicomputers and

microcomputers.The following table shows part of the extended ASCII code.

Table 3:Section of ASCII code and representation

Source:(Microsoft Word-3145_AppF.doc)

Thus,when you type the word "CAB", it would be

represented by the three bytes,01000011 01000001

(A) and 01000010 (B) in the computer's memory.
The Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
Code (EBCDIC), used mostly by IBM,and Five-bit Baudot
code, which precedes ASCII and EBCDIC,and the Indian
Script Code for Information Interchange (ISCII), which
was developed to support Indian languages, are other

DE Symb DE Symb DE Symb

HEX ASCII HEX ASCII HEX ASCII
C ol C ol C el

001000 SPAC 001101 010011

32 20 54 36 6 76 4C L
00 E 10 00

001000 001101 010011

33 21 1 55 37 7 77 4D M
01 11 01

001000 001110 010011

34 22 * 56 38 8 78 4E N
10 00 10

001000 001110 010011

35 23 # 57 39 9 79 4F O
11 01 11

001001 010000 010100

36 24 S 65 41 A 80 50 P
00 01 00
37 25 001001 % 66 42 010000 B 81 51 010100 Q
42 2A 001010 * 67 43 010000 C 82 52 010100 R
coding schemes that are used to
43 2B 001010 * 68 44 010001 D 83 53 010100 S
47 2F 001011 69 45 010001 E 84 54 010101 T
48 30 001100 0 70 46 010001 F 85 55 010101 U
49 31 001100 1 71 47 010001 G 86 56 010101 V
50 32 001100 2 72 48 010010 H 87 57 010101 W
51 33 001100 3 73 49 010010 1 88 58 010110 x
52 34 001101 4 74 4A 010010 1 89 59 010110 Y
53 35 001101 5 78 4B 010010 K 90 SA 010110 Z
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

46

represent alphanumeric characters in computer

systems.

Integers
Integer numbers are represented by using the binary
notation.The binary notation is a way of representing
numeric values using only the digits 0 and 1 rather than
the regular decimal digits.This method allows for
numbers in the range of 0 - 255 be stored usinga single
byte. If a coding scheme were to be used,say ASCII, then
one byte would be used for a single digit, thereby
requiring three bytes for numbers in hundreds and four
bytes for numbers in thousands.
Another coding scheme for representing numbers in
computers is the Binary Coded Decimal (BCD). This scheme
uses a four-bit code to represent a decimal digit. The
binary number formed byfour bits is the equivalent code
for the given decimal digit, so that only the binary
numbers 0000 - 1001 are used to represent digits 0 - 9
respectively. This implies that if a number as a single digit,
its equivalent BCD will be the four bit permutation for that
decimal number and if the number contains two decimal
digits then its equivalent BCD will be the respective eight
 REPRESENTING DATA 47

bits of the given decimal number (four for the first digit
and the next four for the next digit).This scheme is easy to
remember since only the binary equivalents of digits 0-9
are needed per time.The major disadvantage of the
scheme is that arithmetic operations are more
complicated requiring different rules and the BCD requires
more bits than the regular binary to represent a decimal
number (especially for large numbers).

Picture and Graphic Data

Computer graphic data like pictures, frames of a
movie, drawings, or frames of an animation are
represented by a grid of pixels. "Pixel" is short for picture
element. In simple graphics (those without many colors),
a byte can represent a single pixel. In a graphic
representation called greyscale each pixel is a shade of
grey from black at one extreme to white at the other.
Since eight bytes can hold 256 different integers, a pixel
in one byte can be one of 256 shades of grey (usually with
0 being white and 255 being black).Modern video games
and colorful graphics use several bytes for each pixel
(Nintendo 64 uses eight bytes= 64 bits for each pixel to
get a huge array of possible colors). A scanned
photograph or a computer drawing is thus stored as
 48 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

thousands of bytes - each byte, or collection of bytes,

representing a pixel.
Similar to the ASCII code,there are several standards
or formats for interpreting the bytes that represent a
pixel.Two common picture formats used on the Internet
are JPEG and GIF. These,like ASCII, are agreed-upon
common coding of pixels in bytes.
Sound Data As Bytes
Sound occurs naturally as an analog wave. Most
current electronic speakers also produce analog
waves. These analog waves are converted into digital
data and stored as bytes in the computer.The process
of taking analog data, such as sound,and making it
digital is called analog to digital conversion.
To convert an analog wave into digital,converters
use a process called sampling. They sample the height
of the sound wave at regular intervals of time, often
small fractions of a second.If one byte is used to hold a
single sample of an analog wave, then the wave can be
one of 256different heights (0 being the lowest height
and 255 being the highest). These heights represent
the decibel level of the sound. Thus a spoken word
 REPRESENTING DATA 49

might occupy several hundred bytes- each being a

sample of the sound wave of the voice at a small
fraction of a second. If these 100 bytes were sent to a
computer's speaker, the spoken word would be
reproduced.
There are also different accepted formats for
representing sound samples in bytes. WAV is the most
common on the internet.

Program Data as Bytes

When you buy a piece of software on a CD or diskette, you
are getting a collection of instructions that someone wrote
to tell the computer to perform the task that the software is
meant to do.Each instruction is a byte, or a small collection
of bytes. If a computer used one byte for an instruction,it
could have up to 256instructions.

How Does The Computer Know What a Byte Represents?

We have seen that a byte can represent different types of
data, how does the computer know what particular type it
is? The answer is the context in which the computer uses
 50 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

the byte. If it sends the byte to a speaker, the 67th level of

sound is produced. If it sends the byte to a monitor or
printer, a pixel with the 67th level of darkness is

produced, etc. More accurately, if the byte were coded

with a standard coding technique,like ASCII for
characters, GIF for pictures, and WAV for sounds,
then when the computer sends the byte to a
device, the data corresponding to that coding is
produced by the device.
Chapter Six

COMPUTER NUMBER SYSTEMS

Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in

the computer system architecture,every value that you are
saving or getting into/from computer memory has a defined
number system.
Computer architecture supports following number
systems.
O Binary number system
O Octal number system
O Decimal number system
O Hexadecimal (hex) number system
Binary Number System
The easiest way to vary instructionsthrough electric signals
is two-state system- on and off.On is represented as 1 and
off as 0, though 0 is not actually no signal but signal at a
lower voltage.The number system having just these two
digits -0 and 1-is called binary number system.
Each binary digit is also called a bit. Binary
number system is also positional value system,where
each digit has a value expressed in powers of 2, as
displayed here.

25 24 23 22 21 20

In any binary number, the rightmost digit is called least

significant bit (LSB) and leftmost digit is called most
significant bit (MSB).

1 1 0 1. 0

MSB LSB
And decimal equivalent of this number is sum of product
of each digit with its positional value.
 COMPUTER NUMBER SYSTEMS 53

Octal Number System

Octal number system has eight digits - 0,1,2,3,4,5, 6
and 7. Octal number system is also a
positional value system with where each digit has its value
expressed in powers of 8, as shown here
81
85 84 83 82 80

Decimal equivalent of any octal number is sum of product of

each digit with its positional value.

Decimal Number System

Decimal number system is a base 10 number system having
10 digits from 0 to 9. This means that any numerical quantity
can be represented using these 10 digits. Decimal number
system is also a positional value system. This means that the
value of digits will depend on its position.Let us take an
example to understand this.
Say we have three numbers - 734,971 and 207.
 54 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

The value of 7 in all three numbers is different"

O In 734,value of 7 is 7 hundreds or 700 or 7x100 or 7x102
In 971,value of 7 is 7 tens or 70 or 7x 10 or

7x101
O In 207, value Of 7 is 7 units or 7 or 7x1or7x10°
O The weightage of each position can be
represented as follows“

105 104 103 102 101 10°

Hexadecimal Number System

Hexadecimal number system has 16 symbols-0to 9 and
A to F where A is equal to 10, B is equal to 11 and so on
till F. Hexadecimal number system is also a positional
value system with where each digit has its value
expressed in powers of 16, as shown here"

165 164 163 162 161 16°

Decimal equivalent of any hexadecimal number is sum
of product of each digit with its positional value.

0
 56 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

Table of Number Systems and Used Digits

Number system Base Digits Lsed

Binary 2 0.1
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8.9
Hexadecimal 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C.D.
16
E.F

Number System Conversions

There are three types of conversion:
O Decimal Number System to Other Base (for example:
Decimal Number System to Binary Number
System)
O Other Base t Decimal Number System (for example:
Binary Number System to Decimal Number
System)
O Other Base to Other Base (for example:Binary Number
System to Hexadecimal Number System)
Decimal Number System to Other Base
To convert Number system from Decimal Number System to
Any Other Base is quite easy;you have to follow just two
steps:
 COMPUTER NUMBER SYSTEMS 57

a) Repeatedly, divide the Number (Decimal Number) by

the base of target base system (in which you
want to convert the number:Binary (2), octal
(8) and Hexadecimal (16))and record the
remainders.
b) Write the remainder from step 1 as a Least
Signification Bit (LSB) to the last step as a Most
Significant Bit (MSB).

Example:
Convertthedecimalnumber50506 to hexadecimal.
Digit equivalent
1658506163656 R10 A 16228 R8 81614 R4 40
R14 E
The final solution is E48A16

Other Base System to Decimal Number Base To convert

Number System from Any Other Base System to
Decimal Number System,you have to follow just three
steps:
a) Determine the base value of source Number
 58 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

System (that you want to convert), and also

determine the position of digits from LSB (first
digit's position - 0, second digit's position-1 and so
on).
b) Multiply each digit with its corresponding multiplication
of position value and Base of Source Number
System's Base.
c) Add the resulted value in step-B.

Other Base System to Other Base

To convert numbers from any other base to another base,
(other than decimal) would involve two simple steps
a) Convert the number to binary
b) Convert the binary number to the relevant base.

Converting from octal or hexadecimal to binary and

from binary to octal or hexadecimal involves replacing each
of the digits with its binary equivalent. (this is shown in the
table below.

Number System Relationship

The following table depicts the relatonship
between decimal,binary, octal and hexadecimal number systems.
 COMPUTER NUMBER SYSTEMS 59

Table 4: Number Systems Relationshsips

p
BINARY OCTAL DECIMAL HEXADECIMAL

0000 00 0 0
0001 01 1 1
0010 02 2 2
0011 03 3 3
0100 04 4 4
0101 05 5 5
0110 06 6 6
0111 07 7 7
1000 10 8 8
1001 11 9 9
1010 12 10 A
1011 13 11 B
1100 14 12 C
1101 15 13 D
1110 16 14 E
1111 17 15 F

Chapter Seven
 PROGRAMMING
LANGUAGES
A language is a system of communication which usually
consists of all the verbal or written symbols and
expressions that are used to exchange ideas and
information.For instance,communication takes place
between individuals or between an individual and a
machine,such as a computer. In the case of a man -
machine communication, the communication language
would contain all the relevant
symbols,characters,procedures and syntax.

Software, we have defined earlier, is a set of

instructions capable of solving a problem and is used to
control the hardware of a computer. This software serves
as a communication link between man and the
computer. The instructions that are included in a
software are put together using a programming language
(programming itself.refers to the process of writing or
developing computersoftware). These languages
(programming) are broadly classified into two:

Low-Level Languages
 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES 61

These are languages that deal with the same sort of

objects as computers do. The objects are characters,
numbers and addresses.A low-level language is a type of
programming language that contains basic instructions
recognized by a computer.Low-level code is often cryptic
and not human-readable.Two common types of low-level
programminglanguages are assembly language and
machine language.
Assembly language is one step closer to a high-level
language than machine language. It includes commands
such as MOV (move), ADD (add),and SUB (subtract).
These commands perform basic operations, such as
moving values into memory registersand performing
calculations. Assembly language can be converted to the
machine language using an assembler.
Machine language, or machine code, is the lowest
level of computer languages. It contains binary code,
often generated by compiling high-level source code for a
specific processor.Most developers never need to edit or
even look at machine code. Only
programmers who build software compiler and
operating systems need to view machin language.

High-Level Languages
High-level languages were developed to addres the
 62 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

such as their cumbersomeness and time-consuming

effort (for the programmer). For instance, the
languages are designed in such a way that a
programmer's attention can focus on the problem
itself,rather than on the details of computer
operations. This has made it easier to communicate
between the computer and man.Furthermore, high-
level languages may have different dialects (versions),
even though the differences may be minor and
unnoticed.

Generations of programming language

Programming languages havebeen developed over
the years in a phased manner.Each phase developed
has made the programming languages more user-
friendly,easier to use and more powerful.Each phase
of improvement made in
the development of the programming languages can be
referred to as a generation. The programming language
in terms of their performance reliability and robustness
can be grouped into five different generations.
 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES 63

First Generation Languages (Machine language)The

first-generation programming language is also called
low-level programming language because they were
used to program the computer system at the machine
leve1. The machine language also referred to as the
native language of the computer system. In the machine
language,a programmer only deals with binary
numbers.

Advantages of First-Generation languages

O They are translation free and can be directly executed
by the computers.
O The programs written in these languages are
executed very speedily and efficiently by the
CPU of the computer system.
O The programs written in these languages utilize the
memory in an efficient manner
because it is possible to keep trackofeach bit
of data.
Second Generation languages (Assembly Language)
The second-generation programming languages also
belong to the category of low-level programming
languages. The second-generation language comprises
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

64

of assembly language that uses the concept of

mnemonics for writing program. In assembly
language,symbolic names are used to represent the
opcode and the operand part of the instruction. They
are sometimes used in kernels and hardware drives,
but more commonly used for video editing and video
games.

Advantages of Second-Generation languages

O It is easy to develop, understand and modify the
program developed in these languages
compared to those developed in the first-
generation programming language.
O The programs written in these languages are less
prone to errors and therefore can be
maintained with a great ease.
Third Generation languages (High-Level Languages)
The third-generation programming languages were
designed to overcome the various limitations of the first
and second-generation programming languages. The
languages of the third and later generations are
considered as high-level languages because they enable
 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES 65

66 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

SCIENCE
be developed only
the programmer to concentrate in lesson the logic of the
time as compared to
programs without considering the internal architecture
the first and second-
of the computer system.
generation
Examples:FORTRAN,
ALGOL,languages.
COBOL, C++,
C
Fourth generation
Advantages of Third-Generation programming
languages (Very High
languages
-levellanguages
The Languages)
of this
O It is easy to develop, learn
generation were and understand the
considered as very
program.
high-level
O As the program written in these languages are
programming less
prone languages
to errors, they and are easy to maintain.
required a lot of time
O The program
and
written
effort
in these
that
languages can
affected the
productivity
Advantages of of fourtha
programmer.
generation The
O These
fourth-generation
languages
programming
programming
languages allow the
languages were
efficient
O They use of data
require less
designed and
by implementing
time, cost and effort
developed to reduce
various databases.
to develop different
the time,cost and
typesof software
effort needed to
applications.
develop different
types of software
applications.
 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES 67

O The program developed in these languages are highly

portable as compared to the programs
developed in the languages of other
generations.

Examples:SQL, Python,PHP

Fifthgeneration languages (Artificial Intelligence

Language)
The programming languages of this generation mainly
focus on constraint programming. The major fields in
which the fifth-generation programming language are
employed are Artificial Intelligence and Artificial Neural
Networks

Advantages of Fifth-Generation languages

O These languages can be used to query databases in a
fast and efficient manner.
O In this generation of language, the user can
communicate with the computer system in a
simple and an easy manner.
 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES 67

Examples:Mercury,Prolog, Mycin
Chapter Eight

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE
In order to develop a program using any programming language, a
sequence of steps will be followed. These steps are called phases
in programdevelopment. The program development life cycle is a
set of steps or phases that are used to develop a program in any
programming language.
Generally, program development life cycle contains 6 phases, they
are as follows:
1. Problem Definition
2. Problem Analysis
3. Algorithm Development
4. Coding & Documentation
5. Testing & Debugging
6. Maintenance
 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE 69

Source:(Program Development Life Cycle-program

development)

Problem Definition
In this phase, the problem is identified, stated clearly
and the boundaries of the problem spelt out. In this
phase, the requirements would be specified along with
the expected output from the solution that would be
proffered. These are defined in this first phase of the
program
 70 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

development life cycle. It is possible to use charts,tables,

graphs and drawings to do this.

Problem Analysis
In this step, a programmer studies the problem.He decides
the best way to solve these problems.Studying a problem
is also necessary because it helps a programmer to decide
about the following things:
The facts and figures which are necessary for
developing the program.
The way in which the program will be designed
Also, the language in which the program will be
most suitable.
What is the desired output and in which form it is
needed,etc

Solution Development
During this phase,a step by step procedure to solve the
problem using thespecification given in the previous phase
is developed. This stage is quite creative and experience in
writing programs results in better solution development.

Algorithms, flowcharts, data-flow diagrams as well

as other program design tools (UML diagrams) are
 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE 71

This phase is very important for program

development.

Coding and Documentation

This phase uses a programming language to write or
implement actual programming instructions for the
steps defined in the design phase. A program to
solve the given problem is wrtten using a
programming language. The first major task in this
phase is to choose the appropriate programming
language to use, after which the expressions or
statements of that language are used to implement
the algorithm/flowchart.The actual writing of
programs can be done in a variety of ways. For
example, assembly language may be used to write
short and simple programs while longer and more
complex programs would require using a high-level
language.
Documentation is a process that actually
transcends all the steps in the programming
process.As the operations for each step are carried
out,records are kept of what is done and the results from each of
the steps, alongside the written code. This makes upgrading the
program,which may arise from maintenance functions,easier.
72 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

Testing & Debugging

During this phase,we check whether the code written in
previous step is solving the specified problem or not. That means
we test the program whether it is solving the problem for
various input data values or not. We also test that whether it is
providing the desired output or not. It has been observed that
computer programs hardly work properly the first time they are
tested. This could be because the programmer might have
committed some logical errors in sequencing the steps of the
program or that errors were made while entering the program
into the computer.Where ever the errors occur from, they are
identified and corrected. This process is known as debugging.

Maintenance
During this phase, the program is actively used by the
users. If any enhancements found in this phase, all
the phases are to be repeated again to make the
enhancements. That means in this phase, the solution
(program) is used by the end user. If the user
encounters any problem or wants any enhancement,
then we need to repeat all the phases from the
starting, so that the encountered problem is solved or
enhancement is added.

Algorithms
 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

73

An algorithm is a step by step procedure designed to

perform an operation, and which will lead to the
sought result if followed correctly.Algorithms have
definite beginning and a definite end, and afinite
number of steps. An algorithm produces the same
output information given the same input information.
Several short algorithms can be combined to perform
complex tasks, such as those performed by computer
programs. So basically,all algorithms perform logically
while following the steps to get an output for a given
input.
In using the computer to solve certain problems,there is the
need to first of all spell out the relevant steps through which a
solution to the given problem may be obtained or otherwise. It is
this arrangement of finite operations which are logically ordered,
leading to a solution or otherwise for a problem that is referred to
as an algorithm.The importance of this in using a computer to
solve problems cannot be over emphasized as computers can
neither think nor make judgements on their own but must be
directed on how to perform any action.

Properties of algorithms
From the definition of an algorithm, we can deduce that there are
some features that an algorithm will have before it can be
 74 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

considered to be an effective one. These features are as follows:

1. Finiteness. An algorithm must always terminate after a finite
number of steps.
2. Definiteness.Each step of an algorithm must be.precisely
defined; the actions to be carried out must be rigorously
and

unambiguously specified for eachcase.75

Input.An algorithm has zero or more to it
initially before the algorithm begins.
Output.An algorithm has one or more
outputs,that is, quantities which have a
specified relation to the inputs.
5.Effectiveness. An algorithm is also generally
expected to be effective. This means that all of
the operations to be performed in the
algorithm must be sufficiently basic that they
can in principle be done exactly and in a finite
length of time.

Example:
An organisation pays its workers weekly, based on
the number of hours put in by each staff.Prepare an
 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

nameand hours worked and hourly rate for each

employee.
Solution:
Therearefourareastoconsider in order to get
the desired algorithm.First,howdo weensure that all the staff
have been considered by the algorithm. Secondly, what detail
would need to be supplied as input to the program and how
will this input be taken. Then we consider how to calculate the
weekly wage for each staff. Finally,how would the information
obtained be displayed for use by the organisation. These four
areas are broken into the steps below to give us the algorithm.
i. Initialize a counter, N to 1 (counting starts from 1)
ii. Read name, hours worked and rate (the relevant parameters
needed to compute the wage)
iii.Assign the product of hours worked and rate to wage
iv.Print the name and wage (for the particular entry made).
V. Increment the counter by 1 (moving to another worker)
vi.Check to see if there is another worker or all the worker's
wages have been calculated
vii. Stop.

Types of Algorithm
Algorithms can be classified into 3 types based on
their structures:
 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

77

1. Sequence:thistype of algorithm is characterized

with a series of steps,and each step will be
executed one after another.
2. Branching: this type of algorithm is represented by
the "if-then" problems. If a condition is true, the
output will be A,if the condition is false, the
output will be B.This algorithm type is also
known as "selection type".
3. Loop:for this type, the process might be repeatedly
executed under a certain condition. It is
represented by “while" and "for”problems.
But make sure the process will end after a
number of loops under the condition. This
algorithm type is also known as "repetition
type".

Flowcharts
or operation, It includes multiple steps,which the
steps, flowcharts may only include a
fewcontaining others can be highly complex,hundreds
of possible outcomes.
Flowcharts typically use standard symbols to
represent different stages or actions within the
chart.For example,each step is shown within a
 INTRODUCTION TO

78
rectangle, while each decision is displayed in a
diamond. Arrows are placed between the different
symbols to show the direction the process is flowing.
Each symbol in a flowchart carries a label which
indicates the detail of the operation which is meant to
happen for that step. Flowcharts can be created
manually using pen and paper but there are also
several software programs readily available that make
designing flowcharts especially easy.
The table below showssome of thecommon
symbols used in flowcharts. It is pertinent to note that
there are more of the symbolsnotincluded in the
table.Note also that flowcharts arenot used only in
computer programming,some of the symbols may and
as such neverbe used by a computer programmer or
analyst.
Symbol Name Function

Start/End The terminator symbol marks the

beginning or ending point of the
(Terminator) system.It carries the
label"Start" or"End"

Process A rectangle or box represents a single

step (in a small system)
or an entire process (in a larger system)
Input/Output
Represents the movement of materials or
information into or out of the system.
Example,the length and breadth of a
square(input) and the area of the square
(output)
 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
79

Decision A decision or branching point.

Lines showing different
decisions emerge from points on the
diamond,from a single entering line.
Shows the use of a printed
Document
document or report

Multiple Represents multiple printed documents

documents in the process.

Indicates that the flow

continues where a matching
Connector
symbol (one containing the same label)
has been placed

Manual Input Represents a step where a user is

prompted to enter
information manually
Subroutine Represents a sequence of
actions that perform a specific task
embedded within a larger process.The
sequence of
actions could be described on a separate
flowchart.

Indicates a list of information,having a

standard structure that allows for easy
Database searching and sorting.

Chapter Nine
COMPUTER NETWORKS
A network is a set of two or more computers that are
linked in order to share resources (such as printers and
CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic
communications. Each computer on a network is called
a node. The computers on a network may be linked
through cables (commonly used is the Ethernet cable),
or wirelessly through radio waves, satellites,or infrared
light beams. The simplest computer network will have
two computers while complex networks would have
several thousand computers.

Types of Computer Networks

Computer networks are classified mostly based on
geographical location, butcan also be classified based
ontheircharacteristics.Classifying based on
geographical location would Area Networks (MAN) and
WideAreaNetworks
(WAN).Based on characteristics, we would have the
Internet,internet, Intranet, Extranet,Virtual Private
Network(VPN), Client/Server and Workgroup.
Local Area Network (LAN)
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is
confined to a relatively small area. It is generally
limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab,
school, or building. In LAN,computers are placed
relatively close. Since computers are located within
small distance,they do not need special devices and
cables to connect with each other.
On a single LAN,computers may be connected by
cables or wirelessly.Wireless access to a wired network
 COMPUTER NETWORKS 81

is made possible by wireless access points

(WAPs).These WAP devices provide a
bridgebetweencomputers and networks.A typical WAP
might have the theoretical capacity users
toanetwork,although practical capacity might be far
less.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than
that of a LAN and smaller area as compared to WAN. It
connects two or more computers that are apart but
resides in the same or different cities (when due to
distance, connecting two LANs is not possible, MAN
network is used). It covers a large geographical area and
may serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider).MAN is
designed for customers who need a high-speed
connectivity.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends
over a large geographical area,although it might be
confined within the bounds of a state or country.A WAN
could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LAN's
via a suitable medium and may be limited to an
enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

82

accessible to the public. To provide connectivity, this

network uses special devices,cables and technologies.

Internet
This is the largest computer network ever created

by man.Itinterconnects millions of computing devices

including PCs, Laptops, Workstations,Smartphones,
tablets and many mores.To connect these devices, a lot
of technologies and infrastructure are used. Internet is
open for everyone. Anyone can connect with it. Since
anyone can connect with it, it is also considered as the
most insecure network.

Internet
The internet sounds similar to Internet but it is
different. The word Internet starts with capital I,while
the word internet begins with small i. Any group of
networks which is connected with external network
through a gateway such as Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP) is considered as internet. Usually this type of
network is setup to provide the connectivity between
two companies.
 COMPUTER NETWORKS 83

Intranet
and administered by a single entity such as
company or organization. In Intranet,external users are not allowed
to connect.Usually in this network,proper authorizationis required

access any resources.Further access is each monitored

and logged toensurethat only authorized users get access.

Extranet

An Extranet is an extended Intranet where external users are

allowed to access a small portion of network. Normally this access is
filtered and secured by several security implementations on both
hardware and software levels.

VPN (Virtual Private Network)

VPN is the cost-effective solution toutilize the goodies of

Internet.Companies which can't afford their own infrastructure for
connectivity can use VPN.VPN provides a secureconnectionover the
one in Makurdi and another in Kaduna and this company can't
afford a dedicated linetoconnect these two offices.The
companycanuseVPN to

connect both offices.VPN creates a secure line over the

Internet and uses it for data transmission.
Client/Server Network
 COMPUTER NETWORKS

85

In this network, a dedicated computer called a server

provides access to shared resources.All other
computers,called clients,are used to access the shared
resources. This type of network is commonly used in
company environment. It provides great security
features but requires special hardware and software to
setup.

Workgroup Network
In this network, all computers are equal. Any computer
can provide and access shared resources. This type of
network is usually used in small office or home
network. It is easy to setup and does not require any
special hardware and software.The downside of this
network is that it provides very less security.
Network Topology
Network topology is the description of the
arrangement of nodes and connections in a
network. Network topologies outline how devices are
connected together and how data is transmitted from one
node to another and are often represented as a graph.
There are two ways of defining network geometry: the
 86 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

physical topology and the logical (or signal) topology.

A logical network topology is a conceptual
representation of how devices operate at particular layers
of abstraction. A physical topology details how devices are
physically connected. Logical and physical topologies can
both be represented as visual diagrams.
A network topology map is a diagram that allows an
administrator to see the physical layout of connected
devices.Having the map of a network's topology on hand
is very useful for understanding how devices connect to
each other and the best techniques for troubleshooting.
Star Topology
In star topology,each computer is connected to a
central hub using a point-to-point connection.The central
hub can be a computer server that manages the network,
or it can be a much simpler

device that only makes the connections between

computers over the network possible.
Star topology is very popular because the start-
up costs are low. It is also easy to add new nodes to
the network. The network is robust in the sense that
if one connection between a computer and the hub
fails, the other connections remain intact.If the
central hub fails,however, the entire network goes
 COMPUTER NETWORKS

87

and is, therefore, more expensive.

Bus Topology
A bus topology is another type of design where
every device is connected to a single cable which
runs from one end of the network to another.If a
cable is broken, all computers connected down the
line cannot reach the network. Data is transmitted in
one direction only. The main benefit of a bus
topology is a minimal use of cabling and the very
simple layout.

Ring Topology
are connected in a circular fashion, and the data

travels in one direction.Ifthetopology configured for data

to travel in both directions then the topology is
calledtheDualRing Topology. Each computer isdirectlyconnected
to the next computer,forming a single pathway for signals
through the network.This type of network is easy to install and
manage. If there is a problem in the network, it is easy to
pinpoint which connection is defective. At the same time,adding
computers to this type of connection is more cumbersome.
 88INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

Tree Topology
As the name suggests, a tree topology is a network structure
that is shaped like a tree with its many branches.Tree topologies
have a root node which is connected to other nodes
hierarchically The hierarchy is parent-child where there is only
one mutual connection between twoconnected nodes.As a
general rule, a tree topology needs to have three levels to the
hierarchyinorder to be classified this way. This form of
topologyis used within Wide Area Networks to sustain lots of
spread-out devices.

Mesh Topology
A mesh topology is a point-to-point connection where
nodes are interconnected. In this form of topology, data
is transmitted via two methods: routing and flooding.
Routing is where nodes use routing logic to work out the
shortest distance to the packet's destination.In contrast
flooding, data is sent to all nodes within the network.
Flooding doesn't require any form of routing logic to
work.
There are two forms of mesh topology:partial
mesh topology and full mesh topology.With partial
mesh topology, most nodes are interconnected but
there are a few which are only connected to two or
three other nodes. A full mesh topology is where every
 COMPUTER NETWORKS 89

node is interconnected.

Hybrid Topology
When a topology is comprised of two or more different
topologies it is referred to as a hybrid topology.Hybrid
topologies are most-commonly
encounteredinlargerenterprises where individual
departments have network topologies that different
from another topology in the
organization. Connectingthesetopologies together will result
in a hybrid topology. As a consequence, the capabilities and
vulnerabilities depend on the types of topology that are tied
together.
 90 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

Figure: Network Topologies.

Chapter Ten

THE INTERNET

The Internet began in 1969 as ARPANET (for ARPA,the

Advanced Research Projects Agency of the U. S.
Department of Defense), with four linked computers
at different universities and defense contractors.
From there the network expanded to 62 computers in
1974,500 computers in 1983, and 28,000 in 1987.
However, it remained the domain of academics and
researchers,and was only text until the development
of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s, which
made multimedia available on the internet, and the
first browser.This opened the internet to commercial
uses and allowed the global network to take-off.Now
there are more than 1.35 billion users of the internet
worldwide.
The internet(short for international
network)consists of smaller networks from various
organisations as well as individuals.Central to this is
the Client/Server network.The client computer's
request reaches the server,it locates
the necessary source of the required information and
sends this information backto the client computer.
Connecting to the Internet
In general terms, bandwidth or channel capacity is an
expression of how much data can be sent through a
communications channel in a given amount of time.There
are different types of signals that can be transmitted over
a channel:sound, text and other multimedia. Baseband
transmission allows only one signal to be transmitted per
time while Broadband transmission allows for multiple
signals to be transmitted at once.
 92 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

SCIENCE

There are a number of items required before you can

connect to the internet,including
Access to a Cyber Center or café
Internet Access Provider
Network ready computer
V Necessary software
Cyber Café
Most individuals in Nigeria accessthe internet
through a local Cyber Café or Cyber Center.The Cyber
Center provides networked internet computers and web
browsing facilities for connecting to the internet.

Internet Access Provider

Most businesses and companies access the internet
trough the services of an Internet Access Provider.There
are three types of such providers:

i. Internet Service Providers (ISP)

Is a local, regional, or national organisation that
provides access to the internet.Examples of well
 THE INTERNET 93

-known national providers are AT&T Worldnet

and EarthLink. There are also some free ISPs.

ii. Commercial Online Services

A commercial Online Services is a members-only
company that provides not only internet access
but other specialized content as well, such as,
news, games and financial data. The two best-
known subscriber-only commercial online services

are AOL (America Online)and MSN (Microsoft

Network).

iii.Wireless Internet Service Providers

A Wireless Internet Service Provider enables users

with computers containing wireless modems
and web-enabled mobile smart phones and
personal digital assistants to gain access to the
internet.Examples are AT&T Wireless and
Verizon Wireless. Some ISPs also provide
wireless access services in addition to dial-up
services.
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

94

Network-Ready Computer

Most personal computers can be used to connect to the

internet.As the internet is becoming more popular,
more devices are being manufactured that have
internet connection capabilities,such as televisions,
personal data assistants (PDAs) and mobile phones. The
most popular form of connection with these mobile
devices is wireless,using the service providers' mobile
network to connect to internet services,

Internet Application Software

Appropriate software is required to access the services on
the internet.For example, an email client is needed to send
and receive emails, a web browser is required to access
and view other web pages. Most browsers (application
software used for accessing the internet) incorporate
programs for accessing the different internet services.

Data Transmission Speed

Data is transmitted in collection of bits. The speeds of
transmission is measured in terms of the number of bits
that can be transmitted in a second.Based on this
measurement we have the following:
 THE INTERNET 95

✓ bps (bits per second): this would mostly transmit one

character per second (a character is represented
using eight bits -using the ASCII code)
✓
Kbps(kilobits per second):this is the most frequently used
measure. This refers to one thousand bits per
second.
Mbps (megabits per second): refers to one million
bits per second.
96

V Gbps(gigabits per second): referring to one

billionbits per second.

Internet Communications
Data and information get to be transmitted across the
internet via communication channels, as mentioned
earlier. But how do these devices on the internet
understand the data that is being transmitted? Three
basic facilities that enable effective communication are:

1 Protocols
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

Devices understand what is being transmitted

by using the same protocols (set of rules that
must be followed for transmitting data
electronically). The protocol that enables
devices to use data transmitted on the
internet is the Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Amongst
other things, the TCP/IP determines how the
sending device will indicate that it has finished
sending a message and how the receiving
device.will indicate that it has received the
complete message.
2 Packets

The TCP/IP breaks data to be transmitted into packets (fixed

-length blocks of data for transmission). This allows a
message to be split up and sent in parts using separate
routes to the same location (device). IP is used to send
packets across the internet to their destinations and TCP is
used first to break the message into packets and then to
reassemble the packets at the destinationin the correct
order. Because all the packets have the same IP address,
they must not follow the same route to the destination.

3 IP Address
 THE INTERNET 97

An Internet Protocol (IP) address uniquely identifies all

devices connected to the internet. An IP address consists of
four sets of numbers between 0 and 255,separated by
decimals (called a dotted quad)- for example 100.10.1.220.
Each time you connect to the internet,your internet access
provider assigns your device an IP .address and requested
data is transmitted to your
devices' IP address.

There are two types of IP addresses:

i. dynamic IP addresses change each time a
device is connected,once it is
disconnected the address is
allocated to another device.
ii. Static IP addresses remain constant with devices.

The World Wide Web

The internet and World Wide Web are not the same.
The internet is a massive network of networks. The
World Wide Web is a service that is facilitated by the
internet - it is a multimedia-based technology that
enables one to access various types of data over the
internet. The World Wide Web also refers to different
documents or information stored on different
computers or devices on the internet. In the following
segments,we will discuss the various terminologies
 98 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

associated with the World Wide Web and how they are
used.
Web Browsers
This are software that enable access to the various parts
of the web. The web browsers in use today include
Microsoft Internet Explorer,Mozilla Firefox, Google
Chrome etc. They. allow users to surf the web (surf
means to explore the web by using a mouse to move via a
series of links from one website to another) mostly by
using the hyperlinks available on the pages.

Website
A website (also referred to as a site) is a location on a
particular computer on the web that has a unique
address. The physical location of the computer may not
necessarily be at the offices of the organisation - it could
be in an entirely different location.For example, the
Benue State University website has an address
www.bsum.edu.ng and is located on some computer on
the internet that may not be physically located on the
Benue State University campus.
 100 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

Web Pages
A web page is a document on the World Wide Web that
can include text,pictures,sound and video.A website is
composed of a web page or collection of related web
pages. The home page is the first page you see at a
website. It identifies the website and provides links to
other pages at the site.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

Simply put, URL is the address for web pages.The URL is a
string of characters that points to a specific piece of
information anywhere on the web - it is a website's unique
address. Every URL consists of four parts: the web
protocol, the domain name,the directory (or folder on the
domain) and the file within the directory. An example of a
URL is:
https://bsum.edu.ng/w3/brief_history.php

The web Protocol(http://)

The protocol HTTP was developed by Tim
Berners-Lee.It stands for Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol.It is the communication rules that
allow browsers to connect with web
 100 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

servers(most browsers are

programmed to append the protocol to all addresses

and so one doesn't necessarily need to type this part
of the address)
The Domain Name (www.bsum.edu.ng)This is a
particular web server. It is a location on the internet.
The domain name tells the location and type of
address. The top-level domain is a three-letter
extension that describes the domain type. In our
example, www stands for"World Wide Web", the
.bsum stands for "Benue State University Makurdi",the
.edu is the top-level domain indicating that it is an
educational website.The top-level domain in this
instance includes a two-letter code (ng) extension for
the country -the country codes are optional.
✓ The Directory name(w3)
The directory name is the name on the server for the
folder from which your browser needs to pull the file.
The File nameandExtension (brief-history.php)
V The file is the particular page or document
another section (this is done especially for large
 THE INTERNET 103

Internet Applications

Similar to computer software, there are applications

that allow us to use the services available on the
internet and World Wide Web.These applications,
amongst many, include:

Search Engines

The amount of information on the web is large and

increasing daily.There are information repositories on
virtually every topic.Search engines allow us to locate
possibly useful information quickly. Some popular
search engines areYahoo,Google,Maama,AskJeeves
and MSNSearch.Search engines locate
informationaboutweb pages and store as databases of
links to the files which lead to the relevant
information.
 104 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

Newsgroup

These are online data repositories populated by subscribers who can

read and postmessageson particular topics. Newsgroupsareused for
discussions,to share information and provide assistance on topics of
interest to the subscribers

Chat/Text Messaging

Chat applications allow users to exchange text messages in real time.

Chat systems are hosted on websites and there are also chat
programs/applications that can be used to access these websites and
exchangemessages. Chat applications these days allow even sharing
of multimedia like videos and audio documents.Examples include
Yahoo Messenger,Whatsapp,Microsoft Messenger etc.

File Transfer

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)is usedtotransfer large files over a

network.It ispossible to download these files,but FTP is a faster and
more efficient way of doing this.Mostwebbrowsers have the FTP
included as a part of te browser.

Web Portal
Websites publish content from a database. For
example,a website for a bookshop will have to display
the inventory of the available books in real time to
their possible customers.Such ever changing
information can be made available using an online
 THE INTERNET

105

Conferencing
Conferencing applications allow people to conduct
meetings across networks. The groups participating in
the meetings will be in different locations across the
world, an will conduct their meeting in real time,
using tools that allow communication over the
internet.
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INDEX

A Booting 30
Abacus 1,2 Business 7
Affordable 13 Buttons 23
Alphanumeric 46 Byte 33, 34, 36,43,44,46,48-51
American 6,44 Bandwidth 92,
Analogue 15,16,26 Broadband 92
Android 37
Animation 48 C
Application 37,38,40,41 Cables 80-82
Arithmetic 1,3,27,28,47 Capabilities 15,90
ARPANET 91, Capacity 32,33,35,81

B
Backup 33,39
Banking 19
Binary 34, 35, 42,43, 46, 47,
52,53,56-59,61,63
Bits 33,34,36, 43-45,47,48,95
 INDEX
111
Desktop 14,20,24,27 Graphic
Develop 4, 8, 64-66, 17,19,24,47,48
Global Network 91,
68
Diagram
Capital22,77,86
83 Gigabits
Connect96,39,81,83-86
Digit 34,43,46,47,53-
Categories 24,37
55,57, Country 82
H
58
Digital 4, 8, 64
Category 9, 15, 16, Client/Server
Hardcopy 25 network 91,
23,32, Hardware 14,21, 36,
Cd-Roms 32
34,35,49 Channel 92,
Dvds 32 6 37,39,
60,64,84,85
Census
Data Transmission Cyber Cafe 92,
History 1,3,5,7-9
Speed
Dotted 95
Central Processing
quad 97 20,22,27 Human-Readable
Chat/Text Messaging
61 104
Domain
China name
1 101 Hybrid 15,16,89,90
Conferencing 105
Chromebook 14 Homepage 100
E Hypertext Markup
Circuit 13
Editing 17,40,64 D
Language(HTML)102
Code 35, 44-48,
Educational 27 61,72 Data 6,8, 13,15,16,18,19,
Electric
Computer52 1, 2, 4-12,14-42, I 21,23-25,27-35,39,41-45,47,
Electricity 42 Impact Printers 25,26
44,46-68,70,72-74,76,78-80,
Electronic 49-51,64,66,72,85-89,92,
Indian 46
7,8,10,11,14,21,
82-88,90
33,42,49,80 Database20,60,90
Individual 41,79
Equipped
Computing 26 1,10,36,83 Information
Data-Flow 70 6,22-
25,29.30,
34,41,45,46,60,73,76,
Configure 39 Design 19,22, 70, 71, 87
F 79
Inkjet 25,26
Fashion 88 Input
Fifth-Generation 67 6,11,20,22,23,27-29,
72,73,75,76,79
First-Generation
Install 39,88
63,64
Flat-Panel 24
Instructions 18,21,27-
Flooding 89 30,39,
40,50,52,60,61,71
Floppy Disks 33
Interface 32,38-40
Fourth-Generation 66
Internet 39,48, 50, 81
File Transfer 104 -85,91,
Introduction
2,4,6,8,10,12,
14,16,18,20,22,24,26,
G
23,
30,32,34,36,38,40,42,
Google 103
44,
46,48,50,52,54,56,58,
Generation 10-14,63-
67 6l,
62,64,66,68,70,72,74,
76
 112 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

78,80,82,84,86,88,90 Laptops 16,20,24,83

Internet Access Provider 93, Layout 23,86,87
Internet....Application Lcgical 16,28,72,86
Software 95,
Internet communications 95 N
Internet Protocol,96 Machine 2-8,23, 60-63
IP address 97 Nacos 37
Internet Applications 103 Makurdi 84
Manual 79
J Manually-Operated 2
Japan 1
Java 14
Joystck 23

K
Kaduna 84
Keyboard 23
Key;23
Kilcbyte 33,35,36
Kilcbytes 33,35,36,95

L
Language 12, 44, 60-64, 67,
68,70,71
Mathematician-Philosopher 62
3,4 Operation 18, 73, 77, 78
Matrix 25 Operator 1
Monitor 23,24,50 Organise 39,41
Multimedia 27,32 Organization 82, 84, 90
Mobile Network 94 Output 11, 15, 16, 20, 22, 24,
Megabits 95, 26,28,69,70,72,73,75,77,
79
N
Network 39,80-90 P
Numerical 11,54 Packages 41
Network-Ready Computer Packets 97
94, Palmtops 24
Newsgroup 104 Pascaline 3
Pencil 23
Peripherals 39
Operating 10, 12, 13, 37-41, Photocopy 23
Production 14Program 22,50,61,
Photograph48Picture 24, 63-65,67-
44, 47,48 73,75-77,79
Point-To-Point 86, Programmer 62, 63, 65, 66,
89Primary Memory 11, 70,72,79
29, 30,
Programs 16, 19, 31, 36, 37,
35Principle 75
63,65,67,70-73,78
Print 24-26,76
Protocol 83,96
Printer 24-26,50
Punch-Cards 6
Product 53-55,76
 INDEX 113

R Rotates 3,23
Real-World 42 Routing 89
Records 41,71 Rows 40
Registers 27,29,61 Rule 88
Remote 12 Runs 87
Represent 33-35, 42-50, Russia 1
52,
64,78 S
Reprogrammed 33 Sampling 49
Research 18 Satellites 80
Resources 37,39,80, 84, Scale 13-15
85Retrieve 41
Scanned 48
Revolution 3
Scanner 23
Rewritable 32
School 81
Ribbon 25,26
Science 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14,
Robust 87
16,18,20,22,24, 26,28,30,
32,34,36,38,40,42,44,46,
48,50,52,54,56,58,60,62,
64,66,68,70,72,74,76,78,
80,82,84,86,88,90
Scientific 18,19
Screen 23,24
Script 46
Searching 79
Second-Generation 64-66
Sectors 19
Security 84,85
 INDEX 113

Sends 27,39,50,51 Server 39,81,85,86

Sequence68,77,79 Service 82
Series 3,13,77 Setup 83,85
Shape 23