Combustion in SI and CI Engines

Course Contents
7.1. Introduction to S.I. engine
Combustion Related Concepts and
7.2.
Definitions
7.3. Ignition Limit
7.4. Stages of combustion
7.5. Factors affecting ignition lag
Factors affecting the flame
7.6.
propagation
Abnormal combustion and knocking
7.7.
in S.I. engines
Effect of Engine Variables on
7.8.
Detonation in S.I. Engines
7.9. Control of knocking
S.I. engine Combustion Chamber
7.10.
Design
Different Types of Combustion
7.11.
Chambers for S.I. Engines in Use:
7.12. Introduction to C.I engine
7.13. Combustion Stages in C.I. Engines
Effect of Engine Variables on Delay
7.14.
Period
Knock in C.I. Engines (Abnormal
7.15.
Combustion)
Factors affecting the knocking in C.I
7.16.
engine
Comparison of the knocking in S.I.
7.17.
and C.I. engines
Combustion Chamber Design for
7.18.
C.I. Engines
Classification of Combustion
7.19.
Chambers for C.I. Engines
7.1. Introduction
 In Spark Ignition (S.I.) engine, fuel and air is mixed outside the engine cylinder in
carburetor in proper proportion.
 Combustion is chemical reaction between hydrogen and carbon in fuel with oxygen in
air. It produces CO2 and H2O and liberates energy in the form of heat. Actual process of
combustion is very complicated and lot of research is going on since many years.
 During combustion, large amount of heat is generated which is utilized to run the I.C
engine.
 Combustion in S.I. engine requires following conditions:
(1) Proper proportion of air-fuel mixture should be compressed to required level
(compression ratio = 6 to 10)
(2) Spark should take place with required intensity.
(3) Combustion should start at spark plug, and the flame should propagate in
combustion chamber.
7.2. Combustion Related Concepts and Definitions
 The internal combustion engines derive their energy in the form of heat by combustion
of homogeneous mixture of fuel and air in the combustion chamber.
 An enormous amount of research has been carried out, both theoretical and
experimental, regarding the burning of this homogeneous mixture, but in actual practice
the mixture inside the cylinder is never homogeneous.
 The reasons for such existent of heterogeneous mixtures in the cylinder may be non-
uniform distribution of fuel and air in the combustion chamber or due to the dilution of
mixture by the left over residual (burnt) gases in the clearance space of the cylinder of
its previous stroke or for other reasons.
 The combustion problem of such mixtures is quite complex and intricate.
 However, the researches carried out in case of combustion of homogeneous mixtures in
spherical bomb by igniting the fuel by a spark at a point have shown that there is a
development of a flame defined as gas rendered luminous by liberation of chemical
energy, which starts from the point of ignition and spreads continuously in outward
direction.
 If the flame travels from the point of ignition up to the end of combustion chamber
without any change in speed and shape, the combustion is said to be normal.
 If the mixture of fuel and air ignites prior to reaching the flame front, this phenomenon
of combustion is called auto-ignition.
 The temperature at which the fuel will ignite itself without a flame is called self-ignition
temperature (S.I.T.).
 The auto-ignition of fuel is affected by various factors like density of charge (mixture of
fuel and air); its temperature and pressure, turbulence and the air-fuel ratio.
 In case of normal combustion the forward boundary of reaction zone of a flame is
called flame front. It is defined as the surface or area between the luminous region and
the dark region of the unburned charge.
 The velocity of flame by which it moves in space is called spatial velocity which depends
upon the shape and size of the combustion chamber.
 It has two components viz. transformation velocity and gas velocity.
 Former is defined as the relative velocity of burned gases with which the flame front
moves from burned to unburned gases and it is the velocity by which the unburned
gases approach the burning zone.
 The combustion is defined as the rapid and high temperature oxidation of fuel with
liberation of heat energy.
 The main constituents of most fuels are carbon (C) and hydrogen (H2) and their burning
involves the rapid oxidation of C to CO or CO2 and of H2 to H2O. Usually the combustion
processes take place in gaseous phase.
 The requirement for initiating a combustion process are the presence of a combustible
mixture of air and fuel, a means for initiating the combustion, the formation of a flame
and its propagation across the combustion chamber.
7.3. Ignition Limit
 The flame inside the combustion chamber will propagate from spark plug to end of
combustion chamber only if temperature inside the cylinder exceeds 1500 K and A/F
ratio is within combustible limit i.e. between 9:1 to 21:1.
 Beyond this limit it may be too lean or too rich and practically the combustion will not
be possible. As we know that Stoichiometric A/F ratio for isooctane (C 8H18) is
approximately 15:1.

C8 H18 + 12.5 O2 + 12.5  3.76 N2  8 CO2 + 9 H2 O + 12.5  3.76 N2

 If combustion is complete, C02 and H2O will come out in exhaust. If mixture is lean,
excess air comes out in exhaust with C02 and H2O. If mixture is rich, incomplete
combustion will take place resulting in reduced power and producing C0 2, H2O and CO in
exhaust.

Fig.7. 1 Ignition Limit Hydrocarbons

7.4. Stages of combustion

 In I.C. engine, if inlet and exhaust valves are closed and piston moves from bottom dead
centre (BDC) to top dead centre (TDC), compression will take place and similarly from
top to bottom, expansion will take place. If combustion does not take place during this
process, the pressure (p) verses crank angle () diagram obtained is known as Motoring
curve.
 Theoretical p-  diagram where spark occurs at TDC, pressure suddenly rises due to
combustion and, then expansion of combustion products take place.
Fig. 7. 2 (a) p -  diagram without combustion (b) theoretical p -  diagram with
(non- firing) combustion

 The actual p-  diagram with combustion is very complicated but as per this figure it is
divided into three stages namely;
 Stage I = A to B = Ignition lag,
 Stage II = B to C = Flame propagation,
 Stage III = C onwards = After burning.
 To achieve maximum advantage of high pressure generated during combustion, peak
pressure should be after and near to the TDC.
 If peak pressure is before TDC, it produces negative force on the piston which
may damage the piston, piston rod, and crank shaft.
 If peak pressure is after and far from TDC, force generated due to combustion
cannot be fully utilized.
 Considering above fact spark timing (point A) should be selected that maximum pressure
(point C) will be after and near TDC.

Fig 7. 3 Actual p -  diagram for S.I. engine

 Stage I - Ignition lag:
 Ignition lag is the duration between spark (point A) and starting of combustion (point B).
 At point B, first rise of pressure detected and the actual curve differs from motoring
curve. So time interval between spark (point A) and first pressure rise (point B) is known

 Ignition lag is also known as preparation phase during which spark, chemical process
takes place, and flame generates. In SI engine combustion ignition lag is very important
and it should be as small as possible for getting more power.
Stage II - Flame propagation:
 The time duration between point B (combustion starts) and point C (Peak pressure) is
known as flame propagation.
 The most of the heat is generated during this phase. Normally spark will occur (Point A)
approximately 30° to 35° before TDC, so that peak pressure (Point C) is obtained 5° to
10° after TDC at cruising speed.
 As speed vary this spark timing should vary forgetting peak pressure at 5° to 10° after
TDC.
Stage III - After burning:
 Theoretically we can say that combustion should be completed at point C i.e. at
maximum pressure in Fig.
 But actually combustion will continue after point C i.e. during expansion stroke which is
known as after burning.
 It may be due to type of fuel, rich mixture etc. About 10% of heat may be liberated
during this stage.

Fig 7. 4 Theoretical and Actual p-V diagram for S.I. engine

 In S.I engine, combustion takes place at constant volume and in C.I. engine at constant
pressure. Area of actual p-V diagram is always less than theoretical p-V diagram. Area of
p-V diagram means work done and it should be as large as possible.
 So to achieve this, actual p-V diagram should be close to theoretical p-V diagram. To
achieve this, process of combustion should be as fast as possible i.e. timing or crank
angle of 1st and 2nd phase should be as small as possible.
7.5. Factors affecting ignition lag
1. A:F ratio:
 Maximum power is produced at slightly richer mixture. At maximum power, heat
generated is maximum, which will reduce Ignition-lag timing as shown.

Fig.7. 5 Effect of A/F Ratio on Ignition Lag

2. Fuel:
 Chemical composition and nature of fuel plays vital role in combustion. The fuel with
higher self-ignition temperature has longer ignition lag period.
3. Initial temperature and pressure:
 The chemical reaction between fuel and air greatly depends on temperature and
pressure. As temperature and pressure increases reaction becomes fast which reduces
ignition lag. Any factor which increases in-cylinder temperature or pressure will lead to
decrease the ignition lag period. These factors may be supercharging, increasing
compression ratio, retarding –the spark timing, etc.

Fig.7. 6 Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Ignition Lag

4. Electrode gap:
 In a spark plug, distance between positive and negative electrode is known as electrode.
Sup. The effect of electrode gap on mixture strength for different compression. As the
electrode gap increases, higher voltage is required to produce the spark.
 Fig.7. 7 Effect of Electrode gap on A:F ratio required for different compression ratio
 Following conclusion were made.
a) For small electrode gap (i.e. 0.25 mm) range of A:F ratio for development of flame
nucleus is reduced.
b) For low compression ratio (say for CR=5) higher electrode gap is required.
c) As electrode gap increases the range of mixture strength increases.
d) As compression ratio increases combustion will be possible with small electrode gap.
5. Turbulence:
 Turbulence means irregular motion of the charge inside the combustion chamber.
Turbulence is directly proportional to engine speed.
 Ignition lag is not much affected by increasing the turbulence. So, engine speed does not
affect the ignition lag measured in milli seconds but ignition lag in crank angle increases
with speed.
 Therefore, angle of advance for spark timing increases with increasing speed and
decreases with decreasing speed to maintain a constant ignition lag. Therefore, in all S.I
engine automatic spark advance and retard mechanism is used to maintain constant
ignition lag.
7.6. Factors affecting the flame propagation
 Flame propagation is very important in combustion process of S.I engines. The flame
propagation depends on velocity of flame from spark plug to cylinder wall. The fast
flame propagation will improve combustion and economy. A : F ratio and turbulence are
major factors affect the flame propagation. Following are the factors that affect the
flame propagation.
1. A : F Ratio:
 As we know that maximum power is generated at slightly richer mixture. Therefore,
maximum flame speed and flame propagation take place at approximately 10% richer
mixture. For lean or too rich mixture flame propagation takes large time.
 Fig.7. 8 Effect of A/F Ratio on flame propagation
2. Compression Ratio (CR):
 Higher value of compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature of the
working mixture and decreases the concentration of residual gases in the engine
cylinder. This will speed up 1st phase (Ignition lag) and 2nd phase (flame propagation) of
combustion. The drawback of increasing the in-cylinder temperature and pressure is to
increase the possibility of detonation or knocking.
3. Intake temperature and pressure:
 As discussed earlier, as the intake temperature and pressure increases, the flame speed
and flame propagation also increases.
4. Load on the Engine:
 As the load on an engine increases, the cycle pressure and temperature also increases.
Hence the flame speed increases.
5. Turbulence:
 Irregular motion of charge entered inside the cylinder is known as turbulence.
Turbulence is also generated inside the cylinder during compression by suitable design
of the combustion chamber. In S.I. engine for combustion of fuel, the turbulence is very
important factor because flame speed is directly proportional to the turbulence of the
mixture. Advantages of turbulence are as follows:
a) It provides better mixing of air and fuel.
b) It increases the rate of heat transfer.
c) Accelerate the chemical reaction, therefore combustion is improved.
d) Flame propagation decreases and flame speed increases, therefore, weak
(lean) mixture can also be burnt efficiently.
Besides all above advantages there are few disadvantages of high turbulence:-
 Due to high turbulence high heat transfer rate may cool the flame generated which lead
to reduce flame velocity and flame may extinguish.
6. Engine Speed;
 Turbulence generated is linearly proportional to engine speed. So as engine speed
increases, turbulence increases which will increase the flame propagation.
7.7. Abnormal combustion and knocking in S.I. engines
 In normal combustion the flame generated from spark plug and it travels to the end of
cylinder wall smoothly without any disturbance.
 Under some operating conditions abnormal combustion may occur which will affect the
combustion process. This results into the decreased power output, rough running of
engine, and damage the engine parts also.
 Abnormal combustions are mainly of two types :
a) Detonation or knocking, and
b) Surface ignition.
1. Detonation or knocking
 The temperature at which fuel will be self-ignited without any external source (like
flame front, or spark, etc.) is known as “Self-Ignition Temperature” (SIT).
 This process of ignition is called “auto ignition”.
 In normal combustion all the charge in the engine cylinder is ignited by flame front
 In knock combustion most of the charge is ignited by flame front but some amount of
change will “auto ignite”.

Fig.7. 9 Normal combustion and detonation

 Knocking or detonation is due to auto ignition of end charge before reaching the flume
front in that part of the combustion chamber.
 In normal combustion flame will travel from A to BB’ to D. Combustion of end charge
between BB’ and D takes place by flame front only
 The flame from A travels towards BB’ two things will happen during this process, which
will create the knocking.
1. End charge between BB and D receives heat by flame front, and
2. This end charge is compressed because of flame front.
 Both these factors will increase the temperature of end charge and reaches up to the
self-ignition temperature (SIT). Therefore, the charge between CC' and D auto ignites
before the flame is reached, which is known as knocking.
 Due to this knocking high pitching metallic sound is produced, combustion becomes
erratic, power is drastically reduced and whole engine vibrates.
Salient features of knocking: -
1. Peak pressure for normal combustion is approximately 50 bar while during knocking it
increases to 150 to 170 bar.

Fig.7. 10 Pressure rise due to knocking

2. Only 5% of total charge can produce the severe knock.
3. High pitching metallic sound is produced during knocking.
4. Inside the cylinder high velocity and pressure waves are produced.
2. Effects of detonation or knocking
1. Decrease In power output and efficiency:
 Heat transfer to cooling water increases during knocking, therefore, power output and
efficiency of the engine decreases.
2. Pre-ignition:
 As rate of heat transfer increases, some parts inside the cylinder like valves, spark plug,
etc. get overheated. Due to overheating hot spot ignition of charge occurs before the
spark. This phenomenon is known as Pre-ignition and pre-ignition is very danger which
may damage the engine and blast may also take place.
3. Mechanical damage:
 High pressure waves with large amplitude (190-210 bar) are generated during knocking.
This will lead to wear different parts of engine like piston, cylinder, cylinder head, valves
etc. Due to high heat transfer rate piston and piston rings may damage and even melts
also. Spark plug is also over heated and may became hot spot.
4. Noise and Roughness:
 Due to high pressure waves engine parts vibrate, engine runs rough, and loud pulsating
noise is created.
3. Abnormal Combustion (Surface ignition)
 Knocking or detonation discussed above is combustion knock, and it is due to end charge
combustion by self-ignition before reaching the flame front. It is also known as spark
knock.
 Abnormal combustion also occurs by surface ignition. In surface ignition, ignition will not
occur by spark plug but due to any hot spot in combustion chamber.
 During combustion some of the part receives heat from combustion and becomes very
hot and it acts as a spark plug. This hot part may be exhaust valve head, any carbon
particle deposited on the piston or cylinder head or spark plug electrode.
 Carbon deposits also occupy some space inside the cylinder. So increases the
compression ratio which causes for high temperature. Also carbon deposits are poor
heat conductor which acts as an insulator leads to decreases the heat transfer and
finally causes high in cylinder temperature.
 The surface ignition occurs before (pre-ignition) or after (post-ignition) normal ignition.
Pre ignition is very dangerous as it creates the negative work which may damage the
engine parts like piston, piston rod, and crank shaft. Pre-ignition and post-ignition may
or may not causes knocking.
 Different type of combustion phenomenon available by this surface ignition are:
1. Run-on surface ignition
2. Run-away surface ignition
3. Wild ping
4. Rumble
1. Run-on surface ignition:
 S. I. engine can be stop by switch-off the ignition system means power supply to spark
plug is cut-off and hence spark does not occur by spark plug.
 Theoretically engine should stop but actually it runs due to any hot surface (which may
act as a spark plug) inside the engine cylinder. This phenomenon is known as “Run-on
surface ignition”.
2. Run-away surface ignition:
 Defective spark plug or exhaust valve receive the heat from combustion cycle and this
heated spot causes pre-ignition. This type of surface ignition is very dangerous which
may seizure or melt the piston and cylinder. The engine may catch fire, when fire enters
in suction intake manifold.
3. Wild ping:
 Some hot carbon deposits moves free inside the combustion chamber which provide
source for combustion.
 This combustion occurs erratic and unpredictable way produces very sharp knocking
which is known as wild ping.
4. Rumble:
 Due to hot spot inside the combustion chamber, combustion starts at a number of
points (like diesel engine). It may be before (pre-ignition) or after (post-ignition) normal
spark.
 As combustion starts at number of points, heavy explosion of mixture take place which
produces large erratic noise. High pressure waves produces resulting in engine vibration
& noise which is known as engine rumble.
7.8. Effect of Engine Variables on Detonation in S.I. Engines
 It has been seen that the detonation in S.I. engine sets in if the end part of the gas auto-
ignites before the flame front reaches it. The tendency to detonation will be reduced if
the fuel has long ignition lag, high S.I.T. and high flame speeds or reduced time for flame
travel. Therefore the onset of detonation is very dependent on the properties of fuel.
 Hence, those engine variables which tend to increase the ignition lag and increase the
flame speeds would tend to reduce the detonation tendency. The factors are :
1. Intake temperature:
 Increased intake temperature reduces the delay period, therefore, increases the
detonation tendency. However, it should be noted that the increased temperatures also
increases the flame speed, thereby, reducing the detonation tendency.
 But, the effect of increase temperature has more pronounced effect on delay period
compared to flame speeds due to which the detonation tendency is increased with
increase in intake temperature.
2. Intake pressure:
 Increased intake pressure increases the density of charge and reduces the delay period
but increases the flame speed. The overall effect is to increase the detonation tendency.
3. Compression ratio:
 Increased compression ratio increases both the pressure and temperature and reduces
the delay period, hence, the tendency to detonation increases.
4. Ignition advance:
 Advancing the spark timing increases the peak pressures of the cycle and thus reduces
the delay period of end part of the gas in the combustion chamber, hence, tendency to
detonate increases.
5. Coolant temperature:
 Raising the coolant temperature will increase the cylinder wall temperature and reduce
the heat transfer rate between gas and cylinder walls.
 Increased temperature of the gases would reduce the delay period and increase the
detonation tendency.
6. Engine load:
 Higher loads on the engine increases the heating of the engine and reduces the delay
period. Therefore the increased loads increases the detonation tendency of the engine.
 It is for this reason the spark ignition engines are never overloaded.
7. Engine speed:
 Increase in engine speed increases the turbulence in the combustion chamber thereby
increasing the flame speeds while the effect on the delay period is negligible. Due to this
the increased speed of the engine reduces the detonation tendency.
8. Air-fuel ratio:
 It has been mentioned earlier that about 10% rich mixtures have the minimum delay
period and the flame speeds are high.
 But, it is observed that the effect of slightly rich mixtures on delay period is more
dominant compared to flame speeds due to which the detonation tendency increases.
9. Engine size:
 Similar engines of various sizes have the delay period nearly the same. However, in case
of larger sized engines the flame has to travel longer distance of combustion space
compared to smaller sized engines.
 Therefore, the larger engines have more tendency to detonate compared to smaller
engines.
10. Combustion chamber design:
 In general, more the compact combustion chambers, shorter will be flame travel and
combustion time, hence, it will give better anti-knock characteristics.
 Also, if the combustion chamber design is such that it promotes turbulence then the
flame speed will increase which would reduce the tendency to detonate.
 For above reasons the combustion chamber are designed nearer to spherical shape to
reduce the distance of flame travel and shaped in such a way to promote turbulence
11. Location of spark plug:
 In case the spark plug is located centrally in the combustion chamber, it reduces the
length of flame travel, hence, reduces the tendency to detonate. The flame travel can
also be reduced by using two or more spark plugs.
12. Type of fuel:
 The fuels with lower self-ignition temperature or with its greater pre flame reactions will
have more tendency to detonate.
 Fuels of paraffin series have maximum tendency to detonate and of aromatic series have
minimum tendency to detonate.
 The naphthalene series fuels come in between the two.
 Table 7.1 gives the general summary of engine variables affecting the detonation in S.I.
engines.
Table 7. 1 Effect of engine variables on detonation in S.I. engines
7.9. Control of knocking
 Following are different parameter by which knocking tendency can be reduced.
1. Increasing engine speed which increases the turbulence.
2. Retarding spark timing.
3. Reducing pressure in inlet manifold
4. Using too lean or too rich mixture.
5. Injecting the water inside the combustion chamber which reduces the in cylinder
temperature, hence the knocking tendency decreases.
6. Decreasing the compression ratio.
7. Increasing turbulence by proper combustion chamber design.
7.10. S.I. engine Combustion Chamber Design
 Design of combustion chamber for S.I engine is very important for following reasons:
1. To achieve high power output.
2. To achieve high thermal efficiency.
3. Smooth running of engine.
4. To avoid knocking or detonation.
5. Long life of engine.
6. Minimum maintenance of engine.
Objectives of Combustion Chamber Design for S.I. Engines
 A combustion chamber needs to be designed to meet the general objectives of
developing high power output and high thermal efficiency with smooth running of
engine and minimum octane number requirement of fuel. In order to achieve these
objectives, following factors are to be kept in mind while designing the combustion
chambers of S.I. engines.
1. The length of flame travel from the spark plug to the farthest point should be kept
minimum to avoid detonation problem.
It involves the problem of location of spark plug and shape of combustion chamber.
Usually the spark plugs are located at the central location or in some cases dual spark
plugs are used.
Also, the shape of combustion chambers should be as far as possible spherical to reduce
the length of flame travel.
2. To achieve high speed of flame propagation, an adequate amount of turbulence also
ensures more homogeneous mixture by scouring away the layer of stagnant gas clinging
to the chamber walls. However, excessive turbulence should be avoided since it
increases the heat transfer losses to cylinder walls and affects the thermal efficiency of
the engine.
3. It should have small surface to volume ratio to minimise heat losses. A hemispherical
shape provides minimum surface to volume ratio.
4. It should provide large area to the inlet and exhaust valves with ample clearance around
the valve head. It reduces the pressure drop across the valves, therefore, improves the
volumetric efficiency. Use of sleeve valves are said to have low tendency to detonate
compared to poppet valves due to absence of any high temperature area.
5. Exhaust valves should not be located near the end gas location of combustion chamber
to reduce the possibility of detonation since these valves are hottest spot in the
combustion chamber.
6. The combustion chambers should be so designed that it can burn largest mass of the
charge as soon as the ignition occurs with progressive reduction in the mass of charge
burned towards the end of combustion.
7. Exhaust valve head is the hottest region of combustion chamber. It should be cooled by
water jacket or by other means to reduce the possibility of detonation.
8. Octane number requirement of fuel increases with bore at the same piston speed when
other factor remaining the same. Combustion time and cylinder inner surface
temperature also increase with bore. For this reason the S.I. engine cylinder diameters
are usually limited to 100 mm.
9. Thickness of cylinder walls should be uniform to avoid non-uniform expansion.
7.11. Different Types of Combustion Chambers for S.I. Engines in
Use:
 Few important types of S.I. combustion chambers used are being discussed below :
1. T-Head Combustion Chamber:
 This type of combustion chamber is shown in Fig. 7.11. It was used by Ford in 1908 but it
is obsolete today. It has the following disadvantages :
1. It needs two cam shafts to operate each valve separately.
2. Long flame travel, therefore, it has more tendency to detonate. Compression ratios
were limited to 5 : 1.
3. Has high surface-volume ratio.

Fig.7. 11 T-head combustion chambers

2. L-Head or Side Valve Combustion Chamber:
 Original form of L-head combustion chambers used up to 1930 is shown in Fig. 7.12. The
top surface of the combustion chamber is in the form of a flat slab. Its intake valve and
exhaust valve are kept side by side with spark plug location above the valves. Length of
the combustion chamber covers the entire piston and valve assembly.
 Advantages of L-head combustion chamber :
1. Easy to cast.
2. Easy to carry out maintenance.
3. Easy to lubricate the valve mechanism.
4. Cylinder head can easily be removed, therefore, decarbonizing can be carried out
without disturbing the valve gear mechanism.
 Fig.7. 12 L-head combustion chamber
 Disadvantages of L-head combustion chamber :
1. There is a loss of velocity of intake air since it has to take two right angle turns
before reaching the cylinder. It results into poor turbulence.
2. Distance to be travelled by flame is more and it is super imposed by poor turbulence,
therefore, tendency to detonation is more. Compression ratio is limited to 4 : 1.
3. Mixing of air-fuel is unsatisfactory.
4. It has low power and low thermal efficiency.
3. Recardo Turbulent Combustion Chamber:
 The design of combustion chamber as suggested by Recardo in the year 1919 is shown in
Fig. 7.13. However, modifications have been carried out in the design given at later
stages.
 The Recardo combustion chamber overcomes the disadvantages experienced in the L-
head combustion chamber.
 Recardo combustion chamber provides a turbulent head.

Fig.7. 13 Recardo turbulent combustion chamber

 The salient features of this combustion chamber are :
1. Combustion chamber provides high turbulence. Because at top dead centre position
only a thin layer of charge exists between the piston crown
and combustion chamber, due to this the whole charge is pushed back in the
combustion chamber during the compression stroke, therefore, it provides
additional turbulence.
2. Combustion chamber ensures a more homogeneous mixture of fuel and air by
scouring away the layer of stagnant gas clinging to the chamber walls.
3. The piston comes in closed contact with the combustion chamber head in this
design, it reduces the effective length of flame travel. Hence, tendency to detonation
is reduced.
 4. Because of contact of piston with chamber the mass of end gas is negligible.
Therefore impact of detonation will be negligible even if detonation occurs.
5. The detonation tendency is further reduced since the end gas is a thin layer and it is
cooled by comparatively cooler cylinder head.
6. Spark plug is centrally located in the combustion chamber, the length of flame travel
is reduced. It results into reduced tendency to detonate.
Modern S.I. Engine Combustion Chambers:
 After the period of 1950 the combustion chambers used are either overhead valve, also
called as I-head, combustion chambers or the F-head combustion chambers. Overhead
combustion chambers were first introduced in Ambassador Car in the year 1959.
 The overhead and F-combustion chamber designs are based on principles of Recardo
combustion chamber with certain modifications.
 The advantages of overhead valve combustion chambers on L-head combustion
chambers are as follows :
1. Use of large valves or valve lifts and reduced passage ways provides better breathing
of the engine, it increases volumetric efficiency of the engine with reduced pumping
losses.
2. It gives less tendency to detonate due to reduced flame travel.
3. Less force on head bolts and reduced possibility of leakage.
4. Exhaust valve is incorporated in the combustion chamber head instead of cylinder
block. Therefore, heat failures limited to head only.
5. Uses low surface-volume ratio, it reduces the heat losses and increases power
output and efficiency.
 Few of the important combustion chambers of overhead valve type and F-head type are
described below.
1. Bath Tub Combustion Chamber:
 This type of combustion chamber is shown in Fig. 7.14. It is simple and easy to cast. Both
valves are mounted on the head with spark plug on one side of the combustion
chamber.
 The charge at the end of compression stroke is pushed into the combustion space
known as squish which provides additional turbulence.
 Since the valves are provided in a single row in the head, it reduces the size of the
valves.
 Because of this the disadvantage of this design is that it reduces the breathing capacity
of the engine with increased pumping losses.
 To overcome this difficulty, the modern engine design use relatively larger piston
diameters compared to stroke length.
 Fig.7. 14 Bath tub combustion chamber
2. Rover Head Combustion Chamber:
 The piston has cavity at the centre which produces high turbulence and reduces
knocking tendency.
 High compression ratio can be used
 Due to high CR better combustion with high thermal efficiency can be achieved

Fig.7. 15 Rover Head Combustion Chamber

3. Wedge Head Combustion Chamber:
 This type of combustion chamber is shown in Fig. 7.16. Valves are placed in inclined
position.
 The end gas is kept cool by the intake valve and relatively cooler piston.
 Spark plug is approximately kept at the centre and it reduces the flame travel.

Fig.7. 16 Wedge head combustion chamber

4. F-Head Combustion Chamber:
 Fig. 7.17 shows the combustion chamber similar to combustion chamber used by Willy's
Jeep in India. This combustion chamber is also wedge shaped but similar in design to
Rover head chamber.
 This combustion chamber has all the advantages of modern combustion chambers listed
above. The inlet valve is kept in vertical position with large intake area to increase
breathing of air and reduce the pumping losses.
 The air during compression stroke creates turbulence due to back flow of air into the
chamber.
 Additional turbulence is created by the left hand portion of the piston head when at TDC
by squish action.

Fig.7. 17 F-head combustion chamber

 The spark plug is inclined and so located that it reduces the flame travel, hence, the
detonation tendency.
5. Combustion Chamber for Jaguar Engine:
 Fig. 7.18 shows the combustion chamber shape used for Jaguar engine.
 It utilises the principle that the hemispherical shape gives the minimum surface to
volume ratio.
 Such a concept is useful to reduce the head losses thereby increasing the output power
and thermal efficiency of the engine.
 The combustion chamber is designed hemispherical shape with inlet and exhaust valves
placed on the sides of the head.
 Valves are operated in inclined position.

Fig.7. 18 Combustion chamber to Jaguar engine

 Hemispherical shape used not only reduces the heat transfer losses by virtue of low
surface to volume ratio, it also permits to use the larger diameter valves, therefore, has
higher volumetric efficiency.
 The crown of piston is so shaped to produce required turbulence, therefore, the flame
speeds are increased, hence, reduces the tendency to detonate.
 Spark plug is located centrally which reduces the flame travel and again it helps in
preventing detonation.

Section II: Combustion in C.I. Engines

7.12. Introduction
 C.I. engine only air sucks during suction and fuel is injected at the end of compression
stroke.
 In S.I. engine nearly stoichiometric air fuel mixture is supplied while in C.I. engine 40 to
75% excess air is required for better combustion. For induction of this excess air, the size
of C.I. engine compared to S.I. engine is always larger and heavier to generate the 1
same power.
 C.I. engine the combustion starts at I number of points simultaneously i.e. multipoint
combustion takes place.
 In S.I. engine combustion takes place due to spark, whereas in C.I, engine combustion
takes place due to compression ignition. As self-ignition temperature (SIT) of diesel is
low, fuel can be ignited without spark.
 During compression stroke only air is compressed to higher pressure (CR = 16 to 22), so
that temperature of air inside the cylinder increases (440 to 540°C) beyond SIT of diesel
fuel. At the end of compression, diesel fuel is injected in liquid state at very high
pressure (120 to 200 bar) with the help of fuel pump and injector.
 The atomized fuel vaporize, mix with air, and combustion starts.
7.13. Combustion Stages in C.I. Engines
 In case of compression ignition engines the air alone is compressed and raised to high
pressure and temperatures in the compression stroke by using high compression ratios.
 The temperature of air attained is far above the self-ignition temperature of the diesel
fuel used.
 Fig.7. 19 Combustion stages in C.I. Engines
 The fuel is injected by a fuel pump into the combustion chamber by one or more jets
under very high pressures of about 120-210 bar pressures at about (20 – 35)
before TDC. The point A represents the time at which the fuel injection starts on (p - )
diagram shown in Fig. 7.19. Combustion takes place in four stages which are as
follows :

1. First stage (Ignition delay period):

 The fuel leaves the nozzles initially in the form of a jet, and later on, it disintegrates into
a core of fuel surrounded by a spray envelope of air and fuel particles due to
atomization, vaporization and mixing with hot air.
 During vaporization process of fuel it receives its latent heat from surrounding air and
this causes a slight drop in pressure in the cylinder as shown by curve AB.
 As soon as the vaporization is over, the preflame reactions of the mixture start. During
such chemical reactions the energy is released at slow rate and the pressure starts
building up.
 Therefore, the preflame reactions first start slowly and then accelerates until the
ignition of fuel takes place. It corresponds to point C on diagram.
 The time interval between the start of fuel injection and commencement of combustion
is called the delay period.
 The delay period can be divided into two parts as follows :
a) Physical delay:
 This represents the time interval from the time of injection of fuel to its attainment of
self-ignition temperature during which the fuel is atomized, vaporized and mixed with
air.
b) Chemical delay:
 After physical delay period is over, the time interval up to the time the fuel auto-ignites
and flame appears is called chemical delay.
 During this period pre flame reactions take place. This period corresponds to ignition lag
of S.I. engines.
 In practice, it is very difficult to separate exactly these two delay periods since the
processes involved are very complex.
2. Second stage (Period of uncontrolled combustion):
 Once the delay period is over the mixture of fuel and air will auto-ignite since it is above
the self-ignition temperature.
 The flame appears at one or more locations where concentration of fuel and air mixture
is optimum. This is due to the fact that the mixture present in the combustion chamber
at the time of ignition is extremely heterogeneous unlike the homogeneous mixture of
S.I. engines.
 Once the flame appears the mixture in other regions will either be burnt by propagating
flames or it will auto-ignite because of the heat transfer from the burnt mixture and high
temperatures existing in the combustion chamber.
 The fuel which is accumulated during the delay period is now ready for combustion and
it would burn at an extremely rapid rate causing a steep rise in cylinder pressure and
temperature.
 The rate of pressure rise depends upon the fuel injected and accumulated, which is
directly proportional to the time of injection and the engine speed.
 Higher the delay period, higher would be the rate of pressure rise. During this period it is
difficult to control the amount of fuel burning, for this reason, this period of rapid
combustion is called the period of uncontrolled combustion as represented by curve CD
in Fig. 7.19.
3. Third stage (Period of controlled combustion):
 Once the fuel accumulated during the delay period is burnt in the period of uncontrolled
combustion, the temperature and pressures in the cylinder will be so high that the
further quantity of fuel injected will burn as soon as it leaves the nozzle provided
sufficient oxygen is present in the cylinder.
 Therefore the rate of pressure rise can now be controlled by controlling the rate of fuel
injection. This period of combustion is known as period of controlled combustion
represented by curve DE.
4. Fourth state (After burning):
 Theoretically the combustion is completed at the point the maximum pressure is
attained during the cycle corresponding to point E few degree after TDC.
 However, the burning of fuel continues during its expansion stroke due to reassociation
of dissociated gases and any unburned fuel due to heterogeneous condition of mixture.
This phase of combustion is called after burning.
7.14. Effect of Engine Variables on Delay Period
1. Compression ratio:
 Increased compression ratio increases the density, pressure and temperature of the
charge. Increased temperatures and pressure reduces the delay period.
2. Inlet pressure (supercharging):
 Increased inlet pressures increases the pressures in the compression stroke and reduces
the delay period.
3. Intake temperature:
 Higher intake temperatures will result into high temperatures at the time of fuel
injection, therefore, it will reduce the delay period.
4. Engine speed:
 Increased speed will increase the delay period in terms of degrees of crank rotation,
since the fuel pump is driven by the engine through gears. Therefore, during the delay
period more fuel will be accumulated in the cylinder with increased speed and burning
of this fuel during the period of uncontrolled combustion will result into high rate of
pressure rise and high temperatures. It also results into better mixing of fuel and air due
to increased turbulence.
5. Jacket water temperature:
 Increased jacket water temperature increases the air temperature in the cylinder,
hence, reduces the delay period.
6. Load on engine:
 Increased loads on the engine reduces delay period. Since the air-fuel ratio decreases
with the increase in operating temperatures.
7. Injection pressure:
 Increased injection pressures will give better atomization of fuel. It generally tends to
reduce the delay period slightly.
8. Fuels:
 Higher the self-ignition temperature of the fuel, higher will be the delay period.
9. Injection timing:
 If fuel is injected much before TDC the delay period is larger since the pressure and
temperatures in the cylinder are low. It will give extremely high rate of pressure rise
during the period of uncontrolled combustion.
 Too late injection will reduce delay period but it would result in poor efficiency of the
engine and the engine will not run smoothly.
10. Engine size:
 It has no effect on delay period in terms of time. However, large engines operate at
lesser speed, therefore, delay period in terms of crank angle is smaller. Hence, less fuel
enters the cylinder and the engine will run smooth.
7.15. Knock in C.I. Engines (Abnormal Combustion)
 In C.I engine as delay period increases, the amount of fuel injected and accumulated in
combustion chamber increases. A very high temperature and pressure is generated by
combustion of this large amount of fuel is known as knocking or detonation in C.I
engine.
 “Accumulation of fuel during large delay period creates very high pressure, it is known as
knocking in C.I. engine.”
 This high rate of pressure rise creates pulsating combustion which produces heavy noise.
 In C.I. engine knocking occurs during initial phase of combustion i.e. as delay period is
completed and uncontrolled combustion starts.
 Fig.7. 20 p -  diagram of C.I. engine with and without Knocking
7.16. Factors affecting the knocking in C.I engine
Table 7. 2 Factors affecting the knocking in C.I engine
Sr. No Variable increases Effect on knocking tendency
1. Fuel (Cetane No.) Decreases
2. Intake air/fuel/Jacket water temp. Decreases
3. Intake Pressure (supercharging) Decreases
4. Load (F: A Ratio) Decreases
5. Injection pressure Decreases
6. Injection advance angle Increases
7. Engine size Decreases
8. Speed Increases
9. Compression ratio Decreases
7.17. Comparison of the knocking in S.I. and C.I. engines
(1) In S.I. engine knocking takes place at the end of combustion process while in C.I. engine
it takes place at the beginning of combustion.
(2) In S.I. engine knocking is due to end charge auto-ignition before reaching the flame
while in C.I. engine knocking is due to auto-ignition of more fuel accumulated due to
long delay period.

Fig.7. 21 p -  diagram of S.I and C.I. engine

(3) In S.I. engine pressure rise is very high during knocking due to homogeneous mixture as
compared to the C.I. engines.
(4) Chances of pre-ignition in the S.I. engine is more because air-fuel mixture enters during
suction stroke while in the C.I. engine fuel is injected at the end of compression stroke.
(5) In the C.I engine knocking is due to delay period and delay period cannot be zero. There
is always pressure rise due to accumulation of fuel during delay period. Therefore, the
C.I. engine is known as knock engine. As degree of pressure rise increases above certain
limit which may start to produce audible noise and vibration. It is the starting of
knocking. Therefore, in the C.I. engine it is difficult to distinguish between knocking and
non-knocking operation.
 Table 7.3 gives the factors which reduce the detonation and knocking tendency in S.I.
and C.I. engines.

Table 7. 3 Factors tending to reduce detonation and knocking in S.I. and C.I. engines

7.18. Combustion Chamber Design for C.I. Engines

Objectives
 In the C.I engine during induction, suction, and compression only air is there and fuel is
injected at the end of compression. The time available for vaporization and mixing with
air is very limited. Also for better mixing and better combustion air swirl is required
which gives better combustion.
 For better combustion atomization, vaporization and proper mixing with air is required
in minimum time and result of all these give high power, better efficiency, smooth and
noiseless engine running, and shorter delay period which reduces probability of
knocking.
 To achieve all of the above advantages the design of C.I engine combustion chamber
becomes more complicated and swirl is very important in the C.I engine.
Air Swirl:
 For proper mixing of fuel and air in the combustion chamber the various methods of air
movement are employed called air swirl. Various types of air swirl are being discussed
below :
1. Induction Swirl
 In this method swirl is provided to incoming air to the cylinder during suction, that’s why
it is known as induction swirl.
 Different methods of giving swirl to incoming air are shown in fig 7.22 in which air enters
at some angle and gets the swirl.
 Fig. 7.22 (b) shows a masking or shrouding one side of the inlet valve, so that air enters
only around the part of periphery of the valve and air swirl is produced. The angle of
mask used usually varies from 90° to 140°.
 The best tangential direction of air movement can be obtained by turning the valve
around its axis. Fig. 7.22 (c) illustrates the method of producing air swirl by casting a lip
on one side of the inlet valve. Air enters from the top and due to lip it gets the swirl.

Fig.7. 22 Different methods of achieve induction swirl

2. Compression Swirl
 In this method air swirl is produced during compression stroke. At the top of the piston
different types of cavity is formed which gives different type of swirl during
compression. It is shown in Fig. 7.23 (a) and (b).

Fig.7. 23 Compression Swirl

3. Combustion Induced Swirl
 In this method swirl is produced by high pressure generated during first part of
combustion of fuel. The piston head have different types of design which help to
generate the swirl during combustion. This method is employed in pre-combustion and
air cell combustion chamber designs.
7.19. Classification of Combustion Chambers for C.I. Engines
 The combustion chamber for the C.I. engines are classified as follows:
a. Open combustion chamber or Direct injection (D.I.) combustion chambers.
b. Pre-combustion chamber.
c. Turbulent combustion chamber or Indirect injection combustion chamber.
d. Special combustion chambers.
1. Open or Direct Injection (DI) Combustion Chambers
 In an open combustion chamber the space between the piston and cylinder head is open
i.e. no restriction in between. Therefore, all air is contained in single space between the
piston and cylinder head. The fuel is directly injected inside this space that’s why it is
also known as direct injection engine or in short D.I. engine.
 To achieve better combustion and swirl different types of cavity are formed in piston
crown and cylinder head.
 In some cases, the shape of cylinder head provides a cavity to create favourable
conditions for better mixing and better burning.
 The salient features of open combustion chamber are:
(1) Less turbulence is generated in this type, so heat loss is less and thus, starting is
easier.
(2) Excess air required is more, so engine size increases, and thermal efficiency also
increases.
(3) Generally they are used for large capacity, and low speed engines.

Fig.7. 24 Cavity in piston crown

Fig.7. 25 Cavity in piston crown

 Advantages and disadvantages of this type of combustion chambers are as follows :
Advantages:
1. The thermal efficiency is high because heat transfer losses are less.
2. Easier starting because heat transfer losses are less.
3. Simple in construction.
4. In case of slow speed engines less costly fuels with longer delay can be used.
 Disadvantages:
1. Engine size becomes large for generating same power due to large excess air
required.
2. Due to less turbulence, high injection pressure is required with multiple hole nozzle.
3. Maintenance cost is higher.
2. Pre-Combustion Chamber
 A small additional chamber called as pre-combustion chamber is connected with main
combustion chamber where fuel is injected in this pre-combustion chamber. Both these
chambers are connected with small holes.
 As fuel is injected, combustion starts at pre-combustion chamber and products of
combustion rush out through small holes to main combustion chamber with very high
velocity, thus it generates turbulence as well as swirl which produces bulk combustion in
the main combustion chamber. About 80% of energy is released in main combustion
chamber.
 The first combustion starts at pre-combustion chamber due to high temperature of it
and it propagates to main combustion chamber, thus the delay period is reduced and
poor grade fuel can also be easily burnt.

Fig.7. 26 Precombustion chamber

Advantages:
1. Fuel with wide range of Cetane No. can be used.
2. As injection pressure is low, simple fuel nozzle can be used.
3. Smoother running of engine.
4. Engine can be run at high speed.
5. As delay period in main combustion chamber is very small, knocking tendency is very
less. Also engine can run with higher compression ratio.
 Disadvantages:
1. Engine design becomes complicated due to pre-combustion chamber.
2. Heat loss from pre-combustion chamber is high.
3. Due to high heat loss cold starting is difficult.
4. The fuel consumption is high and thermal efficiency is low.
3. Turbulent or Indirect Injection (IDI) Combustion Chambers
 These combustion chambers are similar as that of pre-combustion chamber. The
difference is that in pre-combustion chamber only 20 to 25% of total air enters while in
these type 80 to 90% of total air circulates in pre-chamber.
 As high rate of “swirl” produces in this type, it is also known as swirl combustion
chamber. During compression stroke most of the air from main combustion chamber
enters to pre-combustion chamber, where high rate of swirl is produced.
 Fuel is injected in this pre-combustion chamber and the ignition and bulk of the
combustion takes place therein. Few configurations of these type are shown in Fig.7.27
(a) and (b).

Fig.7. 27 Turbulent or Indirect Injection (IDI) Combustion Chambers

 The advantages and disadvantages of this type are listed below:
Advantages:
1. Due to high rate of swirl comparatively rich mixture (low A:F ratio) can be used
which makes engine compact for given output.
2. Large range of Cetane No. fuel can be used.
3. Injection pressure and pattern of injection is not very important due to swirl f thus
simple nozzle can be used.
4. Smooth running and low maintenance of the engine.
5. The engine can be operated at high speed because delay period is very small, thus
probability of knocking is less.

Disadvantages:
1. Due to large heat loss to cylinder wall fuel consumption increases (high bsfc).
2. Low thermal efficiency due to heat loss.
3. Cold starting of engine is difficult.
4. Special combustion chambers
1. M.A.N. Combustion Chamber
 Dr. Meurer of Maschimenfabric Augsburg Nurnberg (M.A.N.) of Germany in 1954
developed a special type of open combustion chamber, also called as ‘M’ combustion
chamber.
 It is suitable for small, high speed engines. In this design, the combustion chamber has a
spherical cavity in the piston as shown in Fig. 7.28.
 The fuel spray impinges tangentially on the cavity and it spreads over the entire
chamber. Such type fuel spray impingement was believed to be undesirable in earlier
designs of open combustion chambers.

Fig.7. 28 M.A.N. combustion chamber

 But according to the theory used in this design it is suggested that the air borne fuel
spray in the cavity makes homogeneous mixture and it auto ignites before impingement
with normal delay period, while the remainder fuel impinging on the cavity walls have to
evaporate from the cavity prior to combustion.
 It controls the rate of pressure rise in the second stage of combustion and gives smooth
running of engine.
 However, it is further possible to control the air borne fuel spray by varying the distance
between the nozzle tip and the combustion chamber walls.
Advantages:
1. Large range of fuel can be used, so poor quality of fuel with low cetane no. can also
be used.
2. Better combustion and low exhaust emission.
3. More power because of high volumetric efficiency.
4. Easy cold starting.
5. No combustion noise.
6. Low rate of pressure rise.
Disadvantages:
1. Poor performance and high emission at low load on engine.
2. Air-Cell Combustion Chamber

 Air-cell combustion chamber design used for Lanova engine is represented in Fig. 7.29.
In this case a separate air-cell through a small neck communicates with the main
combustion chamber.
 The fuel is injected across the main chamber into the neck of air-cell which is designed
to run hot.

Fig.7. 29 Air cell combustion chamber for Lanova engine (plan view)
 The combustion is initiated in the air cell and due to high pressure rise it flows back into
main chamber.
 The main combustion chamber is so designed that the gas stream from air-cell splits into
two vertices to create high swirl.
 High turbulence and high temperature of gases reduce the delay period and it controls
the rate of pressure rise and the engine runs smooth.
 This design differs from pre-combustion chamber in respect of fuel injection.
 In case of air cell the fuel is injected in the main chamber while in the other case into
pre-combustion chamber.
Advantages:
1. Cold starting of the engine is easier.
2. Due to high rate of swirl better mixing of air and fuel can be achieved which
improves the combustion.
3. Exhaust emissions is less.
4. As maximum pressure rise is low, engine runs smoothly.
Disadvantages:
1. Low thermal efficiency.
2. Higher fuel consumption (high bsfc).
3. Cannot be used for variable speed engine.