GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

(SOIL MECHANICS)

Permeability

By: CE Faculty
Chapter 5:
Permeability and Seepage
This chapter discusses permeability and seepage as the fundamental
concepts in soil mechanics that deal with the behavior of soils and their
interactions with water. The permeability of soil is influenced by factors
such as particle size, shape, and arrangement, as well as the void ratio
and the properties of the fluids involved. More so, seepage occurs when
there is a difference in hydraulic head (pressure) between two points
within or beneath the soil. It can have significant engineering implications,
such as causing erosion, instability of dams and levees, or influencing the
stability of foundations.
Chapter 5:
Permeability and Seepage
Intended Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this topic, students will be able to:

1. Define permeability and seepage and explain their significance in soil

mechanics;

2. Calculate hydraulic conductivity using laboratory and field tests; and

3. Analyze seepage problems in engineering structures

Chapter 5:
Permeability and Seepage
Topics:
1. Bernoulli and Darcy’s Equations
2. Hydraulic Conductivity
3. Constant-head permeability
4. Falling-head permeability
5. Flow net
Introduction
Soils are permeable due to the existence of interconnected voids through which water
can flow from points of high energy to points of low energy.

The importance of flow of water through permeable soil media:

1. It is necessary for estimating the quantity of underground seepage under various
hydraulic conditions
2. For investigating problems involving the pumping of water for underground
construction
3. For making stability analyses of earth dams and earth-retaining structures that are
subject to seepage forces.
Introduction
The property of a soil which permits flow of water (or any other
liquid) through it, is called the PERMEABILITY. It is the ease with
which water can flow through the soil.

❑Highly pervious soil – water can flow through it easily

❑Impervious soil – the permeability is very low and water cannot
easily flow through it
❑Completely impervious soil – water cannot flow through it.
However, it does not exist in nature since soil is pervious to some
degree.
Bernoulli’s Equation
The total head at a point in water under motion can be given by the sum of
the pressure, velocity, and elevation heads.

If the water flows through a

porous soil medium, the velocity
head can be neglected because
the seepage velocity is small.
The total head is:
Bernoulli’s Equation
❑Piezometers
❑Piezometric levels
❑The loss of head between two points, A and B, can be given by:

❑Hydraulic gradient
Bernoulli’s Equation
Nature of variation of v with hydraulic gradient, i
❑When the hydraulic gradient is increased gradually,
the flow remains laminar in Zones I and II, and the
velocity, v, bears a linear relationship to the hydraulic
gradient.
❑At a higher hydraulic gradient, the flow becomes
turbulent (Zone III).
❑When the hydraulic gradient is decreased, laminar
flow conditions exist only in Zone I.

In most soils, the flow of water through the void spaces can
be considered laminar; thus,

In fractured rock, stones, gravels, and very coarse sands,

turbulent flow conditions may exist, this equation may not
be valid.
 Darcy’s Law
In 1856, Darcy demonstrated experimentally that for laminar flow in a
homogeneous soil, the velocity of flow, v, is:
where
v = discharge velocity, which is the quantity of water flowing in unit time
through a unit gross cross-sectional area of soil at right angles to the direction
of flow

k = hydraulic conductivity (otherwise known as thecoefficientof permeability)

A relationship between
the discharge velocity and
the seepage velocity can
be derived by referring to
Figure, which shows a
soil of length L with a
gross cross-sectional
area A.
 Darcy’s Law
If the quantity of water flowing (flow rate)
through the soil in unit time is q, then:
q = kiA The seepage velocity is

where
A = cross-sectional area of the soil
where
V = Discharge velocity
n = porosity
 Hydraulic Conductivity
This is the ability of porous medium (soil for instance) to transmit water
under saturated or nearly saturated condition.

Hydraulic conductivity is generally expressed in cm/sec or m/sec in SI units

and in ft/min or ft/day in English units. The hydraulic conductivity of soils
depends on several factors: fluid viscosity, pore size distribution, grain-size
distribution, void ratio, roughness of mineral particles, and degree of soil
saturation. In clayey soils, structure plays an important role in hydraulic
conductivity. Other major factors that affect the permeability of clays are the
ionic concentration and the thickness of layers of water held to the clay
particles.
 Hydraulic Conductivity
The value of hydraulic conductivity (k) varies widely for different soils. Some
typical values for saturated soils. The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated
soils is lower and increases rapidly with the degree of saturation. Table 6.1
is typical values of hydraulic conductivity of saturated soils.
Table 6.1: Typical values of hydraulic conductivity of saturated soils
Soil type Drainage Properties k /cm/sec
Clean gravel Very good 100 – 1.0
Corse sand Good 1.0 – 0.01
Fine sand Fair 0.01 – 0.001
Silty clay Poor 0.001 – 0.00001
Clay Very poor < 0.000001

Coefficient of permeability
✓ greater than 10-3 mm/sec ---------- pervious soil
✓ less than 10-5 mm/sec -------------- impervious soil
✓ between 10-5 to 10-3 mm/sec ------ semi-pervious soil
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

A.Laboratory methods
1. Constant-head permeability test
2. Falling-head permeability test
The instruments used are known as permeameters. The former test is
suitable for relatively more pervious (sand and gravel) and the latter for less
pervious soil.

B. Field methods
1. Pumping-out test
2. Pumping-in test
The pumping-out test influences a large area around the pumping well
and give an overall value of the coefficient of permeability of the soil deposit. The
pumping-in test influences small area around the hole and therefore gives a
value of coefficient of permeability of the soil surrounding the hole.
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

A.Laboratory methods
1. Constant-head permeability test
2. Falling-head permeability test
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability
Constant-head permeability test

In this type of laboratory setup, the water supply at the inlet is adjusted in
such a way that the difference of head between the inlet and the outlet
remains constant during the test period. After a constant flow rate is
established, water is collected in a graduated flask for a known duration.

The total volume of water collected may be expressed as:

where
Q - volume of water collected
A - area of cross section of the soil specimen
t - duration of water collection
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability
Constant-head permeability test
Coefficient of permeability:
since

Thus,
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability
Falling-head permeability test

Water from a standpipe flows through the soil. The initial

head difference h1 at time t=0 is recorded, and water is
allowed to flow through the soil specimen such that the
final head difference at time t=t2 is h2.

The rate of flow of the water through the specimen at any

time t can be given by

where
q - flow rate
a - cross-sectional area of the standpipe
A - cross-sectional area of the soil specimen
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability
Falling-head permeability test Discharge :

Rearrangement:

Thus,
where
h1 – initial head
h2 – final head
Time: a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
A = cross-sectional area of the soil specimen
L = length of the specimen

Coefficient of Permeability:
Relationships for Hydraulic Conductivity—Granular Soil

Hazen (1930) Kozeny-Carman equation

Coefficient of permeability: Coefficient of permeability:

where
c - a constant that varies from 1.0 to 1.5
D10 - the effective size, in mm
where
Cs - shape factor, which is a function of the
shape of flow channels
Remarks:
This is based primarily on Hazen’s (1930) Ss - specific surface area per unit volume of
observations of loose, clean, filter sands. particles
A small quantity of silts and clays, when T - tortuosity of flow channels
present in a sandy soil, may change the γw - unit weight of water
hydraulic conductivity substantially. h - viscosity of permeant
e - void ratio
Relationships for Hydraulic Conductivity—Granular Soil

Carrier (2003) Chapuis (2004)

Coefficient of permeability: Coefficient of permeability:

where
where D10 - the effective size, in mm
fi - fraction of particles between two sieve sizes, in
percent. (Note: larger sieve, l; smaller sieve, s)
SF - shape factor (between 6 to 8) Remarks:
Modified the Carrier (2003) equation.

Remarks:
Modified the Kozeny-Carman equation.
Relationships for Hydraulic Conductivity—Granular Soil
Amer and Awad (1974)

Coefficient of permeability:

Remarks:
This equation is valid for natural, uniform sand and gravel to predict k that is in the range of
101 to 103 cm/s. This can be extended to natural, silty sands without plasticity. It is not valid
for crushed materials or silty soils with some plasticity
Relationships for Hydraulic Conductivity—Cohesive Soil

Taylor (1948)

Coefficient of permeability:
Relationships for Hydraulic Conductivity—Cohesive Soil

Samarasinghe et al. (1982)

Coefficient of permeability:

where
C and n are constants to be determined experimentally

Variation of hydraulic conductivity of sodium clay

minerals (Based on Mesri and Olson, 1971)
Relationships for Hydraulic Conductivity—Cohesive Soil

Variation of void ratio with

hydraulic conductivity of
clayey soils (Based on
Tavenas et al, 1983)
Directional Variation of Permeability

In a given soil deposit, the

magnitude of k changes with respect
to the direction of flow. Figure shows
a soil layer through which water
flows in a direction inclined at an
angle a with the vertical.

Hydraulic conductivity
➢ vertical (α = 0) = kv
➢ horizontal (α = 90°) = kH
Directional Variation of Permeability

Variation of kV and kH for Masa-do

soil compacted in the laboratory
(Based on the results of
Fukushima and Ishii, 1986)
Directional Variation of Permeability
kH/kV for Fine-Grained Soils—Summary of Several Studies
Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil

In a stratified soil deposit where the

hydraulic conductivity for flow in a
given direction changes from layer to
layer, an equivalent hydraulic
conductivity can be computed to
simplify calculations.

Equivalent hydraulic conductivity

determination—horizontal flow in
stratified soil
Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil

The total flow through the cross section in unit

time can be written as

Thus,
Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil

In this case, the velocity of flow

through all the layers is the same.
However, the total head loss, h, is
equal to the sum of the head
losses in all layers.

Equivalent hydraulic
conductivity determination—
vertical flow in stratified soil
Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil

Velocity

Headloss

Hydraulic conductivity
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

B. Field methods
1. Pumping-out test
2. Pumping-in test
Permeability Test in the Field by Pumping from Wells
In the field, the average hydraulic conductivity of a soil
deposit in the direction of flow can be determined by
performing pumping tests from wells.

The expression for the rate of flow of

groundwater into the well, which is equal to the
rate of discharge from pumping, can be written
as:

Thus, the hydraulic

conductivity in the
direction of flow:
Pumping test from a well in an unconfined
permeable layer underlain by an
impermeable stratum.
Permeability Test in the Field by Pumping from Wells
In the field, the average hydraulic conductivity of a
soil deposit in the direction of flow can be
determined by performing pumping tests from
wells.
Because water can enter the test well only from
the aquifer of thickness H, the steady state of
discharge is:

Thus, the hydraulic

conductivity in the
direction of flow: Pumping test from a well penetrating the
full depth in a confined aquifer
QUESTIONS

By: CE Faculty
THANK YOU!