MOBILE DBMS.

A Mobile devices are gradually becoming commonplace. The computational and networking
power of mobile devices is constantly increasing and new technologies are integrated into them
to support new functionalities and services. On the other hand, the field of databases and more
generally data management is also expanded with new services and applications.

Several modern database management systems support small-footprint databases that can be
executed on mobile devices and admit disconnected computing and synchronization with acentral
database. We call an application that comprises a server with a central database and a number of
autonomous mobile clients with replicated parts of the database a mobile database application.

A mobile database is a database which can be connected to by a mobile computing device over a
mobile network. The client and server have wireless connections. A cache is maintained to hold
frequent data and transactions so that they are not lost due to connection failure. A database is a
structured way to organize information. This could be a list of contacts, price information or
distance travelled.

A database is a structured way to organize information.

With the advances in mobile technology and portable mobile devices, which include handheld
mobile phones, their larger counterpart, personal device assistance and the laptop, are becoming
increasingly useful tools for mobile users.

Modern technologies have provided portable computers with wire-less interfaces that allow
networked communication even while a user is mobile. Wireless networking greatly enhances
the utility of a portable computing device. The mobile users can access information independent
of their physical location through wireless connections.

Mobile Devices database Management commonly called as Mobile Database' is either a stationary
database that can be connected to by a mobile computing device - such as smart phones or PDAs
over mobile network, or a database which is actually carried by the mobile device. This could be
a list of contacts, price information, distance travelled, or any other information.

Many applications require the ability to download information from an information repository and
operate on this information even when out of range or disconnected. An example of this is your
contacts and calendar on the phone.

In this scenario, a user would require access to update information from files in the home
directories on a server or customer records from a database. This type of access and work load
generated by such users is different from the traditional workloads seen in client–server systems
of today.

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A mobile database is a database that can be connected to by a mobile computing device over a
mobile network. The client and server have wireless connections.

The use of laptops, mobiles and PDAs is increasing and likely to increase in the future with more
and more applications residing in the mobile systems For many businesses applications are going
mobile that means using enterprise data in a mobile context, thus using a mobile DBMS. With
these new developments the business data of an enterprise can be made available to an even larger
number of users and a wider range of applications than before.

In a mobile database application a part or a replica of the database is locally installed on the mobile
device. This is a significant difference compared to a conventional client-server application where
all data is centrally stored in a database server.

The approach with a mobile database provides the necessary autonomy to the mobile device to
work independently from the central database. The client application can work with the mobile
database asynchronously, and needs to connect to the central database only when it is necessary to
synchronize.

This approach has several advantages compared to a conventional approach where the clients do
not use local storage:

– Flexibility and Reliability: Asynchronous operation makes the application more flexible and
tolerant to network failures.
– Efficiency: Except the synchronization steps, for all other operations the client has immediate
access to the data since it is locally stored on the mobile device.
– Enhanced security: Disconnected computing reduces the total time that the mobile device is
exposed to potential attacks over the network.
– Energy efficiency: The mobile device has to operate its network system, hardware and
software, only during the synchronization operations.
– Reduced fees for network usage: This holds in the case where the usage of the communication
link is charged. If the network link up-time is charged.

Today’s mobile systems are mainly based on digital technology but analog systems are in use too.
Users desire that a mobile unit should have transaction management capability which will allow a
user to perform everyday activities.

These demands and creative thinking laid down the foundation of Mobile Database System
which is a distributed client/ server database system where the entire processing environment is
mobile.

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Mobile relational Database systems are: IBM's DB2 Everywhere, Oracle Lite, Microsoft SQL
Server and Sybase's SQL.

i) SQL Anywhere Technologies: SQL Anywhere Server is a high performing and embeddable
relational database-management system (RDBMS) that scales from thousands of users in server
environments down to desktop and mobile applications used in widely deployed, zero-
administration environments.

Ultralite - is a database-management system designed for small-footprint mobile devices such as

PDAs and smart phones. Mobilink- MobiLink is a highly-scalable, session-based synchronization
technology for exchanging data among relational databases and other non-relational data sources.

QAnywhere- QAnywhere facilitates the development of robust and secure store-and-forward

mobile messaging applications. SQL Remote- SQL Remote technology is based on a store and
forward architecture that allows occasionally connected users to synchronize data between SQL
Anywhere databases using a file or message transfer mechanism.

ii) IBM DB2 Everyplace (DB2e): DB2e stores, retrieves, organizes and manages data on a
handheld device. The data on the handheld device is synchronized to a server-based relational
database management system (RDMS). DB2e is currently available for Palm OS, EPOC, Neutrino,
Windows CE and Embedded Linux DB2e on the handheld device includes: IBM DB2 Database
Engine, IBM Sync, Query by Example (QBE). DB2e includes a component called Synchronization
Server, which allows synchronization between DB2e and server database.

iii) Microsoft SQL Server Compact (formerly SQL Server 2005 Mobile Edition): Microsoft SQL
Server Compact (SSC) is a small footprint embedded database designed for developers who target
Microsoft Windows mobile-based devices or desktops. It provides synchronization with Microsoft
SQL Server, programming APIs, integrated development experience through Visual Studio and a
Management Studio.

iv)Oracle9i Lite: This is a complete solution for mobile or wireless applications that require the
use of a relational database on the mobile client. It includes support for Win32, Windows CE, Palm
OS, and EPOC database clients, integration with Oracle's Advanced Queuing (AQ) mechanism,
and data and application synchronization software (to enterprise Oracle databases. The Oracle9i
Lite relational database is surprisingly powerful. The database supports 100% Java development
(through JDBC drivers and the database's native support for embedded SQLJ and Java Stored
procedures) as well as programming from any development tool that supports ODBC(Visual Basic,
C++, Delphi). These databases work on Palm top and hand held devices (Windows CE devices)
providing a local data store for the relational data acquired from enterprise SQL databases. The
main constraints for such databases are relating to the size of the Program as the handheld devices
have RAM oriented constraints. The commercially available mobile database systems allow wide
variety of platforms and data sources. They also allows users with handheld to synchronize with
Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) database content, and personal information management
data and email from Lotus Development's Notes or

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Microsoft's Exchange. These database technologies support either query-by-example (QBE) or
SQL statements.

MOBILE DATABASE SYSTEM

Mobile databases typically involve three parties: fixed hosts, mobile units, and base stations. Fixed
hosts perform the transaction and data management functions with the help of database servers.
Mobile units are portable computers that move around a geographical region that includes the
cellular network (or "cells") that these units use to communicate to base stations.

Base stations are two-way radios, installations in fixed locations that pass communications with
the mobile units to and from the fixed hosts. They are typically low-power devices such as mobile
phones, portable phones, or wireless routers. A cellular mobile network is similar to that of Mobile
Network Architecture.

It consists of Mobile Client (MC) containing data centric applications roaming between wireless
cells and accesses a centralized database (fixed host). Some of the fixed hosts called Mobile
Support Stations (MSSs), are augmented with wireless interfaces.

The wireless channel is separated into two sub-channels: an uplink channel and a downlink
channel. The uplink channel is used by MCs to submit queries, while the downlink channel is used
by MSSs to answers from the server to target mobile client.

Benefits of Mobile Database System

When a mobile unit leaves a cell serviced by a particular base station, that station transparently
transfers the responsibility of the mobile unit's transaction and data support to which ever base
station that covers the mobile unit's new location. A common goal in mobile database systems is
to minimize the amount of data transmitted over the wireless link between the servers to the mobile
client.

Mobile Database System (MDS) provides full database and mobile communication functionalities.
It allows mobile user to initiate transaction from anywhere and at anytime, and guarantees their
consistency preserving execution. In any kind of failure (transaction, system and media), MDS
guarantees database recovery. Mobile Database System is a distributed multi- database
client/server system based on PCS and Global System for Mobile Communication

ISSUES

Data management for mobile wireless networks is really a challenge task. A user would always
need connection transparency with the server so as to complete the intended application. The
challenges of data management system include the followings: first, how to ensure data availability
in spite of disconnections; second, how to manage weekly connected mobile wireless

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links between clients and server; and thirdly, how to support constant resource availability to
complete the applications.

MANAGEMENT ISSUES IN MOBILE DATABASE SYSTEM

Building an integrated platform to manage complexities demands a scalable, robust environment

providing the following fundamental services: data management, connection management,
integration management, mobility management, handoff management.

Data Management

Today’s mobile applications require more than simple data synchronization.

They require a complete set of data management services, including strong data modeling, mobile
and server-side support for schema deployment and versioning, rules-based data distribution, bi-
directional data transfers that are fast and secure, mobile device-based database services, and tight
transaction-level integration with multiple enterprise information sources.

The asymmetric nature of the wireless communication link is another challenge for data
management in wireless links to ensure low consumption and data access latency.

Connection Management:
Today, mobile connection management is technically complex and esoteric, and it varies widely
as travelling across the globe. Newcomers to mobile computing must wrestle with the plethora of
emerging communication protocols, standards, and low-level operational aspects of wireless
connectivity.

However, a mobile platform should provide the ability to seamlessly service multiple connection
methods, wireless connectivity service options, and handheld device types at the same time.
Load balancing and scalability options should be provided to handle volume and frequency spikes
as they occur, connections between mobile devices and the enterprise should be secure, efficient
and extremely reliable.9

Integration Management:
In a mobile platform approach, integration management services provide flexible and robust
methods for tying into multiple back-end information sources. The requirement for data
transformation and business data processing before entry into the back-end source is a key issue.

Perhaps the most important aspect of integration management from the mobile platform
perspective is the ability to extend the investment made in large corporate information systems to
the mobile workforce in an efficient, transparent and meaningful way. To the mobile worker, their
mobile interface into the corporate computing world is simply an automation of previously revered
pencil and paper-based procedures.

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Mobility management:
Location management on mobile devices will become increasingly important in the new future,
considering the increasing number of location-enabled mobile devices and location-based services.

On the technical side, location-enabled devices and location-based services have been deployed
and used for a number of years already. However, there are two issues, one is, how to make location
information openly available on the Web, and the second is, how to provide users with privacy
control in such an environment.

Location management is a two-stage process that enables the network to discover the current
attachment point of the mobile user for call delivery. The first stage is location registration (or
location update). In this stage, the mobile terminal periodically notifies the network of its new
access point, allowing the network to authenticate the user and revise the user’s location file.

The second stage is call delivery. Here, the network is queried for the user location profile and the
current position of the mobile host is found6.

Handoff Management:
Handover management enables the network to maintain a user’s connection as the mobileterminal
continues. Mobility Management in Next-Generation wireless systems moves and changes its
access point to the network. The three-stage process for handoff first involvesinitiation-
where the user, a network agent, or changing network conditions identify the need for handoff.
The second stage is new connection generation- where the network must find new resources for
handoff connection and perform any additional routing operations.

Under network-controlled handoff, or mobile-assisted handoff, the network generates a new

connection, finding new resources for the handoff and performing any additional routing
operations. For mobile-controlled handoff, the mobile terminal finds the new resources and the
network approves.

The final stage is data-flow control- where the delivery of the data from the old connection path to
the new connection path is maintained according to agreed upon service, mobile terminal findsthe
new resources and the network approves.

The final stage is data-flow control- where the delivery of the data from the old connection path
to the new connection path is maintained according to agreed-upon service guarantees.

Handoff management includes two conditions: intra-cell handoff and inter-cell handoff. Intra-
cell handoff occurs when the user moves within a service area (or cell) and experiences signal
strength deterioration below a certain threshold that results in the transfer of the user’s calls to new
radio channels of appropriate strength at the same Base Station (BS).

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Intercell handoff occurs when the user moves into an adjacent cell and all of the terminal’s
connections must be transferred to a new BS. While performing handoff, the terminal may connect
to multiple BS’s simultaneously and use some form of signaling diversity to combine themultiple
signals. This is called soft handoff. On the other hand, if the terminal stays connected to only one
BS at a time, clearing the connection with the former BS immediately before or after establishing
a connection with the target BS, then the process is referred to as hard handoff.

CHALLENGES OF MOBILE DATABASE SYSTEM

Limited Resources:
The CPU power and storage of mobile devices is continuously increasing. However, they are far
behind non-mobile systems such as servers on the Internet. Due to the size of the database, limited
CPU power, storage capacity mobile device need to perform simple operations on local data
available in cache.

Limited storage capacity also makes it difficult to cache entire databases to a mobile device.
Resource availability refers to battery power at the mobile node. The problems of limited power
a mobile node have had to be addressed carefully.9

Power consumption:
The most prominent limitation of mobile device is power. These devices rely entirely on battery
power. Combined with the compact size of many mobile devices, this often means unusually
expensive batteries must be used to obtain the necessary battery life.10

Disconnection:
Weather, terrain, and the range from the nearest signal point can all interfere with signalreception.
Reception in tunnels, some buildings, and rural areas is still poor. Interaction between a mobile
device and a database is directly affected by the device’s network connectivity. The two solutions
approach to this disconnection challenges are: (1) Prevent disconnections (2) Cope with
disconnections. For mobile computers, allowing disconnections to happen and recovering from
them is the better solution for asynchronous operation caching and reconciliation.3

Insufficient bandwidth:
Mobile access is generally slower than direct cable connections. Using technologies such as GPRS
and EDGE, and more recently 3G networks, bandwidth has been increased but still less compared
to the wired network. Asymmetry problem is faced when bandwidth in the downstream direction
(1805–1880 MHz) is often much greater than bandwidth in the upstream direction (1710–1785
MHz).

Limited storage:
Due to mobility and portability, the sizes of memory and hard drive are smaller than the ones in
the wired network. The consequences of this are less stored/cached/replicated data, fewer installed
applications, and more communication10.

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Limited battery power:
Because of the mobility and portability, clients and servers have severe resource constraints in
terms of capacity of battery and sizes of memory and hard drive. In addition, the battery technology
is not developed as rapidly as the mobile devices and wireless technologies. For instance, a fully-
charged Dell Latitude C600 laptop can run about 3.5 hours, which is estimated by well-known
industry battery life benchmarks.

When processing power is limited, it compromises the ability of each mobile node to support
services and applications. Once a node runs out of power or has insufficient power to function,
communication fails, disconnections happen, execution of transactions is prolonged, and some
transactions may have to be aborted.

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9
Mobile Operating Systems

Mobile operating system is the heart of smart phone. Various mobile operating systems like
Android, iOS, Windows Phone, Blackberry, Tizen, Sailfish OS, Ubuntu Touch, Firefox OS are
available. Each of them has some common as well as unique specialized features. In this paper,
we have considered four most commonly used operating systems, viz. Android, iOS, Windows
Phone and Blackberry. We have discussed their various features like App support, OS updates,
voice assistance, cloud services, map, camera, voice assistance, security, market share,
customization rights etc.

Technology is getting really advanced now-a-days and it is also becoming the most important
part of our lives. In the early years mobiles phones were only capable of sending and receiving
text messages and calls for communication purposes. However, times have changed and so has the
face of mobile phones. Not only are the screens bigger and better in quality, but also is the internal
hardware grown to such an extent that it can perform on levels in laptops and computers.

It is safe to call mobile phones a handheld computer that is able to configure daily schedules, save
large documents, watch videos online, listen to music, use the internet and much more than the
human mind can think of. Today smartphones carry all the features of a digital device as well as
common phone features. As we can see, over the decade, smartphones have taken the world by
storm, and recently tablets have entered the arena as well. Smart phones have transformed the way
we access information and communicate with others. This not only depends on the device
hardware but basically on the software these devices can run and especially their operating
systems.

Now, there is a lot of fanfare when it comes to which mobile OS is the best. Following are a few
common facts that come handy to a buyer when he/she is at the brink of buying a smartphone:

An operating system (OS) is a skeleton program that runs and manages all the other programs in
the computer. It is a program that is initially loaded by a boot program. The other programs that
are run by the OS are called applications or application programs.

A mobile operating system is a base infrastructure software program specifically designed to run
on mobile devices, tablets etc. It is a software platform on which developers create various
programs or applications that are run and managed by the mobile OS.

There are eight operating systems currently in working position namely; Android, iOS, Windows
Phone, Blackberry, Tizen, Sailfish OS, Ubuntu Touch, Firefox OS. The discontinued software
platforms are namely; Bada, Symbian, Windows mobile, Palm OS, Web OS, Maemo, MeeGo,
Limo.

The most popular and trending operating systems for smart phones and tablets in this era are
Apple’s iOS and Google’s Android and are the only ones showing growth and potential.

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POPULAR MOBILE OS PLATFORM
Before we get into the details, here is a quick summary o of the major operating systems.

A. ANDROID
Android is a mobile operating system currently developed by Google and designed primarily for
touchscreen devices such as smartphones and tablets. Android was initially released on 23rd
September, 2008.Android released its latest OS version known as Android Marshmallow on 5th
October, 2015.Android is an open source operating system, meaning its source code is made
available to the manufacturers with an Apache Licence 2.0, in which the copyright holder provides
the right to study, change and distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose.
Android is coded in C, C++ and Java programming languages.

B. iOS
iOS is a mobile operating system developed by Apple Inc. and designed primarily for touchscreen
devices such as smartphones and tablets. iOS was initially released on 29th June, 2007. iOS
released its latest OS version known as iOS 9.1 on 8th December, 2015. iOS is a proprietary
operating system or in layman language closed source, which means its source code is not
available for developers to develop applications or to build their own version of OS based on it.
iOS is coded in C, C++ and Objective C programming languages. Figure 2 shows how the market
has treated iOS in the year 2015:

C. WINDOWS
Windows is a mobile operating system currently developed by Microsoft Corporation and
designed primarily for touchscreen devices such as smartphones and tablets. Windows wasinitially
released on 8th November, 2010. Windows released its latest OS version known as Windows 10
on 20thNovember, 2015.

Windows is a closed source or proprietary operating system. Windows is programmed in C, C++

programming languages. Figure 3 shows how the
market has treated windows in the year 2015.

D. BLACKBERRY
Blackberry is a mobile operating system developed by Blackberry Ltd. Blackberry was initially
released on 30th January, 2013. Blackberry is a closed source or proprietary operating system. It
is programmed in C, C++ and Java programming languages.
Blackberry 10 saw a small increase in some regions, but its global growth gradually decreased.
Its market share graph declined gradually from 0.5% to 0.3% and unfortunately to 0%. Touch,

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Samsung Tizen and Sailfish OS.

6
WIRELESS NETWORKS
1 Introduction to wireless networks

This module provides an introduction to wireless networks in general and wireless

LANs in particular. It describes and explains what the different wireless
technologies are, their main features, security issues, advantages, disadvantages and
uses or applications.

Wireless networks are networks that use radio waves to connect devices, without
the necessity of using cables of any kind.

Devices commonly used for wireless networking include portable computers,

desktop computers, hand-held computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs),
cellular phones, pen-based computers, and pagers. Wireless networks work similar
to wired networks, however, wireless networks must convert information signals
into a form suitable for transmission through the air medium.
Wireless networks serve many purposes. In some cases they are used as cable
replacements, while in other cases they are used to provide access to corporate data
from remote locations.
Wireless infrastructure can be built for very little cost compared to traditional wired
alternatives. But building wireless networks is only partly about saving money. By
providing people in your local community with cheaper and easier access to
information, they will directly benefit from what the Internet has to offer. The time
and effort saved by having access to the global network of information translates
into wealth on a local scale, as more work can be done in less time and with less
effort.
Wireless networks allow remote devices to connect without difficulty,
independently these devices are a few feet or several kilometers away. And no need
to break through walls to pass cables or install connectors. This has made the use
of this technology very popular, spreading rapidly.
There are many different technologies that differ in the transmission frequency
used, speed and range of their transmissions.
On the other hand, there are some issues related to the legal regulation of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic waves are transmitted through many
devices, but are prone to interference. For this reason, all countries need regulations
that define the frequency ranges and transmission power for each technology is
permitted.
In addition, electromagnetic waves are not easily confined to a restricted geographic
area. For this reason, a hacker can easily listen to a network if the data transmitted
are not encoded. Therefore, all necessary steps should be taken to ensure the privacy
of data transmitted over wireless networks

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2 Wireless technologies

Wireless networks can be classified into four specific groups according to the area
of application and the signal range [1-3]: Wireless Personal-Area Networks
(WPAN), Wireless Local-Area Networks (WLANs), Wireless Metropolitan-Area
Networks (WMAN), and Wireless Wide-Area Networks (WWANs). Figure 1
illustrates these four categories.

Fig. 1.1 Wireless networks classification

In addition, wireless networks can be also divided into two broad segments: short-
range and long-range. Short-range wireless pertains to networks that are confined
to a limited area. This applies to local area networks (LANs), such as corporate
buildings, school campuses, manufacturing plants or homes, as well as to personal
area networks (PANs) where portable computers within close proximity to one
another need to communicate. These networks typically operate over unlicensed
spectrum reserved for industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) usage. The available
frequencies differ from country to country. The most common frequency bands are
at 2.4 GHz and at 5 GHz, which are available across most of the globe. The
availability of these frequencies allows users to operate wireless networks without
obtaining a license, and without charge. As a license is not required for use, this has
facilitated the expansion of such networks.
In long-range networks, connectivity is typically provided by companies that sell
the wireless connectivity as a service. These networks span large areas such as a
metropolitan area (WMAN), a state or province, or an entire country. The goal of
long-range networks is to provide wireless coverage globally. The most common
long-range network is wireless wide area network (WWAN). When true global
coverage is required, satellite networks are also available.

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2.1 Wireless Personal-Area Networks (WPAN)

Wireless Personal Area Networks are based on the IEEE 802.15

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.15] standard [3-4]. They permit
communication in a very short range, of about 10 meters. Unlike other wireless
networks, a connection made through a WPAN involves little or no infrastructure
or direct connectivity to the world outside the link. This allows small, power-
efficient, inexpensive solutions to be implemented for a wide range of devices such
as a smartphone and a PDA.
These networks are characterized by low power demands and a low bit rate. Such
kind of networks relay on technologies such as Bluetooth, IrDA, ZigBee or UWB.
From an application point of view, Bluetooth is intended for a cordless mouse,
keyboard, and hands-free headset, IrDA is intended for point-to-point links between
two devices for simple data transfers and file synchronization, ZigBee is designed
for reliable wirelessly networked monitoring and control networks and, UWB is
oriented to high-bandwidth multimedia links.

Bit Rate is the number of bits transferred or received per unit of time (Unit: bps or
bit/s)

A Modem is a device that enables a computer to transmit and receive data

• Bluetooth

Bluetooth corresponds to the IEEE 802.15.1 standard. Originally Bluetooth was

designed for low power consumption, short range and omni-directional (point to
multipoint) communications, and cheap devices, to be used as a cable replacement,
linking devices through an ad hoc connection of radio waves. Nowadays developers
are designing Bluetooth-enabled components and systems for a range of additional
applications. This technology operates for three different classes of devices: Class
1, class 2 and class 3 where the range is about 100 meters, 10 meters and 1 meter
respectively. Using the 2.4 GHz band, two devices within the coverage range of
each other can share up to 720 Kbps of capacity or transfer rate. The mostcommonly
used is class 2.
A Bluetooth network is also called a piconet, and is composed of up to 8 active
devices in a master-slave relationship. The first Bluetooth device in the piconet is
the master, and all other devices are slaves that communicate with the master. A
piconet typically has a range of 10 meters, although ranges of up to 100 meters can
be reached under ideal circumstances. To provide security, each link is encoded and
protected against eavesdropping and interference. Two piconets can be connected
to form a scatternet. A Bluetooth device may participate in several piconets at the
same time, thus allowing for the possibility that information could flow beyond the
coverage area of the single piconet. A device in a scatternet could be a slave in
several piconets, but master in only one of them.

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 Fig. 1.2 Bluetooth scatternet comprising two piconets. The Master in piconet A is a slave in
piconet B.

• IrDA

The Infrared Data Association (IrDA) specifies a complete set of infrared

communications standards. IrDA refers to that set of standards and is used to
provide wireless connectivity to devices that would normally use cables for
connectivity. IrDA is a low-power, low-cost, unidirectional (point to point), narrow
angle (< 30º) cone, ad hoc data transmission standard designed to operate over a
distance of up to 1 meter and at speeds of 9600 bps to 4 Mbps (currently), 16 Mbps
(under development). Some of the devices that use IrDA are notebooks, PDAs,
printers and cameras.

Fig. 2 . IrDA communication between a PDA and a printer (point to point)

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• ZigBee

ZigBee is based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard and was developed as an open
global standard to address the unique needs of easy implementation, high reliability,
low-cost, low-power and low-data rate wireless device networks. ZigBee operates
the unlicensed bands including 2.4 GHz, 900 MHz and 868 MHz at a maximum
transfer rate of 250 Kbps, enough to satisfy sensor and automation needs using
wireless.
ZigBee also serves for creating larger wireless networks not demanding high data
throughput. Two different device types can participate in a ZigBee network: Full-
function devices (FFD) and reduced-function devices (RFD). FFDs can operate in
three modes serving as a WPAN coordinator, coordinator or device. RFD is only
intended for applications that are extremely simple, such as a light switch. ZigBee
supports three different topologies: star, mesh, and cluster tree, which are shown in
Figure 1.4. In the star topology, the communication is established between devices
and a single central controller, called the WPAN coordinator. In the mesh topology,
any device can communicate with any other device as long as they are in range of
one another. Cluster-tree network is a special case of a mesh network in which most
devices are FFDs and a RFD may connect to a cluster-tree network as a leaf node
at the end of a branch. Any of the FFD can act as a router and provide
synchronization services to other devices and routers. Only one of these routers is
the WPAN coordinator.

Figure 1.4 ZigBee network structure diagram

• UWB

Based on the IEEE 802.15.3 standard, Ultra Wide Band (UWB) technology has
recently attracted much attention as an indoor short-range high-speed wireless
communications. UWB serves a very different purpose than the other technologies
mentioned in this section. UWB enables the movement of massive files at high data
rates over short distances. Thus, UWB has a data transfer over 110 Mbps up to 480
Mbps at distances up to few meters which can satisfy most of the multimedia
applications such as audio and video delivery in home networking and it can also
act as a wireless cable replacement of high speed serial bus such as USB 2.0 and
IEEE 1394. In America, frequencies for UWB have been allocated in the 3.1 GHz

11
to 10.6 GHz band. However, in Europe, the frequencies include two parts: from 3.4
GHz to 4.8 GHz and 6 GHz to 8.5 GHz.
UWB transmissions transmit information by generating radio energy at specific
time intervals and occupying a large bandwidth, see Figure 1.5, thus enabling pulse-
position or time modulation. The information can also be modulated on UWB
signals (pulses) by encoding the polarity of the pulse, its amplitude and/or by using
orthogonal pulses. UWB pulses can be sent sporadically at relatively low pulse rates
to support time or position modulation, but can also be sent at rates up to the inverse
of the UWB pulse bandwidth.

Figure 1.5 UWB power and frequency bandwidth usage.

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2.2 Wireless Local-Area Network (WLAN)

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) are designed to provide wireless access
in areas with a typical range up to 100 meters and, are used mostly in home, school,
computer laboratory, or office environments (Figure 1.6). This gives users the
ability to move around within a local coverage area and still be connected to the
network [2,5]. WLANs are based on IEEE 802.11standards, marketed under the
Wi-Fi brand name. Due to competition, other standards such as HiperLAN never
received much commercial implementation. IEEE 802.11 was simpler to implement
and made it faster to the market. The complete family will be revised in more detail
in section 4.
The IEEE 802.11 is a family of different standards for wireless local area networks.
The IEEE 802.11b was the first accepted standard, supporting up to 11 Mbps in the
2.4 GHz unlicensed spectrum band. Then, the IEEE 802.11g standard was designed
as a higher-bandwidth successor to the IEEE 802.11b. An IEEE 802.11g access
point will support 802.11b and 802.11g clients. Similarly, a laptop with an IEEE
802.11g card will be able to access existing 802.11b access points as well as new
802.11g access points. That is because wireless LANs based on 802.11g will use
the same 2.4-GHz band that 802.11b uses. The maximum transfer rate for the IEEE
802.11g wireless link is 54 Mbps, but it will automatically back down from 54 Mbps
when the radio signal is weak or when interference is detected.

Figure 1.6 Home WLAN diagram

13
2.3 Wireless Metropolitan-Area Network(WMAN)

Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMANs) is the third group of wireless

networks. WMANs are based on IEEE 802.16 standard which is often called
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access). WiMAX is a
communications technology that supports point to multipoint architecture aimed at
providing high-speed wireless data over metropolitan area networks [1-3]. This
enables smaller wireless LANs to be interconnected by WiMAX creating a large
WMAN. Thus, networking between cities can be achieved without the need for
expensive cabling.
WiMAX is similar to Wi-Fi, but provides coverage over greater distances. While
Wi-Fi is intended to provide coverage over relatively small areas, such as in offices
or hot spots, WiMAX operates on two frequency bands, a mixture of licensed and
unlicensed band, from 2 GHz to 11 GHz and from 10 GHz to 66 GHz, and can
transfer around 70 Mbps over a distance of 50 km to thousands of users from a
single base station, as depicted in Figure 1.7. As it can operate in two frequency
bands WiMAX can work by line-of-sight and non-line-of-sight. At the 2 to 11GHz
frequency range it works by non-line-of-sight, where a computer inside a building
communicates with a tower/antenna outside the building. Short frequency
transmissions are not easily disrupted by physical obstructions. Higher frequency
transmissions are used for line-of-sight service. This enables to towers/antennae to
communicate with each other over a greater distance.

Figure 1.7 WiMaX network diagram

14
2.4 Wireless Wide-Area Network (WWAN)

Wireless Wide Area Networks extend beyond 50 kilometers and typically use
licensed frequencies. These types of networks can be maintained over large areas,
such as cities or countries, via multiple satellite systems or antenna sites looked
after by an internet services provider. There are mainly two available technologies:
Digital cellular telephony and Satellites [1-3].
• Cellular telephone networks
In the cellular system, the coverage area is divided into cells. A cell transmitter, at
center of the cell, is designed to serve an individual cell. All transmitters are
connected to a base station and these latter to a mobile telecommunications
switching office which links the cellular and the wired telephone network. The
system seeks to make efficient use of available channels by using low-power
transmitters to allow frequency reuse at much smaller distances.
Different cellular generations have been developed since early 1980s. First
generation, 1G, was analog and, conceived and designed purely for voice calls with
almost no consideration of data services, with a speed of up to 2.4 kbps. The second
generation, 2G, was based on digital technology and network infrastructure (GSM),
enabling text messages, and with a data speed of up to 64 Kbps. The 2.5Ggeneration
was between the second and the third. Sometimes it has been referred as2G + GPRS,
it is an enhanced version of 2G, with a speed of up to 144 Kbps. The 3G generation
was introduced in year 2000, with a data speed of up to 2 Mbps. The3.5G is an
enhanced version of the 3G that uses HSDPA to speed data transfers upto 14 Mbps.
Finally the fourth generation, 4G, is capable of providing up to 1 Gbpsspeed and any
kind of service at any time as per user requirements, anywhere. The5G generation
is expected by year 2020.

• Satellite

Wireless communications can also be developed via satellite. Due to its high
altitude, satellite transmissions can cover a wide area over the surface of the earth.
This can be very useful for users who are located in remote areas or islands where
no submarine cables are in service. In these cases, satellite telephones are needed.
Each satellite is equipped with various transponders consisting of a transceiver and
an antenna. The incoming signal is amplified and then rebroadcast on a different
frequency.

15
Figure 1.8 Satellite and cellular networks

16
3 Network architecture

3.1 Terms and terminology

This section provides definition for various terms used in a wireless network
architecture. However, not all entries from a generic architecture exist in all
technologies and the exact functionality may be different.
The 802.11 logical architecture contains several main components: station (STA),
wireless access point (AP), independent basic service set (IBSS), basic service set
(BSS), distribution system (DS), and extended service set (ESS). Some of the
components of the 802.11 logical architecture map directly to hardware devices,
such as STAs and wireless APs. The wireless STA contains an adapter card, PC
Card, or an embedded device to provide wireless connectivity. The wireless AP
functions as a bridge between the wireless STAs and the existing network backbone
for network access.

A station (STA) might be a PC, a laptop, a PDA, a phone or whatever device having
the capability to interfere the wireless medium.

An access point (AP), sometimes called a base station (BS), is a device that allows
wireless devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi, or related standards.

A basic service set (BSS) consists of an access point together with all associated
STAs. The AP acts as a master to control the STAs within that BSS. The simplest
BSS is composed of one AP and one STA.

An extended service set (ESS) is a set of one or more interconnected basic service
sets (BSSs) that appears as a single BSS to the logical link control layer at any
station associated with one of those BSSs.

When all of the stations in the BSS are mobile stations and there is no connection
to a wired network, the BSS is called an independent BSS (IBSS). An IBSS is an
ad hoc network that contains no access points, which means they cannot connect to
any other basic service set.

A distribution system (DS) is the mechanism by which APs exchange frames with
one another and with wired networks, if any. DS is not necessarily a network, and
the IEEE 802.11 standard does not specify any particular technology for the DS. In
nearly all commercial products, wired Ethernet is used as the backbone network
technology.

17
Figure 1.9 Independent and infrastructure basic service sets (BSSs).

Figure 1.10 Extended service set (ESS) and mobility support.

18
 3.2 Architectures

In wireless networks there are two modes for configuring a wireless architecture,
ad hoc and infrastructure [1-2]. In Ad hoc mode, devices transmit directly peer-to-
peer while on in infrastructure mode, devices communicate through an access point
that serves as a bridge to other networks.
Ad hoc mode

By using ad hoc mode, all devices in the wireless network are directly
communicating with each other in peer to peer communication mode (point-to-
point). The network has no structure or fixed points. No access point is required for
communication between devices.
Ad hoc mode is most suitable for small group of devices and all of these devices
must be physically present in close proximity with each other. The performance of
network suffers while the number of devices grows. Disconnections of random
device may occur frequently and also, ad hoc mode can be a tough job for network
administrator to manage the network. Ad hoc mode has another limitation is that,
ad hoc mode networks cannot bridge to wired local area network and also cannot
access internet if without the installation of special gateways.
However, ad hoc mode works fine in small environment and provides the easiest
and least expensive way to set up a wireless network.
Infrastructure mode

The other architecture in wireless network is infrastructure mode. All devices are
connected to wireless network with the help of an access point (AP). Wireless
access points are usually routers or switches which convert airwave data into wired
Ethernet data, acting as a bridge between the wired LAN and wireless users.
Connecting multiple access points via a wired Ethernet backbone can further extend
the wireless network coverage. As a mobile device moves out of the range of one
access point, it moves into the range of another. As a result, wireless clients can
freely roam from one access point domain to another and still maintain seamless
network connection.
The infrastructure mode provides improved security, ease of management, and
much more scalability and stability. However, the infrastructure mode incurs extra
cost in deploying access points such as routers or switches.
Extended Service Set Identifier (ESSID)

The Extended Service Set Identification (ESSID) is one of two types of Service Set
Identification (SSID). In an ad hoc wireless network with no access points, the Basic
Service Set Identification (BSSID) is used. In an infrastructure wireless network
that includes an access point, the ESSID is used, but may still be referred to as SSID.

A service set identification (SSID) is a 32-character (maximum) alphanumeric key

identifying the name of the wireless local area network.

19
 Some vendors refer to the SSID as the network name. For the wireless devices in a
network to communicate with each other, all devices must be configured with the
same SSID.

4 The IEEE 802.11 standard

IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY)
specifications for implementing wireless local area networks in the 2.4, 5, and 60
GHz frequency bands [1-2].
They are created and maintained by the IEEE 802.11 working group. The base
version of the standard was released in 1997, and has had subsequent amendments.
The standard and amendments provide the basis for wireless network products
using the Wi-Fi brand.

20
4.1 802.11 Protocol

The IEEE 802 standards committee defines two separate layers, the Logical Link
Control (LLC) and media access control (MAC), for the Data-Link layer of the OSI
reference model. The IEEE 802.11 wireless standard defines the specifications for
the physical layer and the media access control (MAC) layer that communicates up
to the LLC layer, as shown in Figure 1.11.

Figure 1.11The IEEE 802.11 standard and the OSI reference model

All of the components in the 802.11 architecture fall into either the media access
control (MAC) sublayer of the data-link layer or the physical layer (PHY).

21
4.2 802.11 MAC Frame

The IEEE 802.11 standard MAC frame, as shown in Figure 1.12, consists of a MAC
header, the frame body, and a frame check sequence (FCS). The MAC frame format
comprises a set of nine fields that occur in a fixed order in all frames.

Frame Control Field

The Frame Control Field, see Figure 1.12, contains control information used for
defining the type of 802.11 MAC frame and providing information necessary for
the following fields to understand how to process the MAC frame.
A description of each Frame Control field subfield is given below:

• Protocol Version provides the current version of the 802.11 protocol used.
Receiving STAs use this value to determine if the version of the protocol of the
received frame is supported.

• Type and Subtype determines the function of the frame. There are three
different frame type fields: control, data, and management. There are multiple
subtype fields for each frame type. Each subtype determines the specific
function to perform for its associated frame type.

• To DS and From DS indicates whether the frame is going to or exiting from

the DS (distributed system), and is only used in data type frames of STAs
associated with an AP.

• More Fragments indicates whether more fragments of the frame, either data or
management type, are to follow.

• Retry indicates whether or not the frame, for either data or management frame
types, is being retransmitted.

• Power Management indicates whether the sending STA is in active mode or

power-save mode.

• More Data indicates to a STA in power-save mode that the AP has more frames
to send. It is also used for APs to indicate that additional broadcast/multicast
frames are to follow.

• WEP indicates whether or not encryption and authentication are used in the
frame. It can be set for all data frames and management frames, which have the
subtype set to authentication.

• Order indicates that all received data frames must be processed in order.

Duration/ID Field
This field is used for all control type frames, except with the subtype of Power Save
(PS) Poll, to indicate the remaining duration needed to receive the next frame

22
transmission. When the sub-type is PS Poll, the field contains the association
identity (AID) of the transmitting STA.

Address Fields
Depending upon the frame type, the four address fields will contain a combination
of the following address types:

• BSS Identifier (BSSID) uniquely identifies each BSS. When the frame is from
an STA in an infrastructure BSS, the BSSID is the MAC address of the AP.
When the frame is from a STA in an IBSS, the BSSID is the randomlygenerated,
locally administered MAC address of the STA that initiated the IBSS.

• Destination Address (DA) indicates the MAC address of the final destination
to receive the frame.

• Source Address (SA) indicates the MAC address of the original source that
initially created and transmitted the frame.

• Receiver Address (RA) indicates the MAC address of the next immediate STA
on the wireless medium to receive the frame.

• Transmitter Address (TA) indicates the MAC address of the STA that
transmitted the frame onto the wireless medium.
For more information about the address types and the contents of the address fields
in the 802.11 MAC header, see the IEEE 802.11 standard at the IEEE Web site [6].

Sequence Control
The Sequence Control field contains two subfields, the Fragment Number field and
the Sequence Number field, as shown in Figure 1.12.
A description of each Sequence Control field subfield is as follows:

• Sequence Number indicates the sequence number of each frame. The sequence
number is the same for each frame sent for a fragmented frame; otherwise, the
number is incremented by one until reaching 4095, when it then begins at zero
again.

• Fragment Number indicates the number of each frame sent of a fragmented

frame. The initial value is set to 0 and then incremented by one for each
subsequent frame sent of the fragmented frame.

Frame Body
The frame body contains the data or information included in either management
type or data type frames.

23
Frame Check Sequence
The transmitting STA uses a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) over all the fields of
the MAC header and the frame body field to generate the FCS value. The receiving
STA then uses the same CRC calculation to determine its own value of the FCS
field to verify whether or not any errors occurred in the frame during the
transmission.

Figure 1.12 The 802.11 standard MAC frame format. Frame control and sequence control fields
are detailed.

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4.3 802.11 PHY Sublayer

At the physical (PHY) sublayer, IEEE 802.11 defines a series of encoding and
transmission schemes for wireless communications, the most common of which are
the Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS), and Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
transmission schemes. Figure 1.13 shows the 802.11, 802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g,
802.11n and 802.11ac standards that exist at the PHY sublayer. These standards are
described in the following sections.

Figure 1.13 IEEE 802.11standards at the PHY layer

IEEE 802.11
The bit rate for the original IEEE 802.11 standard is 2 Mbps using the FHSS
transmission scheme and the ISM frequency band, which operates in the frequency
range of 2.4 to 2.5 GHz. However, under less than ideal conditions, a lower bit rate
speed of 1 Mbps is used.

802.11b
The major enhancement to IEEE 802.11 by IEEE 802.11b is the standardization of
the physical layer to support higher bit rates. IEEE 802.11b supports two additional
speeds, 5.5 Mbps and 11 Mbps, using the 2.4 GHz frequency band. The DSSS
transmission scheme is used in order to provide the higher bit rates. The bit rate of
11 Mbps is achievable in ideal conditions. In less than ideal conditions, the slower
speeds of 5.5 Mbps, 2 Mbps, and 1 Mbps are used.
It is important to note that 802.11b uses the same frequency band as that used by
microwave ovens, cordless phones, baby monitors, wireless video cameras, and
Bluetooth devices.

802.11a
The IEEE 802.11a operates at a bit rate as high as 54 Mbps and uses the 5 GHz
frequency band. Instead of DSSS, 802.11a uses OFDM, which allows data to be
transmitted by subfrequencies in parallel and provides greater resistance to
interference and greater throughput. This higher speed technology enables wireless
LAN networking to perform better for video and conferencing applications.
Because they are not on the same frequencies as other devices (such as cordless
phones that work at the 2.4 GHz frequency band), OFDM and IEEE 802.11a

25
provide both a higher data rate and a cleaner signal. The bit rate of 54 Mbps is
achievable in ideal conditions. In less than ideal conditions, the slower speeds of 48
Mbps, 36 Mbps, 24 Mbps, 18 Mbps, 12 Mbps, and 6 Mbps are used.

802.11g
IEEE 802.11g operates at a bit rate as high as 54 Mbps, but uses the 2.4 GHz
frequency band and OFDM. 802.11g is also backward compatible with 802.11b and
can operate at the 802.11b bit rates and use DSSS. 802.11g wireless network
adapters can connect to an 802.11b wireless AP, and 802.11b wireless network
adapters can connect to an 802.11g wireless AP. Thus, 802.11g provides a
migration path for 802.11b networks to a frequency compatible standard technology
with a higher bit rate. Existing 802.11b wireless network adapters cannot be
upgraded to 802.11g by updating the firmware of the adapter, they must be replaced.
Unlike migrating from 802.11b to 802.11a (in which all the network adapters in
both the wireless clients and the wireless APs must be replaced at the same time),
migrating from 802.11b to 802.11g can be done incrementally.
Like 802.11a, 802.11g uses 54 Mbps in ideal conditions and the slower speeds of
48 Mbps, 36 Mbps, 24 Mbps, 18 Mbps, 12 Mbps, and 6 Mbps in less than ideal
conditions.

802.11n
The IEEE 802.11n standard aims to improve distance (up to 250 m) and network
throughput over the two previous standards, 802.11a and 802.11g, with significant
increase in the maximum raw data rate from 54 Mbps to 600 Mbps under ideal
conditions by adding the multiple-input multiple output technology and channels of
40 MHz, of greater bandwidth. This technology, called MIMO, uses multiple
wireless signals and antennas, at the transmitter and receiver. It can be used in the
2.4 GHz or 5 GHz frequency bands.

802.11ac
The 802.11ac standard, an upgrade from 802.11n, provides similar range but
increases throughput. It runs on the 5 GHz band and incorporates beam-forming,
wide bands and multiple antennas to deliver theoretical data speeds up to 1.3 Gbps,
more than double peak rates of 600 Mbps with 802.11n.

26
5 Security

Wireless networks are generally not as secure as wired networks. Wired networks,
at their most basic level, send data between two points, A and B, which are
connected by a network cable. However, wireless networks broadcast data in every
direction to every device that happens to be listening, within a limited range. A
wired network can be secured at its edges, for example, by restricting physical
access and installing firewalls. A wireless network with the same measures in place
is still vulnerable to eavesdropping. Therefore, wireless networks require a more
focused effort to maintain security.

27
5.1 Secure communications

Communications security is often described in terms of three elements:

Authentication, confidentiality and integrity [1].

Authentication ensures that nodes are who and what they claim to be.

Authentication is typically based on demonstrating knowledge of a shared secret,

such as a username and password pair. In more complex systems, possession of the
shared secret may be demonstrated by proving possession of a token that is more
difficult to steal or forge, such as a certificate or a smart card.

Confidentiality ensures that eavesdroppers cannot read network traffic.

Confidentiality is typically protected by encrypting the contents of the message.

Encryption applies a known, reversible method of transformation (called a cipher
or encryption algorithm) to the original message contents (called the plaintext),
scrambling or disguising them to create the ciphertext. Only those who know how
to reverse the process (decrypt the message) can recover the original text. The most
common forms of encryption are mathematical transformations which use a
variable called a key as a part of their manipulations. The intended receiver must
know both the correct method and the value of the key that was used, in order to be
able to decrypt the message. For commercial encryption schemes, the method will
be public knowledge. Protecting the secrecy of the key becomes crucial.

Integrity ensures that messages are delivered without alteration.

In the context of communications security, it refers to the ability to make certain

that the message received has not been altered in any way and is identical to the
message that was sent. The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) bytes are one example of
an integrity check, but they are not considered secure. The ordinary FCS bytes are
not calculated over the plaintext message and protected by encryption. Instead they
are calculated over the ciphertext, using a known method and sent in the clear
(unencrypted). The FCS bytes help to identify packets that have been accidentally
damaged in transit. An attacker, however, could recalculate the ordinary FCS (for
example, to hide their deliberate alteration of a packet they captured and
retransmitted). The harder it is for an attacker to correctly recalculate the integrity
check sequence or security hash function, the more reliable a test of message
integrity it is.
The concept of integrity is sometimes extended to include verifying that the source
of the message is the same as the stated source. Timestamps and message sequence
numbers can protect against “replay attacks,” but, again, they are not considered
secure unless they are protected by encryption.
Security is always relative, never absolute. For every defense, there is (or will soon
be) a successful attack. For every attack, there is (or will soon be) a successful

28
defense. Only time and effort are really at issue. The better the defense, the more
time and effort it takes to breach.
The right defense is the one that is balanced and that matches the expected range of
attacks. Balance is important in two senses. First, the weakest link must be secure
enough. Second, the passive elements of authentication, encryption, and integrity
check must be backed up by active elements such as monitoring and pursuing
attempted breaches, maintaining security discipline, and so forth. The right defense
is one in which a breach requires just slightly more time and effort from attackers
than they are willing to invest. Security measures impose costs and constraints on
the defender. Like any other business decision, these trade-offs must be made with
eyes open.

29
5.2 Confidentiality and Encryption

Confidentiality (preventing unauthorized access to message contents) is achieved

by protecting the data contents with encryption. Encryption is optional in WLANs,
but without it, any similar standards-compliant device within range can read all
network traffic.
There have been three major generations of security approaches for WLANs. Since
the late 1990s, Wi-Fi security algorithms have undergone multiple upgrades with
outright depreciation of older algorithms and significant revision to newer
algorithms. In chronological order of introduction, these are:

• WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)

• WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)

• WPA2 (Wi-Fi Protected Access, version 2)

WEP
WEP was ratified as a Wi-Fi security standard in September of 1999. The first
versions of WEP weren’t particularly strong, even for the time they were released,
because U.S. restrictions on the export of various cryptographic technologies led to
manufacturers restricting their devices to only 64-bit encryption. When the
restrictions were lifted, it was increased to 128-bit. Despite the introduction of 256-
bit WEP encryption, 128-bit remains one of the most common implementations.
Despite revisions to the algorithm and an increased key size, over time numerous
security flaws were discovered in the WEP standard and, as computing power
increased, it became easier and easier to exploit them. As early as 2001 proof-of-
concept exploits were floating around and by 2005 the FBI gave a public
demonstration (in an effort to increase awareness of WEP’s weaknesses) where they
cracked WEP passwords in minutes using freely available software.
Despite various improvements, work-arounds, and other attempts to shore up the
WEP system, it remains highly vulnerable and systems that rely on WEP should be
upgraded or, if security upgrades are not an option, replaced. The Wi-Fi Alliance
officially retired WEP in 2004.

WPA
To address vulnerabilities in WEP, the Wi-Fi Alliance trade group established WPA
at the beginning of 2003. The most common WPA configuration is WPA-PSK (Pre-
Shared Key). The keys used by WPA are 256-bit, a significant increase over the 64-
bit and 128-bit keys used in the WEP system.
Some of the significant changes implemented with WPA included message
integrity checks (to determine if an attacker had captured or altered packets passed
between the access point and client) and the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol
(TKIP). TKIP employs a per-packet key system that was radically more secure than

30
fixed key used in the WEP system. TKIP was later superseded by Advanced
Encryption Standard (AES).
Despite what a significant improvement WPA was over WEP, the ghost of WEP
haunted WPA. TKIP, a core component of WPA, was designed to be easily rolled
out via firmware upgrades onto existing WEP-enabled devices. As such it had to
recycle certain elements used in the WEP system which, ultimately, were also
exploited.
WPA, like its predecessor WEP, has been shown via both proof-of-concept and
applied public demonstrations to be vulnerable to intrusion. Interestingly the
process by which WPA is usually breached is not a direct attack on the WPA
algorithm (although such attacks have been successfully demonstrated) but by
attacks on a supplementary system that was rolled out with WPA, Wi-Fi Protected
Setup (WPS), designed to make it easy to link devices to modern access points.

WPA2
WPA has, as of 2006, been officially superseded by WPA2. One of the most
significant changes between WPA and WPA2 was the mandatory use of AES
algorithms and the introduction of CCMP (Counter Cipher Mode with Block
Chaining Message Authentication Code Protocol) as a replacement for TKIP (still
preserved in WPA2 as a fallback system and for interoperability with WPA).
Currently, the primary security vulnerability to the actual WPA2 system is an
obscure one (and requires the attacker to already have access to the secured Wi-Fi
network in order to gain access to certain keys and then perpetuate an attack against
other devices on the network). As such, the security implications of the known
WPA2 vulnerabilities are limited almost entirely to enterprise level networks and
deserve little to no practical consideration in regard to home network security.
Unfortunately, the same vulnerability that is the biggest hole in the WPA armor, the
attack vector through the Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS), remains in modern WPA2-
capable access points. Although breaking into a WPA/WPA2 secured network
using this vulnerability requires anywhere from 2-14 hours of sustained effort with
a modern computer, it is still a legitimate security concern and WPS should be
disabled (and, if possible, the firmware of the access point should be flashed to a
distribution that doesn’t even support WPS so the attack vector is entirely removed).
The following is a basic list ranking the current Wi-Fi security methods, ordered
from best to worst:
1. WPA2 + AES
2. WPA + AES
3. WPA + TKIP/AES (TKIP is there as a fallback method)
4. WPA + TKIP
5. WEP
6. Open Network (no security at all)

31
Ideally, Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) will be disabled and level of security set to
WPA2 +AES. Everything else on the list is a less than ideal step down from that.

32
 6 Advantages and disadvantages

Wireless networks have a number of key benefits over wired networks such as
mobility, cost-effectiveness and adaptability, but there are also some disadvantages
such as security. Below, main advantages and disadvantages of a wireless network
vs wired network are listed.
The following list summarizes some of the benefits of wireless networks:

Increased efficiency

Improved data communications lead to faster transfer of information within

businesses and between partners and customers. For example, sales people can
remotely check stock levels and prices whilst on sales calls.
Better coverage and mobility

Wires tie you down to one location. Going wireless means you have the freedom to
change your location without losing your connection, without the need of extra
cables or adaptors to access office networks.
Flexibility

Office-based wireless workers can be networked without sitting at dedicated

computers, and can continue to do productive work while away from the office.
This can lead to new styles of working, such as home working or direct access to
corporate data while on customer sites.
Cost savings

Wireless networks can be easier and cheaper to install, especially in listed buildings
or where the landlord will not permit the installation of cables. The absence of wires
and cables brings down cost. This is accomplished by a combination of factors, the
relatively low cost of wireless routers, no need for trenching, drilling and feeding
wires inside the walls or other methods that may be necessary to make physical
connections. In addition, no wire maintenance is needed.
Adaptability

Fast and easy integration of devices into the network, and high flexibility when
modifying an installation.
New opportunities/applications

Wireless networking could allow you to offer new products or services. For
example, many airport departure lounges, train stations, hotels, cafes and
restaurants have installed hot spot wireless networking services to allow mobile
users to connect their equipment to their home offices while travelling.

There are also certain drawbacks associated with the use of wireless networks.

33
Security

Wireless transmission is more vulnerable to attack by unauthorized users, so

particular attention has to be paid to security.
Installation problems

You may suffer interference if others in the same building also use wireless
technology or where other sources of radio signals are present. This could lead to
poor communication or, in extreme cases, loss of wireless communication
altogether.
Coverage

In some buildings getting consistent coverage can be difficult, leading to black spots
where no signal is available. For example, in structures built using steel reinforcing
materials, you may find it difficult to pick up the radio frequencies used.
Transmission speeds

Wireless transmission can be slower and less efficient than wired networks. In
larger wireless networks the backbone network will usually be wired rather than
wireless.

34
7 Applications

The reach of wireless communication in embedded systems continues to grow.

Forrester Research, a company that focuses on the business implications of
technology change, has reported that in a few short years, up to 95% of devices used
to access the Internet will be non-PC devices that use an embedded system.
There are many applications for embedded devices with a Wi-Fi interface:

• Industrial process and control applications where wired connections are too
costly or inconvenient, e.g., continuously moving machinery.

• Emergency applications that require immediate and transitory setup, such as

battlefield or disaster situations.

• Mobile applications, such as asset tracking.

• Surveillance cameras (maybe you do not want them easily noticed, cables are
difficult to hide).

• Vertical markets like medical, education, and manufacturing.

• Communication with other Wi-Fi devices, like a laptop or a PDA.

• Machine to Machine (M2M) applications.

With reference to the last one, the term Machine to Machine (M2M) refers to
technologies that allow both wireless and wired systems to communicate with other
devices of the same type. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_to_machine]
Another characteristic of M2M communication is that this interconnection enables
primarily automated communication between distant, remote machines and one or
more layers of central management applications. It provides for real-time
monitoring and control without the need for human intervention.
According to ABI Research, a technology research and advisory corporation, more
than 30 billion devices will be wirelessly connected to the Internet of Things
(Internet of Everything) by 2020.
In the wireless M2M space, there are two major classes of interconnections: short
range and wide area. The predominant wide area technology applies embedded
cellular modules to connect remote devices to the internet or application servers. A
cellular module includes many of the same features that you would find in a cellular
handset, including voice and data communication, and is ideal for embedded
applications.
M2M applications are found within a wide range of industries, these include:
automatic meter reading (AMR), vending machines, point of sales (POS) terminals,
transport and logistics (fleet management), healthcare, security technology and
many other applications.

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According to ABI Research, a technology research and advisory corporation, more
than 30 billion devices will be wirelessly connected to the Internet of Things
(Internet of Everything) by 2020.

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8 Conclusions

Wireless network technologies connect without wires our high technology

devicesto either a high speed network or another device. In the past, wires would
have to be placed from room to room or floor to floor, price for setup was costly,
and the time to setup a wired network was vastly increased from a wireless
network amongother things.
Nowadays setting up a wireless network setup is really easy to do, and there are
a ton of wireless products to choose from in addition to plenty of resources
availableto help you with setup and configuration of the wireless network if
needed.
Different technologies can be chosen to best suit the application requirement
and data transmission range can vary from a few meters to several kilometers.
Wirelessnetworks certainly offer new opportunities for industrial solutions, but
they must beimplemented with special attention to security.
Comparison of wireless networks types

Type of Nominal Maximum

Name Standard Frequency band
network range Bit rate
Bluetooth IEEE 802.15.1 2.4 GHz 10 m 720 Kbps
Infrared window
IrDA IrDA 1m 16 Mbps
850-900 nm wavelength
WPAN 868 MHz, 900 MHz,
ZigBee IEEE 802.15.4 10 m 250 Kbps
2.4 GHz
3.1-10.6 GHz (USA)
UWB IEEE 802.15.3 3.4-4.8 GHz & 6-8.5 10 m 480 Mbps
GHz (Europe)
IEEE 802.11 2.4 / 5 GHz 100 m 1 Mbps
IEEE 802.11a 5 GHz 100 m 48 Mbps
IEEE 802.11b 2.4 GHz 100 m 11 Mbps
WLAN Wi-Fi
IEEE 802.11g 2.4 GHz 100 m 54 Mbps
IEEE 802.11n 2.4 / 5 GHz 250 m 600 Mbps
IEEE 802.11ac 5 GHz 250 m 1.3 Gbps
2-11 GHz and
WMAN WiMAX IEEE 802.16 50 km 70 Mbps
10-66 GHz
700 MHz, 850 MHz,
AMPS, GSM,
900 MHz, 1800 MHz,
Cellular GPRS, UMTS, > 50 km 1 Gbps
WWAN 1900 MHz, 2100 MHz,
HSDPA, LTE
2600 MHz
Satellite DVB-S2 3-30 GHz > 50 km 60 Mbps

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