Broadcasting

Broadcasting is the distribution of audio or

video content to a dispersed audience via
any electronic mass communications
medium, but typically one using the
electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves),
in a one-to-many model.[1] Broadcasting
began with AM radio, which came into
popular use around 1920 with the spread
of vacuum tube radio transmitters and
receivers. Before this, most
implementations of electronic
communication (early radio, telephone,
and telegraph) were one-to-one, with the
message intended for a single recipient.
The term broadcasting evolved from its
use as the agricultural method of sowing
seeds in a field by casting them broadly
about.[2] It was later adopted for
describing the widespread distribution of
information by printed materials[3] or by
telegraph.[4] Examples applying it to "one-
to-many" radio transmissions of an
individual station to multiple listeners
appeared as early as 1898.[5]
A broadcasting antenna in Stuttgart

Over the air broadcasting is usually

associated with radio and television,
though more recently, both radio and
television transmissions have begun to be
distributed by cable (cable television). The
receiving parties may include the general
public or a relatively small subset; the
point is that anyone with the appropriate
receiving technology and equipment (e.g.,
a radio or television set) can receive the
signal. The field of broadcasting includes
both government-managed services such
as public radio, community radio and
public television, and private commercial
radio and commercial television. The U.S.
Code of Federal Regulations, title 47, part
97 defines "broadcasting" as
"transmissions intended for reception by
the general public, either direct or
relayed".[6] Private or two-way
telecommunications transmissions do not
qualify under this definition. For example,
amateur ("ham") and citizens band (CB)
radio operators are not allowed to
broadcast. As defined, "transmitting" and
"broadcasting" are not the same.
Transmission of radio and television
programs from a radio or television station
to home receivers by radio waves is
referred to as "over the air" (OTA) or
terrestrial broadcasting and in most
countries requires a broadcasting license.
Transmissions using a wire or cable, like
cable television (which also retransmits
OTA stations with their consent), are also
considered broadcasts but do not
necessarily require a license (though in
some countries, a license is required). In
the 2000s, transmissions of television and
radio programs via streaming digital
technology have increasingly been referred
to as broadcasting as well.[7]
History
The earliest broadcasting consisted of
sending telegraph signals over the
airwaves, using Morse code, a system
developed in the 1830s by Samuel Morse,
physicist Joseph Henry and Alfred Vail.
They developed an electrical telegraph
system which sent pulses of electric
current along wires which controlled an
electromagnet that was located at the
receiving end of the telegraph system. A
code was needed to transmit natural
language using only these pulses, and the
silence between them. Morse therefore
developed the forerunner to modern
International Morse code. This was
particularly important for ship-to-ship and
ship-to-shore communication, but it
became increasingly important for
business and general news reporting, and
as an arena for personal communication
by radio amateurs.[2]

In 1894, Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi

began developing a wireless
communication using the then-newly
discovered phenomenon of radio waves,
showing by 1901 that they could be
transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean.[8]
This was the start of wireless telegraphy
by radio. Audio radio broadcasting began
experimentally in the first decade of the
20th century. On 17 December 1902, a
transmission from the Marconi station in
Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, Canada, became
the world's first radio message to cross
the Atlantic from North America. In 1904, a
commercial service was established to
transmit nightly news summaries to
subscribing ships, which incorporated
them into their onboard newspapers.[9]

World War I accelerated the development

of radio for military communications. After
the war, commercial radio AM
broadcasting began in the 1920s and
became an important mass medium for
entertainment and news. World War II
again accelerated the development of
radio for the wartime purposes of aircraft
and land communication, radio navigation,
and radar.[10] Development of stereo FM
broadcasting of radio began in the 1930s
in the United States and the 1970s in the
United Kingdom, displacing AM as the
dominant commercial standard.[11]

On 25 March 1925, John Logie Baird

demonstrated the transmission of moving
pictures at the London department store
Selfridges. Baird's device relied upon the
Nipkow disk and thus became known as
the mechanical television. It formed the
basis of experimental broadcasts done by
the British Broadcasting Corporation
beginning on 30 September 1929.[12]
However, for most of the 20th century,
televisions depended on the cathode ray
tube invented by Karl Braun. The first
version of such a television to show
promise was produced by Philo
Farnsworth and demonstrated to his
family on 7 September 1927.[13] After
World War II, interrupted experiments
resumed and television became an
important home entertainment broadcast
medium, using VHF and UHF spectrum.
Satellite broadcasting was initiated in the
1960s and moved into general industry
usage in the 1970s, with DBS (Direct
Broadcast Satellites) emerging in the
1980s.

Originally all broadcasting was composed

of analog signals using analog
transmission techniques but in the 2000s,
broadcasters switched to digital signals
using digital transmission. An analog
signal is any continuous signal
representing some other quantity, i.e.,
analogous to another quantity. For
example, in an analog audio signal, the
instantaneous signal voltage varies
continuously with the pressure of the
sound waves.[14] In contrast, a digital
signal represents the original time-varying
quantity as a sampled sequence of
quantized values which imposes some
bandwidth and dynamic range constraints
on the representation. In general usage,
broadcasting most frequently refers to the
transmission of information and
entertainment programming from various
sources to the general public.[15]

Analog audio radio (AM, FM) vs. Digital

audio radio (HD Radio), Digital Audio
Broadcasting (DAB), Satellite radio and
Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM)
Analog television vs. Digital television
Wireless
The world's technological capacity to
receive information through one-way
broadcast networks more than quadrupled
during the two decades from 1986 to
2007, from 432 exabytes of (optimally
compressed) information, to 1.9
zettabytes.[16] This is the information
equivalent of 55 newspapers per person
per day in 1986, and 175 newspapers per
person per day by 2007.[17]

Methods
In a broadcast system, the central high-
powered broadcast tower transmits a
high-frequency electromagnetic wave to
numerous low-powered receivers. The
high-frequency wave sent by the tower is
modulated with a signal containing visual
or audio information. The receiver is then
tuned so as to pick up the high-frequency
wave and a demodulator is used to
retrieve the signal containing the visual or
audio information. The broadcast signal
can be either analog (signal is varied
continuously with respect to the
information) or digital (information is
encoded as a set of discrete values).[18][19]

Historically, there have been several

methods used for broadcasting electronic
media audio and video to the general
public:

Telephone broadcasting (1881–1932):

the earliest form of electronic
broadcasting (not counting data
services offered by stock telegraph
companies from 1867, if ticker-tapes are
excluded from the definition). Telephone
broadcasting began with the advent of
Théâtrophone ("Theatre Phone")
systems, which were telephone-based
distribution systems allowing
subscribers to listen to live opera and
theatre performances over telephone
lines, created by French inventor
Clément Ader in 1881. Telephone
broadcasting also grew to include
telephone newspaper services for news
and entertainment programming which
were introduced in the 1890s, primarily
located in large European cities. These
telephone-based subscription services
were the first examples of
electrical/electronic broadcasting and
offered a wide variety of programming.
Radio broadcasting (experimentally
from 1906, commercially from 1920);
audio signals sent through the air as
radio waves from a transmitter, picked
up by an antenna and sent to a receiver.
Radio stations can be linked in radio
networks to broadcast common radio
programs, either in broadcast
syndication, simulcast or subchannels.
Television broadcasting (telecast),
experimentally from 1925, commercially
from the 1930s: an extension of radio to
include video signals.
Cable radio (also called "cable FM", from
1928) and cable television (from 1932):
both via coaxial cable, originally serving
principally as transmission media for
programming produced at either radio or
television stations, but later expanding
into a broad universe of cable-originated
channels.
Direct-broadcast satellite (DBS) (from c.
1974) and satellite radio (from c. 1990):
meant for direct-to-home broadcast
programming (as opposed to studio
network uplinks and down-links),
provides a mix of traditional radio or
television broadcast programming, or
both, with dedicated satellite radio
programming. (See also: Satellite
television)
Webcasting of video/television (from c.
1993) and audio/radio (from c. 1994)
streams: offers a mix of traditional radio
 and television station broadcast
programming with dedicated Internet
radio and Internet television.

Economic models
There are several means of providing
financial support for continuous
broadcasting:

Commercial broadcasting: for-profit,

usually privately owned stations,
channels, networks, or services
providing programming to the public,
supported by the sale of air time to
advertisers for radio or television
advertisements during or in breaks
between programs, often in combination
with cable or pay cable subscription
fees.
Public broadcasting: usually non-profit,
publicly owned stations or networks
supported by license fees, government
funds, grants from foundations,
corporate underwriting, audience
memberships, contributions or a
combination of these.
Community broadcasting: a form of
mass media in which a television
station, or a radio station, is owned,
operated or programmed, by a
community group to provide programs
of local interest known as local
programming. Community stations are
most commonly operated by non-profit
groups or cooperatives; however, in
some cases they may be operated by a
local college or university, a cable
company or a municipal government.
Internet Webcast: the audience pays to
recharge and buy virtual gifts for the
anchor, and the platform converts the
gifts into virtual currency. The anchor
withdraws the virtual currency, which is
drawn by the platform. If the anchor
belongs to a trade union, it will be
settled by the trade union and the live
 broadcasting platform, and the anchor
will get the salary and part of the bonus.
This is the most common profit model
of live broadcast products.

Broadcasters may rely on a combination

of these business models. For example, in
the United States, National Public Radio
(NPR) and the Public Broadcasting Service
(PBS, television) supplement public
membership subscriptions and grants with
funding from the Corporation for Public
Broadcasting (CPB), which is allocated bi-
annually by Congress. US public
broadcasting corporate and charitable
grants are generally given in consideration
of underwriting spots which differ from
commercial advertisements in that they
are governed by specific FCC restrictions,
which prohibit the advocacy of a product
or a "call to action".

Recorded and live forms

A television studio production control room in Olympia, Washington, August 2008

An "On Air" sign is illuminated, usually in red, while a broadcast or recording session is taking place.

Radio Maria studio in Switzerland

The first regular television broadcasts

started in 1937. Broadcasts can be
classified as "recorded" or "live". The
former allows correcting errors, and
removing superfluous or undesired
material, rearranging it, applying slow-
motion and repetitions, and other
techniques to enhance the program.
However, some live events like sports
television can include some of the aspects
including slow-motion clips of important
goals/hits, etc., in between the live
television telecast. American radio-
network broadcasters habitually forbade
prerecorded broadcasts in the 1930s and
1940s, requiring radio programs played for
the Eastern and Central time zones to be
repeated three hours later for the Pacific
time zone (See: Effects of time on North
American broadcasting). This restriction
was dropped for special occasions, as in
the case of the German dirigible airship
Hindenburg disaster at Lakehurst, New
Jersey, in 1937. During World War II,
prerecorded broadcasts from war
correspondents were allowed on U.S.
radio. In addition, American radio
programs were recorded for playback by
Armed Forces Radio radio stations around
the world.

A disadvantage of recording first is that

the public may learn the outcome of an
event before the recording is broadcast,
which may be a "spoiler". Prerecording
may be used to prevent announcers from
deviating from an officially approved script
during a live radio broadcast, as occurred
with propaganda broadcasts from
Germany in the 1940s and with Radio
Moscow in the 1980s. Many events are
advertised as being live, although they are
often "recorded live" (sometimes called
"live-to-tape"). This is particularly true of
performances of musical artists on radio
when they visit for an in-studio concert
performance. Similar situations have
occurred in television production ("The
Cosby Show is recorded in front of a live
television studio audience") and news
broadcasting.
A broadcast may be distributed through
several physical means. If coming directly
from the radio studio at a single station or
television station, it is sent through the
studio/transmitter link to the transmitter
and hence from the television antenna
located on the radio masts and towers out
to the world. Programming may also come
through a communications satellite, played
either live or recorded for later
transmission. Networks of stations may
simulcast the same programming at the
same time, originally via microwave link,
now usually by satellite. Distribution to
stations or networks may also be through
physical media, such as magnetic tape,
compact disc (CD), DVD, and sometimes
other formats. Usually these are included
in another broadcast, such as when
electronic news gathering (ENG) returns a
story to the station for inclusion on a news
programme.

The final leg of broadcast distribution is

how the signal gets to the listener or
viewer. It may come over the air as with a
radio station or television station to an
antenna and radio receiver, or may come
through cable television[20] or cable radio
(or "wireless cable") via the station or
directly from a network. The Internet may
also bring either internet radio or
streaming media television to the recipient,
especially with multicasting allowing the
signal and bandwidth to be shared. The
term "broadcast network" is often used to
distinguish networks that broadcast an
over-the-air television signals that can be
received using a tuner (television) inside a
television set with a television antenna
from so-called networks that are
broadcast only via cable television
(cablecast) or satellite television that uses
a dish antenna. The term "broadcast
television" can refer to the television
programs of such networks.

Social impact
Radio station WTUL studio, Tulane University, New Orleans

The sequencing of content in a broadcast

is called a schedule. As with all
technological endeavors, a number of
technical terms and slang have developed.
A list of these terms can be found at List
of broadcasting terms.[21] Television and
radio programs are distributed through
radio broadcasting or cable, often both
simultaneously. By coding signals and
having a cable converter box with
decoding equipment in homes, the latter
also enables subscription-based channels,
pay-tv and pay-per-view services. In his
essay, John Durham Peters wrote that
communication is a tool used for
dissemination. Peters stated,
"Dissemination is a lens—sometimes a
usefully distorting one—that helps us
tackle basic issues such as interaction,
presence, and space and time ... on the
agenda of any future communication
theory in general".[22]: 211 Dissemination
focuses on the message being relayed
from one main source to one large
audience without the exchange of dialogue
in between. It is possible for the message
to be changed or corrupted by government
officials once the main source releases it.
There is no way to predetermine how the
larger population or audience will absorb
the message. They can choose to listen,
analyze, or ignore it. Dissemination in
communication is widely used in the world
of broadcasting.

Broadcasting focuses on getting a

message out and it is up to the general
public to do what they wish with it. Peters
also states that broadcasting is used to
address an open-ended destination.[22]: 212
There are many forms of broadcasting, but
they all aim to distribute a signal that will
reach the target audience. Broadcasters
typically arrange audiences into entire
assemblies.[22]: 213 In terms of media
broadcasting, a radio show can gather a
large number of followers who tune in
every day to specifically listen to that
specific disc jockey. The disc jockey
follows the script for his or her radio show
and just talks into the microphone.[22] He
or she does not expect immediate
feedback from any listeners. The message
is broadcast across airwaves throughout
the community, but there the listeners
cannot always respond immediately,
especially since many radio shows are
recorded prior to the actual air time.
Broadcast engineering
Broadcast engineering is the field of
electrical engineering, and now to some
extent computer engineering and
information technology, which deals with
radio and television broadcasting. Audio
engineering and RF engineering are also
essential parts of broadcast engineering,
being their own subsets of electrical
engineering.[23]

Broadcast engineering involves both the

studio and transmitter aspects (the entire
airchain), as well as remote broadcasts.
Every station has a broadcast engineer,
though one may now serve an entire
station group in a city. In small media
markets the engineer may work on a
contract basis for one or more stations as
needed.[23][24][25]

See also
Analog television
Bandplan
Broadcast engineering
Broadcast quality
Broadcast television systems –
contains the standards of the topic
Broadcasting in the United States
Cablecast
Frank Conrad
Dead air
Digital television
Electronic media
European Broadcasting Union (EBU)
List of broadcast satellites
List of broadcasting terms
List of radio awards
List of television awards
Narrowcasting
NaSTA
Nonbroadcast Multiple Access Network
(NBMA)
 North American broadcast television
frequencies
Outside broadcast
Radio Act of 1927, United States
Reality television
Society of Broadcast Engineers (SBE)
Television broadcasting in Australia
Television transmitter
Transposer
Wilkinsburg

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n-as/n23.xml) from the original on 22
August 2022, retrieved 22 August 2022
23. Pizzi, Skip (2014). A Broadcast Engineering
Tutorial for Non-Engineers (https://www.wo
rldcat.org/oclc/879025861) . Graham
Jones (4th ed.). Hoboken: Taylor and
Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-90683-4.
OCLC 879025861 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/879025861) .
24. "about.com - Broadcast Technician or
Sound Engineering Technician: Career
Information" (https://web.archive.org/web/
20050918203626/http://careerplanning.ab
out.com/cs/occupations/p/broadcst_soun
d.htm) . Careerplanning.about.com. 8
November 2010. Archived from the original
(http://careerplanning.about.com/cs/occup
ations/p/broadcst_sound.htm) on 18
September 2005. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
25. "Transmission Engineer - TV" (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20070508172948/http://w
ww.skillset.org/tv/jobs/Studio_Broadcast/a
rticle_5477_1.asp) . skillset. 25 July 2012.
Archived from the original (http://www.skill
set.org/tv/jobs/Studio_Broadcast/article_5
477_1.asp) on 8 May 2007. Retrieved
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Bibliography
Carey, James (1989), Communication as
Culture, New York and London: Routledge,
pp. 201–30
Kahn, Frank J., ed. Documents of American
Broadcasting, fourth edition (Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1984).
Lichty Lawrence W., and Topping Malachi C.,
eds, American Broadcasting: A Source Book
on the History of Radio and Television
(Hastings House, 1975).
Meyrowitz, Joshua, Mediating
Communication: What Happens? in Downing,
J., Mohammadi, A., and Sreberny-
Mohammadi, A. (eds), Questioning The Media
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage 1995), pp. 39–53
Peters, John Durham (2006), "Communication
as Dissemination" (https://sk.sagepub.com/b
ooks/communication-as/n23.xml) ,
Communication as…: Perspectives on Theory,
2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California
91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc.,
pp. 211–222,
doi:10.4135/9781483329055.n23 (https://do
 i.org/10.4135%2F9781483329055.n23) ,
ISBN 978-1-4129-0658-6, archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20220822070805/http
s://sk.sagepub.com/books/communication-a
s/n23.xml) from the original on 22 August
2022, retrieved 22 August 2022
Thompson, J., The Media and Modernity, in
Mackay, H., and O'Sullivan, T. (eds), The
Media Reader: Continuity and Transformation
(London: Sage, 1999), pp. 12–27

International bibliography – History of

wireless and radio broadcasting (https://
www.histv.net/histoire-de-la-t-s-f-et-de-l
a-radio)

Further reading
Barnouw Erik. The Golden Web (Oxford
University Press, 1968); The Sponsor
(1978); A Tower in Babel (1966).
Covert Cathy, and Stevens John L. Mass
Media Between the Wars (Syracuse
University Press, 1984).
Tim Crook; International Radio
Journalism: History, Theory and Practice
Routledge, 1998
John Dunning; On the Air: The
Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio Oxford
University Press, 1998
Ewbank Henry and Lawton Sherman P.
Broadcasting: Radio and Television
(Harper & Brothers, 1952).
Maclaurin W. Rupert. Invention and
Innovation in the Radio Industry (The
Macmillan Company, 1949).
Robert W. McChesney;
Telecommunications, Mass Media, and
Democracy: The Battle for the Control of
U.S. Broadcasting, 1928-1935 Oxford
University Press, 1994
Gwenyth L. Jackaway; Media at War:
Radio's Challenge to the Newspapers,
1924-1939 Praeger Publishers, 1995
Lazarsfeld Paul F. The People Look at
Radio (University of North Carolina
Press, 1946).
Schramm Wilbur, ed. Mass
Communications (University of Illinois
Press, 1960).
Schwoch James. The American Radio
Industry and Its Latin American Activities,
1900-1939 (University of Illinois Press,
1990).
Slater Robert. This ... is CBS: A Chronicle
of 60 Years (Prentice Hall, 1988).
Sterling Christopher H. Electronic Media,
A Guide to Trends in Broadcasting and
Newer Technologies 1920-1983 (Praeger,
1984).
Sterling Christopher, and Kittross John
M. Stay Tuned: A Concise History of
 American Broadcasting (Wadsworth,
1978).
Wells, Alan, World Broadcasting: A
Comparative View (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=3zpeKLHPVBQC&print
sec=frontcover) , Greenwood Publishing
Group, 1996. ISBN 1-56750-245-8

External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related
to Broadcasting.
Look up broadcasting in Wiktionary, the
free dictionary.
Radio Locator (https://www.radio-locato
r.com) , for American radio station with
 format, power, and coverage
information.
Jim Hawkins' Radio and Broadcast
Technology Page (https://www.hawkins.
pair.com/radio.html) – History of
broadcast transmitter
Indie Digital Cinema Services (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20130918081316/htt
ps://www.indiedcp.com/broadcast-indu
stry-terminology.html) – Broadcast
Industry Glossary

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