MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES

SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND PETROLEUM STUDIES

NAME REG NO. STUDENT NO. CONTRIBUTION

SAMBWA TAHIR 21/U/12864/PS 2100712864
KYAKA ETHAN 21/U/07019/PS 2100707019
WASSWA
MURUNGI RUTH
NAMAYANJA

LECTURER: MR. WYCLIFF KAWULE

COURSE UNIT: RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

COURSE CODE: PGP 4106

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QUESTION 1

INFORMATION PROVIDED

Four core plugs – diameter, d = 2.5cm, length, l = 7cm

Rock consists of 30% clay

Using liquid saturation method

Dry weight of plug 1 (M1) – 90g.

Saturated with distilled water having a density of 1g/cc.

Wet weight of plug 1 (M2) – 99g.

Porosity determination

bulk volume(Vb)
But porosity =
pore volume(Vp)
2
πd
Bulk volume (Vb) = ∗l
4
2
π 2.5
= ∗7
4
= 34.3612cm3

In liquid saturation method, pore volume (Vp) can be obtained from;

M 2 −M 1
Vp = where ρ L is density of liquid used
ρL
99−90
=
l
= 9 cm3

bulk volume(Vb)
As stated earlier, porosity = .
pore volume(Vp)

Vp
Effective porosity, ϕ effective =
Vb
9
=
34.3612
= 0.2619

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Therefore, ϕ effective = 26.19%

Explanation on why we called it effective porosity

When using the liquid saturation method, the porosity calculated is the effective porosity since the liquid
is only able to access and flow through the pores that are interconnected. The liquid is unable to access
the isolated pores which do not contribute to the flow and hence the method gives us effective porosity
of the rock.

Plug 1 using the helium porosimeter method

INFORMATION PROVIDED

Grain volume (Vg) = 25cm3

Bulk volume has been calculated above = 34.3612cm3

Klinkenberg corrected permeability = 1.15 Darcy

VP = Bulk volume – grain volume

V b−V g
Using helium porosimeter method, porosity =
Vb
34.3612−25
Effective porosity, ϕ effective =
34.3612
= 0.2724

Therefore, effective porosity, ϕ effective = 27.2435%

Explanation on why this porosity was also called effective porosity

When using the helium porosimeter method, the porosity calculated is the effective porosity since the
helium gas is only able to access and flow through the pores that are interconnected. The gas is unable
to access the isolated pores which do not contribute to the flow and hence the method gives us effective
porosity of the rock.

Why are the two methods giving different effective porosities?

It can be seen that the helium porosity method gives a higher effective porosity as compared to the
liquid saturation method. This is because the question stated that the rock contains 30% clay. Clay has a
tendency of interacting with liquids which in this case is water. The clay absorbs the water, swells and
this closes off some of the pores in the rock which will result into an underestimation of the porosity
while using the liquid saturation method. The helium porosimeter method involves the use of helium
which is an inert gas and hence will not interact with the clay at all. Therefore, such problems won’t arise

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in this method and the helium occupies all the interconnected pore spaces giving us a more accurate
effective porosity estimate.

DETERMINING TOTAL POROSITY USING PLUG 2

Information provided

Dry weight – 89.5g

Volume of grounded sample (Vg)= 23.50cm3

Bulk volume (Vb) was calculated earlier = 34.3612cm3

Pore volume (Vp) = bulk volume – grain volume

= 34.3612 – 23.50

= 10.8612 cm3

VP
Total porosity, ϕ total =
Vb
10.8612
=
34.3612
= 0.3161

Therefore, total porosity, ϕ total = 31.61%

Explanation on why this was called total porosity

We called this the total porosity because the plug 2 was crushed to a ground form which eliminated all
the pore spaces from the sample. As a result, the grain volume obtained is the actual grain volume of the
sample without pore spaces and if this value is subtracted from the bulk volume of the plug, we get the
actual pore volume which was present in the plug. The porosity obtained above is thus the total porosity.

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PERMEABILITY DETERMINATION

Permeability (k) is a measure of the ease with which fluid flows through a porous rock. This permeability
can be estimated using darcy’s law. This law states that “the steady-state flow rate (q) of a fluid which
completely saturates the core is directly proportional to the x-sectional area (A) over which the flow
occurs, the imposed pressure gradient over the core (∆p/L) and inversely proportional to the viscosity of
the fluid”.

kA Δ P
This can be written as q= where k is the permeability, A is the cross-sectional area perpendicular
μ ΔL
to the flow, ΔP is the pressure gradient between ends of the flow, ΔL is the length over which the fluid
flows, μ is the viscosity of the fluid and q is the steady state flow rate.

In order to use Darcy’s law, there are some assumptions which are made.

1. Flow should be in steady state.

2. There is single phase fluid flow.
3. Porous medium should be homogenous.
4. Flow should be laminar or viscous as opposed to turbulent.
5. Fluid under consideration should be incompressible or slightly compressible.
6. Flow should be one dimensional.

We want to get permeability in darcy units and hence there is a need to convert the flow rate (q) to
cm3/sec and the pressure drop to atmospheres.

1 atmosphere = 101,325Pa

1 psi = 6894.757 Pa

6894.757
Therefore 1 psi = atmospheres
101325
= 0.068046 atmospheres

The pressure drop in psi will be multiplied by this value to convert it to atmospheres.

Set pump Time (am) Pressure Pressure drop Set pump ΔP/L q/A

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 rate drop (psi) (atm) rate (atmcm-1) (cm/sec)
(cc/min) (cc/sec)
1 1100 0.10 0.0068046 0.01666667 0.000972 0.003395
1101 0.16 0.01088736 0.01666667 0.001555 0.003395
1102 0.18 0.01224828 0.01666667 0.00175 0.003395
1103 0.19 0.01292874 0.01666667 0.001847 0.003395
1104 0.22 0.01497012 0.01666667 0.002139 0.003395
1105 0.20 0.0136092 0.01666667 0.001944 0.003395
1106 0.20 0.0136092 0.01666667 0.001944 0.003395
1107 0.20 0.0136092 0.01666667 0.001944 0.003395
2 1110 0.40 0.0272184 0.03333333 0.003888 0.006791
1111 0.48 0.03266208 0.03333333 0.004666 0.006791
1112 0.55 0.0374253 0.03333333 0.005346 0.006791
1113 0.61 0.04150806 0.03333333 0.00593 0.006791
1114 0.65 0.0442299 0.03333333 0.006319 0.006791
1115 0.66 0.04491036 0.03333333 0.006416 0.006791
1116 0.65 0.0442299 0.03333333 0.006319 0.006791
1117 0.65 0.0442299 0.03333333 0.006319 0.006791
5 1120 1.65 0.1122759 0.08333333 0.016039 0.016977
1121 1.75 0.1190805 0.08333333 0.017012 0.016977
1122 1.82 0.12384372 0.08333333 0.017692 0.016977
1123 1.80 0.1224828 0.08333333 0.017498 0.016977
1124 1.80 0.1224828 0.08333333 0.017498 0.016977
1125 1.80 0.1224828 0.08333333 0.017498 0.016977
10 1130 3.60 0.2449656 0.16666667 0.034995 0.033953
1131 3.55 0.2415633 0.16666667 0.034509 0.033953
1132 3.50 0.238161 0.16666667 0.034023 0.033953
1133 3.50 0.238161 0.16666667 0.034023 0.033953
1134 3.50 0.238161 0.16666667 0.034023 0.033953
1135 3.50 0.238161 0.16666667 0.034023 0.033953

πd 2
Area, A =
4
2
π 2.5
=
4
= 4.9087cm2

kA Δ P q k Δ P ΔP
Therefore, from the equation q= , = . A graph of q/A against will therefore give us a
μ Δ L A μΔ L ΔL
straight line for laminar flow from which permeability can be determined from the product of μ and
slope obtained.

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 A GRAPH OF Q/A AGAINST ΔP/L
0.04

0.035
f(x) = 0.936269236945497 x + 0.00151422391192918
0.03

0.025
Q/A(cm/sec)

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04

ΔP/L(atm/cm)

From the above graph, the equation of the line of best fit is y=0.9363x + 0.0015

Therefore, the slope, m=0.9363

But k = slope * viscosity

Assuming the viscosity of water = 0.890 cp at room temperature,

k = 0.9363*0.890

k = 0.833307 Darcy

k = 833.307md

Therefore, the permeability is 833.307md

EXPLANATION

It can be seen that the measured permeability is lower than the Klinkenberg corrected permeability
which was given in the question as 1.15 Darcy. This is as a result of an effect known as Klingenberg effect.
This effect can be described as the apparent decrease in measured gas permeability with increasing
average flowing pressure. At very low pressure, the mean free path is almost the same as the dimensions
of the pore spaces. As a result, there is a reduced interaction between gas molecules hence there is a
free slip condition where the molecules bounce off the pore surface freely hence the velocity of
molecules at the pore walls is not zero and measured gas permeability is high. At a high pressure, the
mean free path is smaller than the dimensions of the pore spaces hence the molecules interact more,
there is dragging of molecules and hence the velocity of the molecules on the pore walls is zero and this
represents a no slip condition. the obtained absolute liquid permeability is less than the corrected gas

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permeability because the rock had 30% clay. In the presence of liquids such as water, some clays absorb
water and swell closing off some of the pore spaces which results into a reduction of permeability as
compared to that determined by gas. This is because the helium gas is inert and it will not react with the
rock hence no pore spaces will be closed and it thus gives the most accurate estimation of permeability
of the sample.

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QUESTION 2

Give a comprehensive description of rock compressibility in the context of reservoir engineering. Your
description must include definitions, types, estimation and overall relevance.

A reservoir thousands of feet underground is subjected to an overburden pressure caused by the weight
of the overlying formations. Overburden pressures vary from area to area depending on factors such as
depth, nature of the structure, consolidation of the formation, and possibly the geologic age and history
of the rocks. Depth of the formation is the most important consideration, and a typical value of
overburden pressure is approximately one psi per foot of depth. The weight of the overburden simply
applies a compressive force to the reservoir. The pressure in the rock pore spaces does not normally
approach the overburden pressure. A typical pore pressure, commonly referred to as the reservoir
pressure, is approximately 0.5 psi per foot of depth, assuming that the reservoir is sufficiently
consolidated so the overburden pressure is not transmitted to the fluids in the pore spaces. The pressure
difference between overburden and internal pore pressure is referred to as the effective overburden
pressure. During pressure depletion operations, the internal pore pressure decreases and, therefore, the
effective overburden pressure increases. This increase causes the following effects:

• The bulk volume of the reservoir rock is reduced.

• Sand grains within the pore spaces expand.

These two volume changes tend to reduce the pore space and, therefore, the porosity of the rock. Often
these data exhibit relationships with both porosity and the effective overburden pressure.
Compressibility typically decreases with increasing porosity and effective overburden pressure.

Geertsma (1957) points out that there are three different types of compressibility that must be
distinguished in rocks:

Rock-matrix compressibility, c r

Is defined as the fractional change in volume of the solid rock material (grains) with a unit change in
pressure. Mathematically, the rock compressibility coefficient is given by:

cr = ( )
−1 ∂ V r
Vr ∂ p T

where c r = rock-matrix compressibility, psi-1

V r = volume of solids

The subscript T indicates that the derivative is taken at constant temperature.

Rock-bulk compressibility, c B

Is defined as the fractional change in volume of the bulk volume of the rock with a unit change in
pressure. The rock-bulk compressibility is defined mathematically by:

cB= ( )
−1 ∂ V B
VB ∂p T

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where c B = rock-bulk compressibility coefficient, psi-1

V B=bulk volume

Pore compressibility, c p

The pore compressibility coefficient is defined as the fractional change in pore volume of the rock with a
unit change in pressure and given by the following relationship:

c p= ( )
−1 ∂V p
Vp ∂p T
……………. (Equation X)

where p= pore pressure, psi

c p = pore compressibility coefficient, psi-1

V p= pore volume

Equation X can be expressed in terms of the porosity ∅ by noting that ∅ increases with the increase in
the pore pressure; or:

1 ∂∅
c p=
∅ ∂p
For most petroleum reservoirs, the rock and bulk compressibility are considered small in comparison
with the pore compressibility c p. The formation compressibility c f is the term commonly used to
describe the total compressibility of the formation and is set equal to c p , i.e.:

1 ∂∅
c f =c p=
∅ ∂p
Typical values for the formation compressibility range from 3 ×10−6 to 25 ×10−6 psi-1. Equation X can
be rewritten as:

1 ∆V p
cf =
Vp ∆ p

Where ∆ V p and ∆ p are the change in the pore volume and pore pressure, respectively.

Geertsma (1957) suggested that the bulk compressibility c B is related to the pore compressibility c p by
the following expression.

cB ≅ c p∅

Geertsma has stated that in a reservoir only the vertical component of hydraulic stress is constant and
that the stress components in the horizontal plane are characterized by the boundary condition that

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there is no bulk deformation in those directions. For those boundary conditions, he developed the
following approximation for sandstones: c p (reservoir) = 1/2 c p (laboratory)

Estimation

Several authors have attempted to correlate the pore compressibility with various parameters including
the formation porosity. Hall (1953) correlated the pore compressibility with porosity as given by the
following relationship:

c f =( 1.782/∅ 0.438 ) 10−6

where c f = formation compressibility, psi-1

∅ = porosity, fraction
The correlation is based on laboratory data and is considered reasonable for normally pressured
sandstones.

Newman (1973) used 79 samples for consolidated sandstones and lime stones to develop a correlation
between the formation compressibility and porosity. The proposed generalized hyperbolic form of the
equation is:

a
cf =
[ 1+ cb ∅ ]
where

For consolidated sandstones

−6
a=97.32 ×10
b=0.699993
c=79.8181
For limestones

a=0.8535
b=1.075
6
c=2.202 ×10
Overall relevance

According to Hall (1953), The effect of rock compressibility will be of most importance in:

(1) calculation of oil in place by pressure decline data in undersaturated volumetric reservoirs when the
limits of the field are unknown or indefinite, and

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(2) studies of natural water drive performance.

Pore/formation compressibility is important in determining reservoir performance and in understanding

hydrocarbon production. As pressure decreases during production, the pore volume of the reservoir rock
can reduce due to compressibility, leading to a decrease in effective porosity. This can have a significant
impact on fluid flow and recovery efficiency.

Bulk rock compressibility is important for subsidence studies which have environmental impacts.
Subsidence occurs when the land surface sinks due to the compaction of reservoir rocks. Understanding
compressibility helps predict and mitigate such issues.

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QUESTION 3

The figures below show different possible packing and sizes of grains in rocks. Using numbers 1 to 4,
indicate which arrangement yields:

i. Highest permeability
ii. Lowest permeability
iii. Highest porosity
iv. Lowest porosity

Note: use 4 for the highest, 3 for the second highest, ……………………..., 1 for the lowest

Consider a unit cell:

The porosity of a unit cell is given by:

Vt−Vs Vs
Ø= =1-
Vt Vt
Where Vt: Bulk volume (total volume of the unit cell)

Vs: Volume of the grains in the unit cell

4
But Vs = * π * r3
3
Vt = (2r)3 sin Ө

Where r is the radius of the sphere

4 πr 3
Thus porosity, Ø = 1 – [ ]
3∗8∗r 3∗sin Ө
π
Ø=1-
6 sinӨ
i). for cubic packing, where each sphere is directly above the one below

Porosity = 4, Permeability = 4

Considering Ө = 90o

π π
Porosity, Ø = 1- =1-
6 sinӨ 6 sin 90
Ø = 47.640%

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For the case of permeability in cubic packing, there is more space for fluid flow over the cross-sectional
area of the unit cell thus the permeability is highest in cubic packing

ii). For hexagonal packing, where the top row moved one radius to the side

Porosity = 3, Permeability = 3

Considering Ө = 60o

π π
Porosity, Ø = 1 - =1-
6 sinӨ 6 sin 60
Ø = 39.540%

In this case, the permeability is less than cubic packing because of less space for flow of fluid over the
cross-sectional area of the unit cell, between the grains.

iii). For cubic packing with smaller spheres, where each sphere is directly above the one below.

Porosity = 2, Permeability = 2

In this case, the porosity and permeability is less than that of hexagonal packing because of the smaller
space between the smaller spheres compared to the larger spheres in the cubic and rhombohedral
packing above.

iv). For rhombohedral packing, where each sphere has slumped one radius to the side and one radius
forward into the space below.

Porosity = 1, Permeability = 1

Considering Ө = 45o

π π
Porosity, Ø = 1- = 1-
6 sinӨ 6 sin 45
Ø = 25.952%

The rhombohedral packing has the least permeability. This is because it gives the least space for fluid
flow over the cross-sectional area of a unit cell compared to the other 2 packing systems.

Property Cubic packing Hexagonal packing Cubic packing Rhombohedral

with larger with smaller packing
spheres spheres
Porosity 4 3 2 1
Permeability 4 3 2 1

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REFERENCES

Ahmed, T. H. (2010). Reservoir engineering handbook (4th ed.). Gulf Professional Publishing.

Geertsma, J., “The Effect of Fluid Pressure Decline on Volumetric Changes of Porous Rocks,” Trans. AIME,
1957, pp. 210, 331–340.

Newman, G. H., “Pore-Volume Compressibility,” JPT, Feb. 1973, pp. 129–134

Hall, H. N., “Compressibility of Reservoir Rocks,” Trans. AIME, 1953, p. 309.

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