tat ied
Flexural Analysis of Beams
2.1 Introduction
In this section, it is assumed that a small transverse load is placed on a concrete beam with tensil
reinforcing and that the load is gradually increased in magnitude until the beam fails. As this takes
place, the beam will go through three distinct stages before collapse occurs: (1) the uncracked concrete
stage, (2) the concrete cracked—elastic stresses stage, and (3) the ultimate-strength stage. A relatively
Jong beam is considered for this discussion so that shear will not have a large effect on its behavior.
Uncracked Concrete Stage
At small loads when the tensile stresses are less than the modulus of rupture (the bending tensile stress
at which the concrete begins to crack), the entire cross section of the beam resists bending, with com-
pression on one side and tension on the other. Figure 2.1 shows the variation of stresses and strains for
these small loads; a numerical example of this type is presented in Section 2.2.
Concrete Cracked-I
lastic Stresses Stage
[As the load is increased after the modulus of rupture of the concrete is exceeded, cracks begin to develop
in the bottom of the beam. The moment at which these cracks begin to form—that is, when the tensile
stress in the bottom of the beam equals the modulus of rupture—is referred to as the cracking moment,
-M,y- As the load is further inereased, these cracks quickly spread up to the vicinity of the neutral axis,
sndithen the neutral axis begins to move upward. The cracks occur at those places along the beam where
the actual moment is greater than the cracking moment. as shown in Figure 2.240),
Now that the bottom has cracked, another stage is present because the concrete in the cracked
zone obviously cannot resist tensile stresses—the steel must do it. This stage will continue as long
as the compression stress in the top fibers is less than about one-half of the concrete’s compression
cei competion fein emmprenion
Le (This term is defined
foe sel in tension 7 inSection2.3)
eee
FIGURE 21 Uncracked concrete stage.Mey Me
©
€ te
eee te
strains stresses
©
FIGURE 22 Concrete cracked-
Ganature 0
FIGURE 24 Moment-curvature diagram for reinforced concrete beam with tensile
reinforcement only.
of the beam section over a certain length and is computed by the following expression in which ¢ is
the strain in a beam fiber at some distance, y, from the neutral axis of the beam:
o=5
y
‘The first stage of the diagram is for small moments less than the cracking moment, M,,, where
the entire beam cross section is available to resist bending. In this range, the strains are small, and the
diagram is nearly vertical and very close to a straight line. When the moment is increased beyond the
cracking moment, the slope of the curve will decrease a little because the beam is not quite as stiff as it22 Cracking Moment 37
‘Mega beam concrete construction 100 above grade. Arena ciudad de Mexico,
Meaico City, Mexico.
‘was inthe initial stage before the concrete cracked. The diagram will follow almost a straight line from
[M,, to the point where the reinforcing is stressed to its yield point. Until the steel yields, a fairly large
additional load is required to appreciably increase the heam’s deflection
After the steel yields, the beam has very little additional moment capacity, and only a small addi-
tional load isrequired to substantially increase rotations as well as deflections. The slope of the diagram
is now very flat.
2.2 Cracking Moment
‘The area of reinforcing as a percentage of the total cross-sectional area of a beam is quite small (usually
2% or less), and its effect on the beam properties is almost negligible as long as the beam is uncracked.
Therefore, an approximate calculation of the bending stresses in such a beam can be obtained based
oon the gross properties of the beam’s cross section. The stress in the concrete at any point a distance
yy from the neutral axis of the cross section can be determined from the following flexure formula in
‘which M is the bending moment equal to of less than the cracking moment of the section and /, is the
gross moment of inertia of the cross section:
Section 24.2.3.5 of the ACI 318 Code states that the cracking moment of a section may he deter=
mined with ACI Equation 24.2.3.5b, in which f, is the modulus of rupture of the concrete and yy, is
the distance from the centroidal axis of the section to its extreme fiber in tension, Section 19.2.3.1 of
ACI 318 states that f, may be taken equal to 7.54y/f! with ft in psi
Or in SI units with ff in N/mm? or MPa, f,
=07y—38 CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analjsis of Beams
‘The “lambda” term is 1.0 for normal-weight concrete and
as described in Section 1.12. The cracking moment is as follows:
less than 1.0 for lightweight conerete.
My = (ACT Equation 24.2.3, 5b)
Example 2.1 presents calculations for a reinforced conerete beam where tensile stresses are less
than its modulus of rupture. As a result, no tensile cracks are assumed to be present, and the stresses
are similar to those occurring in a beam constructed with a homogeneous material.
er
(2) Assuming the concrete is uncracked, compute the bending stresses in the extreme fibers of the
beam of Figure 2.5 for a bending moment of 25 fk. The normal-weight concrete has an f, of
4000 psi and a modulus of rupture f, = 7.5(1.0)V4000 psi = 474 psi
(©) Determine the cracking moment of the section.
SOLUTION
(a) Bending Stresses
in. and h
1 pn
|= qybh* with b 8 in,
y= (45) 02m) (8:59 = 5832 in*
5 ft-k = 25.000 fb
Next, multiply 25,000 f-1b by 12 in/t to obtain in-b as shown here:
y= (12 invttx 28,000
5832 in
4) (2001) _ 469 pg
Since thie etrese ie lees than the tensile etrength or modulus of rupture of the concrete of 474 pel,
the section is assumed not to have cracked.
(©) Cracking Moment
fly _ (A74 pel) (6822 int)
Mer= ye 200%
I
23.49 bar I
(= 300102)
eo
FIGURE 25 Beamcross section for Example 2.122 Cracking Moment 39
ee
(@) It tne T-beam shown ts uncracked, calculate the stress in the concrete at the top and bottom
extreme fibers under a positive bending moment of 80 ft-k.
(©) If =3000 psi andnormel-weight concrete is used, what isthe maximum uniformly distributed load
the beam can carry if itis used as a simple beam with 24-ft apan without exceeding the modulus
of rupture of the concrete?
(c) Repeat part (b) if the beam is inverted,
on ——>|
centri
SOLUTION
(@) Locate the neutral axis with respect to the top of the section:
hy hon
a ee
Bh, +) a—h)
(60 1, (in) @5in) + (12in) rim) (
inj Gin) +(2in) 27 in)
‘The moment of inertia is:
bali o_ hy)? by (b= hy? Ey (hh) ]*
22 san [GF Seth onsen fone hg
00 in) Gin? rf
Goin Ei? Goin) 6 ny (108tin
Sing
2 2
) 4 2iny @2
+ (12in) @2in.—5 in) (1081 in. Sin oa)
90.185 in*
‘The stress in the bottom fiber under the given moment of 80 ft-k is:
foe ,
T 60.185 in
1338 k/in?
“The stress in the top fiber is:
Me _ (BOK) (12 invtt) (10.81 In)
hap = ME 172 kfin? = 172 lovin?
7 (60.185 in*40 CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analjsis of Beams
(©) The modulus of rupture, f,, of normal-weight concrete with f; = 3000 psi:
Sif
“The moment that causes a stress equal to the modulus of rupture is:
f, 5(1.0)/3000 = 411 lovin?
1187.44 in-b = 97.28
c (@2in.- 1081 in)
“The uniformly distributed load on a simple span that causes this much moment is:
(97.28
SOTA RY _ 1 a51 wt = 1951 Init
ate
(c) Ifthe beam is inverted, then the c term used to calculate M,, is 10.81 in. instead of 21.19 in., hence:
fly _ (411 tofin2) (60,185 in*
€ (ost ny
Me ‘= 2.288.255 in-tb = 190.69 ft-k
‘The uniformly distributed load on a simple span that causes this much moment is:
= 8M _ 8(190.69 t-K) -
RDF = 2648 = 2648 h/t
‘This is almost double the load that the beam can carry if oriented the opposite way. Don't get the
impression that this is the best orientation for aT beam, however. In the next section, when we examine
reinforced sections, the opposite will be true.
2.3 Elastic Stresses — Concrete Cracked
When the bending moment is sufficiently large to cause the tensile stress in the extreme fibers to be
greater than the modulus of rupture, itis assumed that all ofthe concrete on the tensile side of the beam
is cracked and must be neglected in the flexure calculations
‘The cracking moment of a beam is normally quite small compared to the service load moment.
‘Thus, when the service loads are applied, the bottom of the beam cracks. The cracking of the beam
does not necessarily mean that the beam is going to fail. The reinforcing bars on the tensile side begin
to pick up the tension caused by the applied moment.
On the tensile side of the beam, an assumption of perfect bond is made between the reinforcing
bars and the conerete. Thus, the strain in the concrete and in the steel will be equal at equal distances
from the neutral axis. Ifthe strains in the two materials at a particular point are the same, however,
their stresses cannot be the same since they have differeat moduli of elasticity. Thus, their stresses are
in proportion to the ratio of their moduli of elasticity. The ratio of the steel modulus to the conerete
modulus is called the modular ratio, n:
Ifthe modular ratio for @ particular beam is 10, the stress in the steel will be 10 times the stress in
the concrete at the same distance from the neutral axis. Another way of saying this is that when n = 10,
1 in? of steel will carry the same total force as 10 in? of concrete.
For the beam of Figure 2.6, the tee! bars are replaced with an equivalent area of fictitious concrete
(nA,), which supposedly can resist tension. This area is referred to asthe transformed area. The resulting
revised cross section or transformed section is handled by the usual methods for elastic homogeneous
beams. Also shown in the figure is a diagram showing the stress variation in the beam. On the tensile
side, a dashed line is shown because the diagram is discontinuous. There, the concrete is assumed to23 Elastic Stresses—Conoreta Cracked 41
Ar
FIGURE 26 Cracked, transformed section.
be cracked and unable to resist tension. The value shown opposite the steel is the fictitious stress in the
concrete if it could carry tension. This value is shown as f,/n because it must be multiplied by n to give
the steel stress
Examples 2.3 10 2.5 are transformed-area problems that illustrate the calculations necessary for
determining the stresses and resisting moments for reinforced concrete beams. The first step to be taken
‘each of these problems is to locate the neutral axis, which is assumed to be located a distance « from
the compression surface of the beam. The first moment of the compression area of the beam cross
section about the neutral axis must equal the first moment of the tensile area about the neutral axis.
The resulting quadratic equation can be solved by completing the squares or by using the quadratic
formula.
a
5
i
z
8
3
3
i
é
Bridge construction on an expressway interchange.42 CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analysis of Beams
After the neutral axis is located, the moment of inertia of the transformed s
and the stresses in the concrete and the steel are computed with the flexure formula.
i
Calculate the bending stresses in the beam shown in Figure 2.7 by using the transformed-area method,
f, =3000 psi, n = 9, and M =70 ft-k.
SOLUTION
Taking Moments about Neutral Axis (Referring to Figure 28)
(22 in) 09 (4) =(@ @.00%n) (17 in. —x)
6x? = 459 - 27.00x
Solving by Completing the Square
G2 + 27.00x = 459
x? + 4.50x = 76.5
42.25) +2.25)= 709+ (225F
x= 225+ VTE5+O25F
x=6780in
‘Moment of Inertia
(§) 22 9 781m)? +. e200in2 10.2219)? = 4067 nt
Bending Stresses
22) 0.000) 6785) _ 409 91
4067 in
My _ gy (12) 70000 Rb) 102210) _ 16 996 pa
i 4067 in.*
TS
FIGURE 27 Beam cross section for FIGURE 28 Cracked, transformed ection for
Example 2.3. Example 23.
Tin23 Elastic Stresses—Concrete Cracked 43
eT
Determine the allowable resisting moment of the beam of Example 2.3, i the allowable stresses are
f, = 1350 psiand f, = 20,000 psi.
SOLUTION
(1350 psi) (4067 i
20,000 psi (4067 in*)
OOO DE Tay = 284328 inh = 73.7 ft-k
Discussion
For a given beam, the concrete and steel will not usually reach their maximum allowable stresses at
exactly the same bending moments. Such is the case for this example beam, where the concrete reaches
its maximum permissible stress at 67.5 ft-k, while the steel does not reach its maximum value until
73.7 fick is applied. The resisting moment of the section is 6755 fi-k because if that value is exceeded,
the concrete becomes overstressed even though the steel stress is less than its allowable stress,
ee
Compute the bending stresses in the beam shown in Figure 2.9 by using the transformed-area method;
n=8andM =110f-k
SOLUTION
Locating Neutral Axis (Assuming Neutral Axs below Hole)
(18in) bo (3) ~ Gin) (in) Bin) =(6) (6.06 in’) in. —»
9x? ~ 36x + 108 = 931 — 40.48x
Ox? + 4.48 = 823
22 + 050x = 91.44
(& +025) (x + 0.25) = 91.44 + (0.25)? = 91.50
X+0.25 = VO150 =9.57
32 in. > 6 in, NA. below hole as assumed
x=
Moment of Inertia
1= (2) eny20ny7ay+ (2) 6m xeiny + 06.0) ae8hy? = 98H n!
Computing Stresses
f= (121.0110.000 feb) 320) _ 4499 psi
10.887 in®
1g}(12)(110.000 tb) (19.68 in) _
10887 in®
=¢ 13.269 psi44° CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analysis of Beams
in. | Gin. | in
LI
at
wal _
410
(5.00 i
ee ee
fia] FIGURE 29 Beam cross section for Example 25.
Galculate the bending stresses In the concrete and the reinforcing steel, using the transformed-area
method: f, = 3000 psi, normal-weight concrete, n= 9, M = 250 ft-k.
| 9 in —$>} |<, - 60 in ——>
d= 28in, d= 28in
A= 638 bas
SOLUTION
‘Assume the neutral axis is in the web, and teke moments about the neutral axis of the transformed
section for this example:
y-boh (:=%) +2 entity
Using @ calculator with a solver for quadratic equations recults in x = 6.85 in. Because thie value of x
exceeds h, of 5 in., the assumption that the neutral axis is in the web is valid. Ify had been smaller than
5 in, then the value we obtained would not have been valid, and the preceding equations would have
to be rewritten and solved assuring x < h,,
©, -by he ny)? bye x 2
Pe stb —bydhy(x-B) +P + byx( 3) +08, a2)
_ 60 in.~ 12 iny Gin.® sin.)?
= Bs +(60in ~12in) 6 in) (Sesin - SE)
G21) EES? 5 (471 in?) 2B in. —5.65 in)23 Elastic Stresses—Concrete Cracked 45
‘The T-shaped part of the transformed section could be divided into rectangles in other ways besides
the one shown. The resulting answer would sill be the same.
The stress in the concrete can now be calculated
(250 ft4o (5.65 in.) (12 inst,
0.884 k/in? = 684 Ib/in?
24778 ns
‘This concrete stress is well balow the allowable values that were once in the ACI Code. They used to
bbe 0.45/2 = (0.45) (3000 Ibvin®) = 1350 Ibn.
The stress in the reinforcing steel can now be calculated:
nM (d —x)
fe
24,778 n>
This reinforcing steel stress is slightly greater than the allowable values that were once in the ACI
Code. They were formerly 24,000 Ibfin.? for Grade 60 reinforcing steel. This is about a 1.596 overstess,
in the steol, and many engineers would accept this much overstress as being within the accuracy of
their other assumptions. Thie beam would be eallad “tension controlled” because the moment capacity
is controlled by the steel, not the concrete. This same beam could be campression controlled if a lot
more steel were used. Tension-controlled beams are preferable to compressior-controlled ones, as will
be discussed later in this text.
Example 2.7 illustrates the analysis of a doubly reinforced concrete beam—that is, one that has
compression steel as well as tensile steel. Compression steel is generally thought to be uneconomical,
but occasionally its use is quite advantageous.
Compression ste! will permit the use of appreciably smaller beams than those that make use of
tensile steel only. Reduced sizes can be very important where space or architectural requirements limit
the sizes of beams. Compression steel is quite helpful in reducing long-term deflections. and such steel
{is useful for positioning stirrups or shear reinforcing, a subject to be discussed in Chapter 8. A detailed
discussion of doubly reinforced beams is presented in Chapter 5.
‘The creep or plastic flow of concrete was described in Section 1.12. Should the compression
side of a beam be reinforced, the long-term stresses in that reinforcing will be greatly affected by the
creep in the concrete. As time goes by, the compression concrete will compact more tightly, leaving the
reinforcing bars (which themselves have negligible creep) to carry more and more of the load
‘AS a consequence of this creep in the concrete, the stresses in the compression bars computed by
the transformed-area method are assumed to double as time goes by. In Example 2.7, the transformed
area of the compression bars is assumed to equal 2n times their area, A
Ontthe subject of “hairsplitting,” it will be noted in the example that the compression stee! area is
really multiplied by 2n— 1. The transformed areaof the compression side equals the gross compression
area of the concrete plus 2n4 minus the area of the holes in the concrete (1A), which theoretically
should not have been included in the concrete part. This equals the compression conerete area plus
(Qn =A, Similarly, 2n — 1 is used in the moment of inertia calculations, The stresses in the com-
pression bars are determined by multiplying 2n times the stresses in the concrete located at the same
distance from the neutral axis.46 CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analysis of Beams
i
Compute the bending stresses in the beam shown in Figure 2.10;n = 10 and M
118 tek.
soLUTION
Locating Neutral Axis
(14 ny 09 (2) +20~ 1 @o0In%) «-2.51n)=(10) 400In’) C7Sin.—»)
‘Te + 38x - 95 = 700- 40x
Txt + 78x = 795,
+ 11.14x= 113.57
14557 = VNGST GET = 1200
w=8.5 in
Moment of era
1= (2) iam exon +(20-1 200m) asEInF + GOVADO NCOs
5729 int
Bending Stresses
= (12) 118,000 ft-tb) (6.45 in.) _
t 1367 psi
6729 in*
feonl™ = @) 10) 2220180008) 225i0) _Iggoaps
! 6729 in*
12)1118.00 1) (1.059) 99 59 pat
729 in*
ena,
Fi
(2) Acmal section (6) Transformed section
FIGURE 2.10 Beam cross section for Example 2724 Utimate or Nominal Flexural Mements 47
2.4 Ultimate or Nominal Flexural Moments
In this section, a very brief introduction to the calculation of the ultimate or nominal flexural strength of
beams is presented, This topic is continued at considerable length in the next chapter, where formulas,
limitations, designs, and other matters are presented. For this discussion, itis assumed that the tensile
reinforcing bars are stressed to their yield point before the concrete on the compressive side of the
beam is erushed. You will learn in Chapter 3 that the ACI Code requires all beam designs to fall into
this category.
After the concrete compression stresses exceed about 0.50), they no longer vary directly as the
distance from the neutral axis or as a straight line. Rather. they vary much as shown in Figure 2.1 1(b).
It is assumed for the purpose of this discussion that the curved compression diagram is replaced with
4 rectangular one with a constant stress of 0.85f%, as shown in part (c) of the figure. The rectangular
diagram of depth a is assumed to have the same cg. (center of gravity) and total magnitude as the
curved diagram. (In Section 3.4 of Chapter 3 of this text, you will learn that this distance a is set
equal to fc, where fis 2 value determined by testing and specified by the code.) These assumptions
will enable us to easily calculate the theoretical or nominal flexural strength of reinforced concrete
beams. Experimental tests show that with the assumptions used here, accurate flexural stengths are
determined.
To obtain the nominal or theoretical moment strength of a beam, the simple steps to follow are
strated in Figure 2.11 and Example 2.8
1. Compute total tensile force T = A, f.
2. Equate total compression force C = 0.85f!ab to A, f, and solve for a. In this expression, cb is the
assumed area stressed in compression at 0.8542. The compression force C and the tensile force
T must be equal to maintain equilibrium at the section,
3. Calculate the distance between the centers of gravity of T and C. (For a rectangular beam cross
section, it equals d —a/2.)
4. Determine M,, which equals T or C times the distance between their centers of gravity
| Sp
(@ Beam (tb) Actual compression (©) Asumed compression
stress variation stresvariation,
FIGURE 2.11 Compression and tension couple at nominal momet.48 CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analysis of Beams
ese
Determine M,, the nominal or theoretical ultimate moment strength of the beam section shown in
Figure 2.12, If, = 60,000 psi and f, = 3000 psi.
SOLUTION
Computing Tensile and Compressive Forces T and C
T=Ag, = (8.00 in?) (60 Klin?) = 180 k
c=
85f,ab = (0.85) (3 Kin?) (a) (14 in) = 95.7
Equating T and C and Solving for a
T'=C for equilibrium
180k -3578
2=5.04 in
Computing the internal Moment Arm and Nominal Moment Capacity
5.04 in,
2
18.48 in,
2926.4 in-k
rT
FIGURE 2.12 Beam cross section for Example 2.8
In Example 2.9, the nominal moment capacity of another beam is determined much as it was in
Example 28. The only difference is that the cross section of the compression area (A,) stressed at 0.85/2
is not rectangular. As a result, once this area is determined, we need to locate its center of gravity. The
¢-g. forthe beam of Figure 2.13 is shown as being a distance F from the top of the beam in Figure 2.14.
‘The lever arm fiom € to T is equal to d—F (which conesponds to d—a/2 in Example 2.8) and
M, equals A,f, (d —5).
With this very simple procedure, values of M,, can be computed for tensilely reinforced beams of
any cross section24 Utimate or Nominal Flexural Mements 49
Sin, | 6, 19m, ceof
‘compression
ead,
FIGURE 213 Beam cross section for a
Example 29.
FIGURE 2.18 Area under compression stress
block for Example 2.9
eee
Calculate the nominal o theoretical ultimate moment strength of the beam section shown in
Figure 2.13, if f, = 60,000 psi and f; = 3000 psi. The G-in.-wide ledges on top are needed for the
support of precest conerete slabs.
SOLUTION
sf, = (4.00 in?) (60 kin?) = 240 k
(0.85%, (area of concrete A, stressed to 0.854)
= 0.8514,
§
8
&
f
&
Finger piers for U.S. Coast Guard base, Boston, Massachusets50 CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analysis of Beams
Equating T and C and Solving for A,
Tr 240k
ser = = 0.120?
0.85% (0.85) (3 Win?)
Ac=
‘The top 94.12 in of the beam in Figure 2.14 is stressed in compression to Q.85f,. This area can be
shown to extend 9.23 in. down from the top of the bearn. Iis cg. 's located by taking moments at the
top of the beam as follows:
(sind @iys@aian (on + 28%)
= 779 8 i,
tin 585 n= 18:5
101) 1518in) 2606 k= S09
2.5 SI Example
In Example 2.10, the nominal moment strength of a beam is computed using SI units. Appendix B,
‘Tables B.1 t0 B.9 provide information concerning various concrete and steel grades, as well as bar
diameters, areas, and so on, all given in SI units.
ae
Determine the nominal moment strength of the beam shown in Figure 2.16 if f, =28 MPa and
1,=420 MPa.
SOLUTION
T=c
AJ, = 0.85f!ab
Ad,
4 __as30mmey(azoMPay _
Bob ~ (0.85) 8 MPa) aoomm = 90"
ia 2 a
m,=T (4-2) =c(a-2) = Ay, (d-3)
= (1530 mm#)(420 MPa) (490 mm ~ a)
= 2.474 10® N-mm = 247.4 kN.
0mm
00 mm
|— 3.25 bars |
eee} +
Fm
| 200 mn—|
FIGURE 218 Beam c1oss section for
1530 man" from Appendix B. Table B.4) Example 2.10.2.6 Computer Examples 51
2.6 Computer Examples
Onthe John Wiley website for this textbook (www.wiley.com/college/mecormac), several spreadsheets
hhave been provided for the student 10 use in assisting in the solution of problems. They are categorized
by chapter. Note that mostof the spreadsheets have multiple worksheets indicated by tabs at the bottom.
The three worksheets available for Chapter 2 include (1) calculation of cracking moment, (2) stresses in
singly reinforced rectangular beams, and (3) nominal strength of singly reinforced rectangular beams.
Bee
Repeat Example 2.1 using the epreadsheet provided for Chapter 2.
SOLUTION
Open the Chapter 2 spreadsheet and select the worksheet called Cracking Moment. Input only the cells
highlighted in yellow (only in the Excel spreadsheets, not in the printed example), the first six values
below.
ho- 4000 psi
M = 25 tk
> 2 in
h 18 in
te 145 pet
a 1.00
J, =bhen2 5832 int
f, =T5aSQRTE) = 474 psi
r 463 psi
mM, 307,373 intb
M, 256 fk
é
The last five values are the same as calculated in Example 2.1.
ere
Repeat Example 2.3 using the spreadsheet provided for Chapter 2.
SOLUTION
Open the Chapter 2 spreadsheet and select the worksheet called Elastic Stresses. Input only the cells
highlighted in yellow, the first seven values below.52. CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analysis of Beams
b= 2 in,
a= 7 in
a 9
A 3 ind
™ 7 fk
ho= 3000 psi
m= 149° pot
E 3,155,924 psi
a 9.19
np 0.192
x 678 in
kom 4067 int
{