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Reinfocred Concrete Design Ch.02

Reinfocred Concrete Design Book chapter 2

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Reinfocred Concrete Design Ch.02

Reinfocred Concrete Design Book chapter 2

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zezuol04
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tat ied Flexural Analysis of Beams 2.1 Introduction In this section, it is assumed that a small transverse load is placed on a concrete beam with tensil reinforcing and that the load is gradually increased in magnitude until the beam fails. As this takes place, the beam will go through three distinct stages before collapse occurs: (1) the uncracked concrete stage, (2) the concrete cracked—elastic stresses stage, and (3) the ultimate-strength stage. A relatively Jong beam is considered for this discussion so that shear will not have a large effect on its behavior. Uncracked Concrete Stage At small loads when the tensile stresses are less than the modulus of rupture (the bending tensile stress at which the concrete begins to crack), the entire cross section of the beam resists bending, with com- pression on one side and tension on the other. Figure 2.1 shows the variation of stresses and strains for these small loads; a numerical example of this type is presented in Section 2.2. Concrete Cracked-I lastic Stresses Stage [As the load is increased after the modulus of rupture of the concrete is exceeded, cracks begin to develop in the bottom of the beam. The moment at which these cracks begin to form—that is, when the tensile stress in the bottom of the beam equals the modulus of rupture—is referred to as the cracking moment, -M,y- As the load is further inereased, these cracks quickly spread up to the vicinity of the neutral axis, sndithen the neutral axis begins to move upward. The cracks occur at those places along the beam where the actual moment is greater than the cracking moment. as shown in Figure 2.240), Now that the bottom has cracked, another stage is present because the concrete in the cracked zone obviously cannot resist tensile stresses—the steel must do it. This stage will continue as long as the compression stress in the top fibers is less than about one-half of the concrete’s compression cei competion fein emmprenion Le (This term is defined foe sel in tension 7 inSection2.3) eee FIGURE 21 Uncracked concrete stage. Mey Me © € te eee te strains stresses © FIGURE 22 Concrete cracked- Ganature 0 FIGURE 24 Moment-curvature diagram for reinforced concrete beam with tensile reinforcement only. of the beam section over a certain length and is computed by the following expression in which ¢ is the strain in a beam fiber at some distance, y, from the neutral axis of the beam: o=5 y ‘The first stage of the diagram is for small moments less than the cracking moment, M,,, where the entire beam cross section is available to resist bending. In this range, the strains are small, and the diagram is nearly vertical and very close to a straight line. When the moment is increased beyond the cracking moment, the slope of the curve will decrease a little because the beam is not quite as stiff as it 22 Cracking Moment 37 ‘Mega beam concrete construction 100 above grade. Arena ciudad de Mexico, Meaico City, Mexico. ‘was inthe initial stage before the concrete cracked. The diagram will follow almost a straight line from [M,, to the point where the reinforcing is stressed to its yield point. Until the steel yields, a fairly large additional load is required to appreciably increase the heam’s deflection After the steel yields, the beam has very little additional moment capacity, and only a small addi- tional load isrequired to substantially increase rotations as well as deflections. The slope of the diagram is now very flat. 2.2 Cracking Moment ‘The area of reinforcing as a percentage of the total cross-sectional area of a beam is quite small (usually 2% or less), and its effect on the beam properties is almost negligible as long as the beam is uncracked. Therefore, an approximate calculation of the bending stresses in such a beam can be obtained based oon the gross properties of the beam’s cross section. The stress in the concrete at any point a distance yy from the neutral axis of the cross section can be determined from the following flexure formula in ‘which M is the bending moment equal to of less than the cracking moment of the section and /, is the gross moment of inertia of the cross section: Section 24.2.3.5 of the ACI 318 Code states that the cracking moment of a section may he deter= mined with ACI Equation 24.2.3.5b, in which f, is the modulus of rupture of the concrete and yy, is the distance from the centroidal axis of the section to its extreme fiber in tension, Section 19.2.3.1 of ACI 318 states that f, may be taken equal to 7.54y/f! with ft in psi Or in SI units with ff in N/mm? or MPa, f, =07y— 38 CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analjsis of Beams ‘The “lambda” term is 1.0 for normal-weight concrete and as described in Section 1.12. The cracking moment is as follows: less than 1.0 for lightweight conerete. My = (ACT Equation 24.2.3, 5b) Example 2.1 presents calculations for a reinforced conerete beam where tensile stresses are less than its modulus of rupture. As a result, no tensile cracks are assumed to be present, and the stresses are similar to those occurring in a beam constructed with a homogeneous material. er (2) Assuming the concrete is uncracked, compute the bending stresses in the extreme fibers of the beam of Figure 2.5 for a bending moment of 25 fk. The normal-weight concrete has an f, of 4000 psi and a modulus of rupture f, = 7.5(1.0)V4000 psi = 474 psi (©) Determine the cracking moment of the section. SOLUTION (a) Bending Stresses in. and h 1 pn |= qybh* with b 8 in, y= (45) 02m) (8:59 = 5832 in* 5 ft-k = 25.000 fb Next, multiply 25,000 f-1b by 12 in/t to obtain in-b as shown here: y= (12 invttx 28,000 5832 in 4) (2001) _ 469 pg Since thie etrese ie lees than the tensile etrength or modulus of rupture of the concrete of 474 pel, the section is assumed not to have cracked. (©) Cracking Moment fly _ (A74 pel) (6822 int) Mer= ye 200% I 23.49 bar I (= 300102) eo FIGURE 25 Beamcross section for Example 2.1 22 Cracking Moment 39 ee (@) It tne T-beam shown ts uncracked, calculate the stress in the concrete at the top and bottom extreme fibers under a positive bending moment of 80 ft-k. (©) If =3000 psi andnormel-weight concrete is used, what isthe maximum uniformly distributed load the beam can carry if itis used as a simple beam with 24-ft apan without exceeding the modulus of rupture of the concrete? (c) Repeat part (b) if the beam is inverted, on ——>| centri SOLUTION (@) Locate the neutral axis with respect to the top of the section: hy hon a ee Bh, +) a—h) (60 1, (in) @5in) + (12in) rim) ( inj Gin) +(2in) 27 in) ‘The moment of inertia is: bali o_ hy)? by (b= hy? Ey (hh) ]* 22 san [GF Seth onsen fone hg 00 in) Gin? rf Goin Ei? Goin) 6 ny (108tin Sing 2 2 ) 4 2iny @2 + (12in) @2in.—5 in) (1081 in. Sin oa) 90.185 in* ‘The stress in the bottom fiber under the given moment of 80 ft-k is: foe , T 60.185 in 1338 k/in? “The stress in the top fiber is: Me _ (BOK) (12 invtt) (10.81 In) hap = ME 172 kfin? = 172 lovin? 7 (60.185 in* 40 CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analjsis of Beams (©) The modulus of rupture, f,, of normal-weight concrete with f; = 3000 psi: Sif “The moment that causes a stress equal to the modulus of rupture is: f, 5(1.0)/3000 = 411 lovin? 1187.44 in-b = 97.28 c (@2in.- 1081 in) “The uniformly distributed load on a simple span that causes this much moment is: (97.28 SOTA RY _ 1 a51 wt = 1951 Init ate (c) Ifthe beam is inverted, then the c term used to calculate M,, is 10.81 in. instead of 21.19 in., hence: fly _ (411 tofin2) (60,185 in* € (ost ny Me ‘= 2.288.255 in-tb = 190.69 ft-k ‘The uniformly distributed load on a simple span that causes this much moment is: = 8M _ 8(190.69 t-K) - RDF = 2648 = 2648 h/t ‘This is almost double the load that the beam can carry if oriented the opposite way. Don't get the impression that this is the best orientation for aT beam, however. In the next section, when we examine reinforced sections, the opposite will be true. 2.3 Elastic Stresses — Concrete Cracked When the bending moment is sufficiently large to cause the tensile stress in the extreme fibers to be greater than the modulus of rupture, itis assumed that all ofthe concrete on the tensile side of the beam is cracked and must be neglected in the flexure calculations ‘The cracking moment of a beam is normally quite small compared to the service load moment. ‘Thus, when the service loads are applied, the bottom of the beam cracks. The cracking of the beam does not necessarily mean that the beam is going to fail. The reinforcing bars on the tensile side begin to pick up the tension caused by the applied moment. On the tensile side of the beam, an assumption of perfect bond is made between the reinforcing bars and the conerete. Thus, the strain in the concrete and in the steel will be equal at equal distances from the neutral axis. Ifthe strains in the two materials at a particular point are the same, however, their stresses cannot be the same since they have differeat moduli of elasticity. Thus, their stresses are in proportion to the ratio of their moduli of elasticity. The ratio of the steel modulus to the conerete modulus is called the modular ratio, n: Ifthe modular ratio for @ particular beam is 10, the stress in the steel will be 10 times the stress in the concrete at the same distance from the neutral axis. Another way of saying this is that when n = 10, 1 in? of steel will carry the same total force as 10 in? of concrete. For the beam of Figure 2.6, the tee! bars are replaced with an equivalent area of fictitious concrete (nA,), which supposedly can resist tension. This area is referred to asthe transformed area. The resulting revised cross section or transformed section is handled by the usual methods for elastic homogeneous beams. Also shown in the figure is a diagram showing the stress variation in the beam. On the tensile side, a dashed line is shown because the diagram is discontinuous. There, the concrete is assumed to 23 Elastic Stresses—Conoreta Cracked 41 Ar FIGURE 26 Cracked, transformed section. be cracked and unable to resist tension. The value shown opposite the steel is the fictitious stress in the concrete if it could carry tension. This value is shown as f,/n because it must be multiplied by n to give the steel stress Examples 2.3 10 2.5 are transformed-area problems that illustrate the calculations necessary for determining the stresses and resisting moments for reinforced concrete beams. The first step to be taken ‘each of these problems is to locate the neutral axis, which is assumed to be located a distance « from the compression surface of the beam. The first moment of the compression area of the beam cross section about the neutral axis must equal the first moment of the tensile area about the neutral axis. The resulting quadratic equation can be solved by completing the squares or by using the quadratic formula. a 5 i z 8 3 3 i é Bridge construction on an expressway interchange. 42 CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analysis of Beams After the neutral axis is located, the moment of inertia of the transformed s and the stresses in the concrete and the steel are computed with the flexure formula. i Calculate the bending stresses in the beam shown in Figure 2.7 by using the transformed-area method, f, =3000 psi, n = 9, and M =70 ft-k. SOLUTION Taking Moments about Neutral Axis (Referring to Figure 28) (22 in) 09 (4) =(@ @.00%n) (17 in. —x) 6x? = 459 - 27.00x Solving by Completing the Square G2 + 27.00x = 459 x? + 4.50x = 76.5 42.25) +2.25)= 709+ (225F x= 225+ VTE5+O25F x=6780in ‘Moment of Inertia (§) 22 9 781m)? +. e200in2 10.2219)? = 4067 nt Bending Stresses 22) 0.000) 6785) _ 409 91 4067 in My _ gy (12) 70000 Rb) 102210) _ 16 996 pa i 4067 in.* TS FIGURE 27 Beam cross section for FIGURE 28 Cracked, transformed ection for Example 2.3. Example 23. Tin 23 Elastic Stresses—Concrete Cracked 43 eT Determine the allowable resisting moment of the beam of Example 2.3, i the allowable stresses are f, = 1350 psiand f, = 20,000 psi. SOLUTION (1350 psi) (4067 i 20,000 psi (4067 in*) OOO DE Tay = 284328 inh = 73.7 ft-k Discussion For a given beam, the concrete and steel will not usually reach their maximum allowable stresses at exactly the same bending moments. Such is the case for this example beam, where the concrete reaches its maximum permissible stress at 67.5 ft-k, while the steel does not reach its maximum value until 73.7 fick is applied. The resisting moment of the section is 6755 fi-k because if that value is exceeded, the concrete becomes overstressed even though the steel stress is less than its allowable stress, ee Compute the bending stresses in the beam shown in Figure 2.9 by using the transformed-area method; n=8andM =110f-k SOLUTION Locating Neutral Axis (Assuming Neutral Axs below Hole) (18in) bo (3) ~ Gin) (in) Bin) =(6) (6.06 in’) in. —» 9x? ~ 36x + 108 = 931 — 40.48x Ox? + 4.48 = 823 22 + 050x = 91.44 (& +025) (x + 0.25) = 91.44 + (0.25)? = 91.50 X+0.25 = VO150 =9.57 32 in. > 6 in, NA. below hole as assumed x= Moment of Inertia 1= (2) eny20ny7ay+ (2) 6m xeiny + 06.0) ae8hy? = 98H n! Computing Stresses f= (121.0110.000 feb) 320) _ 4499 psi 10.887 in® 1g}(12)(110.000 tb) (19.68 in) _ 10887 in® =¢ 13.269 psi 44° CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analysis of Beams in. | Gin. | in LI at wal _ 410 (5.00 i ee ee fia] FIGURE 29 Beam cross section for Example 25. Galculate the bending stresses In the concrete and the reinforcing steel, using the transformed-area method: f, = 3000 psi, normal-weight concrete, n= 9, M = 250 ft-k. | 9 in —$>} |<, - 60 in ——> d= 28in, d= 28in A= 638 bas SOLUTION ‘Assume the neutral axis is in the web, and teke moments about the neutral axis of the transformed section for this example: y-boh (:=%) +2 entity Using @ calculator with a solver for quadratic equations recults in x = 6.85 in. Because thie value of x exceeds h, of 5 in., the assumption that the neutral axis is in the web is valid. Ify had been smaller than 5 in, then the value we obtained would not have been valid, and the preceding equations would have to be rewritten and solved assuring x < h,, ©, -by he ny)? bye x 2 Pe stb —bydhy(x-B) +P + byx( 3) +08, a2) _ 60 in.~ 12 iny Gin.® sin.)? = Bs +(60in ~12in) 6 in) (Sesin - SE) G21) EES? 5 (471 in?) 2B in. —5.65 in) 23 Elastic Stresses—Concrete Cracked 45 ‘The T-shaped part of the transformed section could be divided into rectangles in other ways besides the one shown. The resulting answer would sill be the same. The stress in the concrete can now be calculated (250 ft4o (5.65 in.) (12 inst, 0.884 k/in? = 684 Ib/in? 24778 ns ‘This concrete stress is well balow the allowable values that were once in the ACI Code. They used to bbe 0.45/2 = (0.45) (3000 Ibvin®) = 1350 Ibn. The stress in the reinforcing steel can now be calculated: nM (d —x) fe 24,778 n> This reinforcing steel stress is slightly greater than the allowable values that were once in the ACI Code. They were formerly 24,000 Ibfin.? for Grade 60 reinforcing steel. This is about a 1.596 overstess, in the steol, and many engineers would accept this much overstress as being within the accuracy of their other assumptions. Thie beam would be eallad “tension controlled” because the moment capacity is controlled by the steel, not the concrete. This same beam could be campression controlled if a lot more steel were used. Tension-controlled beams are preferable to compressior-controlled ones, as will be discussed later in this text. Example 2.7 illustrates the analysis of a doubly reinforced concrete beam—that is, one that has compression steel as well as tensile steel. Compression steel is generally thought to be uneconomical, but occasionally its use is quite advantageous. Compression ste! will permit the use of appreciably smaller beams than those that make use of tensile steel only. Reduced sizes can be very important where space or architectural requirements limit the sizes of beams. Compression steel is quite helpful in reducing long-term deflections. and such steel {is useful for positioning stirrups or shear reinforcing, a subject to be discussed in Chapter 8. A detailed discussion of doubly reinforced beams is presented in Chapter 5. ‘The creep or plastic flow of concrete was described in Section 1.12. Should the compression side of a beam be reinforced, the long-term stresses in that reinforcing will be greatly affected by the creep in the concrete. As time goes by, the compression concrete will compact more tightly, leaving the reinforcing bars (which themselves have negligible creep) to carry more and more of the load ‘AS a consequence of this creep in the concrete, the stresses in the compression bars computed by the transformed-area method are assumed to double as time goes by. In Example 2.7, the transformed area of the compression bars is assumed to equal 2n times their area, A Ontthe subject of “hairsplitting,” it will be noted in the example that the compression stee! area is really multiplied by 2n— 1. The transformed areaof the compression side equals the gross compression area of the concrete plus 2n4 minus the area of the holes in the concrete (1A), which theoretically should not have been included in the concrete part. This equals the compression conerete area plus (Qn =A, Similarly, 2n — 1 is used in the moment of inertia calculations, The stresses in the com- pression bars are determined by multiplying 2n times the stresses in the concrete located at the same distance from the neutral axis. 46 CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analysis of Beams i Compute the bending stresses in the beam shown in Figure 2.10;n = 10 and M 118 tek. soLUTION Locating Neutral Axis (14 ny 09 (2) +20~ 1 @o0In%) «-2.51n)=(10) 400In’) C7Sin.—») ‘Te + 38x - 95 = 700- 40x Txt + 78x = 795, + 11.14x= 113.57 14557 = VNGST GET = 1200 w=8.5 in Moment of era 1= (2) iam exon +(20-1 200m) asEInF + GOVADO NCOs 5729 int Bending Stresses = (12) 118,000 ft-tb) (6.45 in.) _ t 1367 psi 6729 in* feonl™ = @) 10) 2220180008) 225i0) _Iggoaps ! 6729 in* 12)1118.00 1) (1.059) 99 59 pat 729 in* ena, Fi (2) Acmal section (6) Transformed section FIGURE 2.10 Beam cross section for Example 27 24 Utimate or Nominal Flexural Mements 47 2.4 Ultimate or Nominal Flexural Moments In this section, a very brief introduction to the calculation of the ultimate or nominal flexural strength of beams is presented, This topic is continued at considerable length in the next chapter, where formulas, limitations, designs, and other matters are presented. For this discussion, itis assumed that the tensile reinforcing bars are stressed to their yield point before the concrete on the compressive side of the beam is erushed. You will learn in Chapter 3 that the ACI Code requires all beam designs to fall into this category. After the concrete compression stresses exceed about 0.50), they no longer vary directly as the distance from the neutral axis or as a straight line. Rather. they vary much as shown in Figure 2.1 1(b). It is assumed for the purpose of this discussion that the curved compression diagram is replaced with 4 rectangular one with a constant stress of 0.85f%, as shown in part (c) of the figure. The rectangular diagram of depth a is assumed to have the same cg. (center of gravity) and total magnitude as the curved diagram. (In Section 3.4 of Chapter 3 of this text, you will learn that this distance a is set equal to fc, where fis 2 value determined by testing and specified by the code.) These assumptions will enable us to easily calculate the theoretical or nominal flexural strength of reinforced concrete beams. Experimental tests show that with the assumptions used here, accurate flexural stengths are determined. To obtain the nominal or theoretical moment strength of a beam, the simple steps to follow are strated in Figure 2.11 and Example 2.8 1. Compute total tensile force T = A, f. 2. Equate total compression force C = 0.85f!ab to A, f, and solve for a. In this expression, cb is the assumed area stressed in compression at 0.8542. The compression force C and the tensile force T must be equal to maintain equilibrium at the section, 3. Calculate the distance between the centers of gravity of T and C. (For a rectangular beam cross section, it equals d —a/2.) 4. Determine M,, which equals T or C times the distance between their centers of gravity | Sp (@ Beam (tb) Actual compression (©) Asumed compression stress variation stresvariation, FIGURE 2.11 Compression and tension couple at nominal momet. 48 CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analysis of Beams ese Determine M,, the nominal or theoretical ultimate moment strength of the beam section shown in Figure 2.12, If, = 60,000 psi and f, = 3000 psi. SOLUTION Computing Tensile and Compressive Forces T and C T=Ag, = (8.00 in?) (60 Klin?) = 180 k c= 85f,ab = (0.85) (3 Kin?) (a) (14 in) = 95.7 Equating T and C and Solving for a T'=C for equilibrium 180k -3578 2=5.04 in Computing the internal Moment Arm and Nominal Moment Capacity 5.04 in, 2 18.48 in, 2926.4 in-k rT FIGURE 2.12 Beam cross section for Example 2.8 In Example 2.9, the nominal moment capacity of another beam is determined much as it was in Example 28. The only difference is that the cross section of the compression area (A,) stressed at 0.85/2 is not rectangular. As a result, once this area is determined, we need to locate its center of gravity. The ¢-g. forthe beam of Figure 2.13 is shown as being a distance F from the top of the beam in Figure 2.14. ‘The lever arm fiom € to T is equal to d—F (which conesponds to d—a/2 in Example 2.8) and M, equals A,f, (d —5). With this very simple procedure, values of M,, can be computed for tensilely reinforced beams of any cross section 24 Utimate or Nominal Flexural Mements 49 Sin, | 6, 19m, ceof ‘compression ead, FIGURE 213 Beam cross section for a Example 29. FIGURE 2.18 Area under compression stress block for Example 2.9 eee Calculate the nominal o theoretical ultimate moment strength of the beam section shown in Figure 2.13, if f, = 60,000 psi and f; = 3000 psi. The G-in.-wide ledges on top are needed for the support of precest conerete slabs. SOLUTION sf, = (4.00 in?) (60 kin?) = 240 k (0.85%, (area of concrete A, stressed to 0.854) = 0.8514, § 8 & f & Finger piers for U.S. Coast Guard base, Boston, Massachusets 50 CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analysis of Beams Equating T and C and Solving for A, Tr 240k ser = = 0.120? 0.85% (0.85) (3 Win?) Ac= ‘The top 94.12 in of the beam in Figure 2.14 is stressed in compression to Q.85f,. This area can be shown to extend 9.23 in. down from the top of the bearn. Iis cg. 's located by taking moments at the top of the beam as follows: (sind @iys@aian (on + 28%) = 779 8 i, tin 585 n= 18:5 101) 1518in) 2606 k= S09 2.5 SI Example In Example 2.10, the nominal moment strength of a beam is computed using SI units. Appendix B, ‘Tables B.1 t0 B.9 provide information concerning various concrete and steel grades, as well as bar diameters, areas, and so on, all given in SI units. ae Determine the nominal moment strength of the beam shown in Figure 2.16 if f, =28 MPa and 1,=420 MPa. SOLUTION T=c AJ, = 0.85f!ab Ad, 4 __as30mmey(azoMPay _ Bob ~ (0.85) 8 MPa) aoomm = 90" ia 2 a m,=T (4-2) =c(a-2) = Ay, (d-3) = (1530 mm#)(420 MPa) (490 mm ~ a) = 2.474 10® N-mm = 247.4 kN. 0mm 00 mm |— 3.25 bars | eee} + Fm | 200 mn—| FIGURE 218 Beam c1oss section for 1530 man" from Appendix B. Table B.4) Example 2.10. 2.6 Computer Examples 51 2.6 Computer Examples Onthe John Wiley website for this textbook (www.wiley.com/college/mecormac), several spreadsheets hhave been provided for the student 10 use in assisting in the solution of problems. They are categorized by chapter. Note that mostof the spreadsheets have multiple worksheets indicated by tabs at the bottom. The three worksheets available for Chapter 2 include (1) calculation of cracking moment, (2) stresses in singly reinforced rectangular beams, and (3) nominal strength of singly reinforced rectangular beams. Bee Repeat Example 2.1 using the epreadsheet provided for Chapter 2. SOLUTION Open the Chapter 2 spreadsheet and select the worksheet called Cracking Moment. Input only the cells highlighted in yellow (only in the Excel spreadsheets, not in the printed example), the first six values below. ho- 4000 psi M = 25 tk > 2 in h 18 in te 145 pet a 1.00 J, =bhen2 5832 int f, =T5aSQRTE) = 474 psi r 463 psi mM, 307,373 intb M, 256 fk é The last five values are the same as calculated in Example 2.1. ere Repeat Example 2.3 using the spreadsheet provided for Chapter 2. SOLUTION Open the Chapter 2 spreadsheet and select the worksheet called Elastic Stresses. Input only the cells highlighted in yellow, the first seven values below. 52. CHAPTER 2 Flexural Analysis of Beams b= 2 in, a= 7 in a 9 A 3 ind ™ 7 fk ho= 3000 psi m= 149° pot E 3,155,924 psi a 9.19 np 0.192 x 678 in kom 4067 int {

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