.

The practical file must be developed and presented in the following order and
layout:
(i) Cover Page with the following details
● Name of the Student:
● Class: XII - C
● Board Roll Number (leave blank, to be filled afterwards, after the allotment of Board Roll
No.s)
● Name of the School:
● Subject: Geography
● Subject Code: 029
● Name of the Examination: All India Senior School Certificate Examination,
AISSCE
● Session: 2024-25
(ii) Acknowledgement
(iii) Index
FORMAT:
S.No. Content Page No. Teachers Sign

1. Section A: Data - Its Source and Compilation 1

2 What is Data

(iv) The practical file must to be divided into Four Sections, namely -
Section A: Data - its Source and Compilation
➔ What is Data:
The data are defined as numbers that represent measurements from the real world. Datum is a
single measurement.
For Example: 20 centimetres of continuous rain in Barmer or 35 centimetres of rain at a
stretch in Banswara in 24 hours or information such as New Delhi – Mumbai distance via
Kota – Vadodara is 1385 kilometres and via Itarsi - Manmad is 1542 kilometres by train. This
numerical information is called data.
Information is defined as either a meaningful answer to a query or a meaningful stimulus that
can cascade into further queries.
➔ Need of Data:
Maps are important tools in studying geography. Besides, the distribution and growth of
phenomena are also explained through the data in tabular form.We know that an
inter-relationship exists between many phenomena over the surface of the earth. These
interactions are influenced by many variables which can be explained best in quantitative
terms.
For example, to study cropping patterns of an area, it is necessary to have statistical
information about the cropped area, crop yield and production, irrigated area, amount of
rainfall and inputs like use of fertiliser, insecticides, pesticides, etc. Similarly, data related to
the total population, density, number of migrants, occupation of people, their salaries,
industries, means of transportation and communication is needed to study the growth of a city.
Thus, data plays an important role in geographical analysis.
➔ Sources of Data: Primary and Secondary sources of data:
 The data are collected through the following ways. These are : 1. Primary Sources, and 2.
Secondary Sources. The data which are collected for the first time by an individual or the
group of individuals, institutions/organisations are called Primary sources of the data. On the
other hand, data collected from any published or unpublished sources are called Secondary
sources.

➔ Sources of Primary Data:

1. Personal Observations:
It refers to the collection of information by an individual or group of individuals through
direct observations in the field. Through a field survey, information about the relief features,
drainage patterns, types of soil and natural vegetation, as well as, population structure, sex
ratio, literacy, means of transport and communication, urban and rural settlements, etc., is
collected.
2. Interview:
In this method, the researcher gets direct information from the respondent through dialogues
and conversations. However, the interviewer must take the following precautions while
conducting an interview with people of the area:
(i) The person(s) involved in conducting the interview should be clear about the objective of
the survey.
(ii) The respondents should be taken into confidence before asking any sensitive question and
he/she be assured that the secrecy will be maintained.
(iii) A congenial atmosphere should be created so that the respondent may explain the facts
without any hesitation.
(iv) The language of the questions should be simple and polite so that the respondents feel
motivated and readily agree to give the information asked for.
(v) Avoid asking any such question that may hurt the self-respect or the religious feelings of
the respondent.
(vi) At the end of the interview, ask the respondent what additional information he/she may
provide, other than what has already been provided by him/her.
(vii) Pay your thanks and gratefulness for sparing his/her valuable time for you
 3. Questionnaire/Schedule:
In this method, simple questions and their possible answers are written on a plain paper and
the respondents have to tick-mark the possible answers from the given choices. At times, a set
of structured questions are written and sufficient space is provided in the questionnaire where
the respondent write their opinion. This method is useful in carrying out the survey of a larger
area.
The limitation of the method is that only the literate and educated people can be approached
to provide the required information. Similar to the questionnaire that contains the questions
pertaining to the matter of investigation is the schedule. The only difference between the
questionnaire and the schedule is that the respondent himself/ herself fills up the
questionnaires, whereas, a properly trained enumerator himself fills up schedules by asking
questions addressed to the respondents. The main advantage of schedule over the
questionnaire is that the information from both literate and illiterate respondents can be
collected.
➔ Secondary Source of Data:
Secondary sources of data consist of published and unpublished records which
include government publications, documents and reports.
➔ Published Sources
1. Government Publications:
The publications of the various ministries and the departments of the Government of India,
state governments and the District Bulletins are one of the most important sources of
secondary information. These include the Census of India published by the Office of the
Registrar General of India, reports of the National Sample Survey, Weather Reports of Indian
Meteorological Department and Statistical Abstracts published by state governments, and the
periodical reports published by different Commissions.
2. Semi/Quasi-government Publications:
The publications and reports of Urban Development Authorities and Municipal Corporations
of various cities and towns, Zila Parishads (District Councils), etc. fall under this category.
3. International Publications:
The international publications comprise yearbooks, reports and monographs published by
different agencies of the United Nations, such as United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), World
Health Organisation (WHO), Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), etc.
Some of the important publications of the United Nations that are periodically published are
Demographic YearBook, Statistical Year Book and the Human Development Report.
4. Private Publications:
The yearbooks, surveys, research reports and monographs published by newspapers and
private organisations fall under this category.
5. Newspapers and Magazines:
The daily newspapers and the weekly, fortnightly and monthly magazines serve as easily
accessible sources of secondary data.
6. Electronic Media:
The electronic media, specially the internet, has emerged as a major source of secondary data
in recent times.
➔ Unpublished Sources
1. Government Documents:
 The unpublished reports, monographs and documents are yet another source of secondary
data. These documents are prepared and maintained as unpublished records at different levels
of governance. For example, the village level revenue records maintained by the patwari of
respective villages serve as an important source of village-level information.
2. Quasi-government Records:
The periodical reports and the development plans prepared and maintained by different
Municipal Corporations, District Councils and Civil Services departments are included in
Quasi-government records.
3. Private Documents:
These include unpublished reports and records of companies, trade unions, different political
and apolitical organisations and residents’ welfare associations.
➔ Tabulation and Classification of Data:
The data collected from primary or secondary sources initially appear as a big jumble of
information with the least of comprehension. This is known as raw data. To draw meaningful
inferences and to make them usable the raw data requires tabulation and classification.
One of the simplest devices to summarise and present the data is the Statistical Table. It is a
systematic arrangement of data in columns and rows. The purpose of the table is to simplify
the presentation and to facilitate comparisons. This table enables the reader to locate the
desired information quickly. Thus, the tables make it possible for the analyst to present a huge
mass of data in an orderly manner within a minimum of space.
➔ Data Compilation and Presentation:
Data are collected, tabulated and presented in a tabular form either in absolute terms,
percentages or indices.
➔ Absolute data:
When data are presented in their original form as integers, they are called absolute data or raw data.
For example, the total population of a country or a state, the total production of a crop or a
manufacturing industry.
 ➔ Percentage/Ratio:
Sometimes data are tabulated in a ratio or percentage form that are computed from a common
parameter, such as literacy rate or growth rate of population, percentage of agricultural products or
industrial products, etc.

➔ Processing of Data:
The processing of raw data requires their tabulation and classification in selected
classes.

We can see that the given data are ungrouped. Hence, the first step is to group data in order to reduce
its volume and make it easy to understand.
➔ Grouping of Data:
The grouping of the raw data requires determining the number of classes in which the raw
data are to be grouped and what will be the class intervals. The selection of the class interval
and the number of classes, however, depends upon the range of raw data. The raw data given
ranges from 02 to 96. We can, therefore, conveniently choose to group the data into ten
classes with an interval of ten units in each group, e.g. 0–10, 10–20, 20–30, etc.
➔ Process of Classification:
Once the number of groups and the class interval of each group are determined, the raw data
are classified by a method popularly known as Four and Cross Method or Tally Marks.
➔ Frequency Distribution:
The classified raw data of a quantitative variable and have been grouped class-wise. The
number of individuals is known as frequency and the column represents the frequency
distribution. It illustrates how the different values of a variable are distributed in different
classes. Frequencies are classified as Simple and Cumulative frequencies.
◆ Simple Frequencies:
It is expressed by ‘f’ and represents the number of individuals falling in each group.
The sum of all the frequencies, assigned to all classes, represents the total number of
individual observations in the given series. In statistics, it is expressed by the symbol
N that is equal to ∑ f . It is expressed as ∑ f = N = 60

➔ Cumulative Frequency:
It is expressed by ‘Cf’ and can be obtained by adding successive simple frequencies in each
group with the previous sum.
◆ Exclusive method:
In an exclusive method the upper limit of one group is the same as the lower limit of
the next group.
For example, the upper limit of one group (20 – 30) is 30, which is the lower limit of
the next group (30 – 40), making 30 to appear in both groups. But any observation
 having the value of 30 is included in the group where it is at its lower limit and it is
excluded from the group where it is the upper limit as (in 20-30 groups). That is why
the method is known as an exclusive method, i.e. a group is excluded from its upper
limits.
● Inclusive Method:
In this method, a value equal to the upper limit of a group is included in the same
group. Therefore, it is known as an inclusive method. Normally, the upper limit of a
group differs by 1 with the lower limits of the next group. It is important to note that
each group spreads over ten units in this method.

◆ Frequency Polygon:
A graph of frequency distribution is known as the frequency polygon. It helps in
comparing two or more than two frequency distributions.
 ◆ Ogive:
When the frequencies are added they are called cumulative frequencies and are listed
in a table called cumulative frequency table. The curve obtained by plotting
cumulative frequencies is called an Ogive (pronounced as ojive).
It is constructed either by the less than method or the more than method.
In the less than method, we start with the upper limit of the classes and go on adding the frequencies.
When these frequencies are plotted, we get a rising curve.

In the more than method, we start with the lower limits of the classes and from the cumulative
frequency, we subtract frequency of each class. When these frequencies are plotted, we get a declining
curve.
 Section B: Data Processing
➔ Measures of Central Tendency:
We may, perhaps, require a single value or number that best represents all the observations.
This single value usually lies near the centre of a distribution rather than at either extreme.
The statistical techniques used to find out the centre of distributions are referred to as
measures of central tendency.
The number denoting the central tendency is the representative figure for the entire data set
because it is the point about which items have a tendency to cluster. Measures of central
tendency are also known as statistical averages. There are a number of measures of central
tendency, such as the mean, median and the mode.
◆ Mean:
The mean is the value which is derived by summing all the values and dividing it by
the number of observations.
Mean is the simple arithmetic average of the different values of a variable. For
ungrouped and grouped data, the methods for calculating mean are necessarily
different. Mean can be calculated by direct or indirect methods, for both grouped and
ungrouped data.
Computing Mean from Ungrouped Data:
● Direct Method:
Calculating mean from ungrouped data using the direct method, the values for each
observation are added and the total number of occurrences are divided by the sum of all
observations. The mean is calculated using the following formula:

Where, X = Mean
∑ = Sum of a series of measures
x = A raw score in a series of measures
∑ x = The sum of all the measures
N = Number of measures
Example 2.1 : Calculate the mean rainfall for Malwa Plateau in Madhya Pradesh from
the rainfall of the districts of the region given in Table 2.1:
It could be noted from the computation of the mean that the raw rainfall data have been added directly
and the sum is divided by the number of observations i. e., districts. Therefore, it is known as a direct
method.
Indirect Method:
For a large number of observations, the indirect method is normally used to compute the mean. It
helps in reducing the values of the observations to smaller numbers by subtracting a constant value
from them
For example: The rainfall values lie between 800 and 1100 mm. We can reduce these values by
selecting ‘assumed mean’ and subtracting the chosen number from each value. In the present case, we
have taken 800 as the assumed mean. Such an operation is known as coding. The mean is then
worked out from these reduced numbers.

◆ Computing Mean from Grouped

● Data Direct Method:
When scores are grouped into a frequency distribution, the individual values
lose their identity. These values are represented by the midpoints of the class
intervals in which they are located. While computing the mean from grouped
data using direct method, the midpoint of each class interval is multiplied
with its corresponding frequency ( f ); all values of fx (the X are the
midpoints) are added to obtain ∑ fx that is finally divided by the number of
observations i. e., N. Hence, mean is calculated using the following formula:
Where N = ∑ f = 99
In the given frequency distribution, ninety-nine workers have been grouped into five classes of wage
rates. The midpoints of these groups are listed in the third column. To find the mean, each midpoint
(X) has been multiplied by the frequency ( f ) and their sum (∑ fx ) divided by N.
Indirect Method:
The following formula can be used for the indirect method for grouped data. The principles of this
formula are similar to that of the indirect method given for ungrouped data. It is expressed as under:

Where,
A = Midpoint of the assumed mean group (The assumed mean group in Table 2.3 is 90 – 110
with 100 as midpoint.)
f = Frequency
d = Deviation from the assumed mean group (A)
N = Sum of cases or ∑ f
i = Interval width (in this case, it is 20)
The following steps involved in computing mean using the direct method can be deduced :
(i) Mean has been assumed in the group of 90 – 110. It is preferably assumed from the class as near to
the middle of the series as possible. This procedure minimises the magnitude of computation. In Table
2.3, A (assumed mean) is 100, the midpoint of the class 90 – 110.
(ii) The fifth column (u) lists the deviations of the midpoint of each class from the midpoint of the
assumed mean group (90 – 110).
(iii) The sixth column shows the multiplied values of each f by its corresponding d to give fd. Then,
positive and negative values of fd are added separately and their absolute difference is found ( ∑ f d ).
Note that the sign attached to ∑ f d is replaced in the formula following A, where ± is given.
The mean using indirect method is computed as under :

◆ Median -
The median is the value of the rank, which divides the arranged series into two equal numbers. It is
independent of the actual value. Arranging the data in ascending or descending order and then finding
the value of the middle ranking number is the most significant in calculating the median. In case of
the even numbers the average of the two middle ranking values will be the median.
Median is a positional average. It may be defined “as the point in a distribution with an equal number
of cases on each side of it”. The Median is expressed using symbol M
◆ Computing Median from Ungrouped Data:
When the scores are ungrouped, these are arranged in ascending or descending order. Median can be
found by locating the central observation or value in the arranged series. The central value may be
located from either end of the series arranged in ascending or descending order. The following
equation is used to compute the median:

Example 2.3: Calculate median height of mountain peaks in parts of the Himalayas
using the following: 8,126 m, 8,611m, 7,817 m, 8,172 m, 8,076 m, 8,848 m, 8,598 m.
Computation : Median (M) may be calculated in the following steps :
(i) Arrange the given data in ascending or descending order.
(ii) Apply the formula for locating the central value in the series. Thus :

◆ Computing Median from Grouped Data:

When the scores are grouped, we have to find the value of the point where an
individual or observation is centrally located in the group. It can be computed using
the following formula:

Where, M = Median for grouped data

l = Lower limit of the median class
i = Interval
 f = Frequency of the median class
N = Total number of frequencies or number of observations
c = Cumulative frequency of the pre-median class.

The median is computed in the steps given below :

(i) Cumulative frequencies (F) are obtained by adding each normal frequency of the successive
interval groups, as given in column 3 of Table 2.4.
(ii) Median number is obtained by N/2 i.e. 50/2 = 25 in this case, as shown in column 4 of Table 2.4.
(iii) Count into the cumulative frequency distribution (F) from the top towards bottom until the value
next greater than N/2 is reached. In this example, N/2 is 25, which falls in the Class interval of 40-44
with cumulative frequency of 37, thus the cumulative frequency of the premedian class is 21 and
actual frequency of the median class is 16.
(iv) The median is then computed by substituting all the values determined in the step 4 in the
following equation :
 ◆ Mode:
Mode is the maximum occurrence or frequency at a particular point or value. The
value that occurs most frequently in a distribution is referred to as mode. It is
symbolised as Z . Mode is a measure that is less widely used compared to mean and
median. There can be more than one type mode in a given data set.
● Computing Mode from Ungrouped Data:
While computing mode from the given data sets all measures are first arranged in ascending or
descending order. It helps in identifying the most frequently occurring measure easily.
Example 2.5 : Calculate mode for the following test scores in geography for ten students :
61, 10, 88, 37, 61, 72, 55, 61, 46, 22
Computation : To find the mode the measures are arranged in ascending order as given below:
10, 22, 37, 46, 55, 61, 61, 61, 72, 88.
The measure 61 occurring three times in the series is the mode in the given dataset. As no other
number is in the similar way in the dataset, it possesses the property of being unimodal

Example 2.6 : Calculate the mode using a different sample of ten other students, who scored:
82, 11, 57, 82, 08, 11, 82, 95, 41, 11.
Computation : Arrange the given measures in an ascending order as shown below :
08, 11, 11, 11, 41, 57, 82, 82, 82, 95
It can easily be observed that measures of 11 and 82 both are occurring three times in the distribution.
The dataset, therefore, is bimodal in appearance. If three values have equal and highest frequency, the
series is trimodal. Similarly, a recurrence of many measures in a series makes it multimodal.
However, when there is no measure being repeated in a series it is designated as without mode.
.
➔ Comparison of Mean, Median and Mode:
The three measures of the central tendency could easily be compared with the help of a
normal distribution curve. The normal curve refers to a frequency distribution in which the
graph of scores is often called a bell-shaped curve.
Many human traits such as intelligence, personality scores and student achievements have
normal distributions. The bell-shaped curve looks the way it does, as it is symmetrical. In
other words, most of the observations lie on and around the middle value. As one approaches
the extreme values, the number of observations reduces in a symmetrical manner

The normal distribution has an important characteristic. The mean, median and mode are the same
score (a score of 100 in Fig. 2.3) because a normal distribution is symmetrical. The score with the
highest frequency occurs in the middle of the distribution and exactly half of the scores occur above
the middle and half of the scores occur below. Most of the scores occur around the middle of the
distribution or the mean. Very high and very low scores do not occur frequently and are, therefore,
considered rare. If the data are skewed or distorted in some way, the mean, median and mode will not
coincide and the effect of the skewed data needs to be considered
 Section C: Graphical representation of Data

➔ Representation of Data:
Besides the tabular form, the data may also be presented in some graphic or diagrammatic
form. The transformation of data through visual methods like graphs, diagrams, maps and
charts is called representation of data. Such a form of the presentation of data makes it easy to
understand the patterns of population growth, distribution and the density, sex ratio, age–sex
composition, occupational structure, etc. within a geographical territory.
There is a Chinese proverb that ‘a picture is equivalent to thousands of words’. Hence, the
graphic method of the representation of data enhances our understanding, and makes the
comparisons easy. Besides, such methods create an imprint on the mind for a longer time.
➔ Construction of Diagrams:
The data possess measurable characteristics such as length, width and volume. The diagrams
and the maps that are drawn to represent these data related characteristics may be grouped
into the following types:
(i) One-dimensional diagrams, such as line graph, polygraph, bar diagram, histogram, age,
sex, pyramid, etc.;
(ii) Two-dimensional diagram, such as pie diagram and rectangular diagram;

◆ Line Graph:
The line graphs are usually drawn to represent the time series data related to the
temperature, rainfall, population growth, birth rates and the death rates.
◆ Construction of Line Graph:
(a) Simplify the data by converting it into round numbers.
(b) Draw X and Y-axis. Mark the time series variables (years/months) on the X axis and the data
quantity/value to be plotted (growth of population in per cent or the temperature in 0C) on Y axis.
(c) Choose an appropriate scale and label it on the Y-axis. If the data involve a negative figure, then
the selected scale should also show it as shown in

(d) Plot the data to depict year/month-wise values according to the selected scale on Y-axis, mark the
location of the plotted values by a dot and join these dots by a free hand drawn line.
 ◆ Polygraph:
Polygraph is a line graph in which two or more than two variables are shown by an equal number of
lines for an immediate comparison, such as the growth rate of different crops like rice, wheat, pulses
or the birth rates, death rates and life expectancy or sex ratio in different states or countries. A
different line pattern such as straight line ( ____ ), broken line (- - - ), dotted line (……) or a
combination of dotted and broken line (-.-.-) or lines of different colours may be used to indicate the
value of different variables.
 ◆ Bar Graph:
The bar diagrams are drawn through columns of equal width. It is also called a columnar diagram.
Following rules should be observed while constructing a bar diagram: (a) The width of all the bars or
columns should be similar. (b) All the bars should be placed on equal intervals/distance. (c) Bars may
be shaded with colours or patterns to make them distinct and attractive. The simple, compound or
polybar diagram may be constructed to suit the data characteristics.

Simple Bar Diagram:

A simple bar diagram is constructed for an immediate comparison. It is advisable to arrange the given
data set in an ascending or descending order and plot the data variables accordingly. However, time
series data are represented according to the sequencing of the time period.
Example 3.3 : Construct a simple bar diagram to represent the rainfall data of
Thiruvananthapuram as given in Table 3.3 :
 ◆ Line and Bar Graph:
The line and bar graphs as drawn separately may also be combined to depict the data related to some
of the closely associated characteristics such as the climatic data of mean monthly temperatures and
rainfall. In doing so, a single diagram is drawn in which months are represented on the X-axis while
temperature and rainfall data are shown on the Y-axis at both sides of the diagram.
Example 3.4 : Construct a line graph and bar diagram to represent the average monthly
rainfall and temperature data of Delhi as given in Table 3.4 : Average monthly
Temperature and Rainfall in Delhi
Construction
(a) Draw X and Y-axes of a suitable length and divide X-axis into 12 parts to show months in a year.
(b) Select a suitable scale with equal intervals of 5° C or 10° C for temperature data on the Y-axis and
label it at its right side.
(c) Similarly, select a suitable scale with equal intervals of 5 cm or 10 cm for rainfall data on the
Y-axis and label at its left side.
(d) Plot temperature data using line graph and the rainfall by bar diagram.

◆ Multiple Bar Diagram:

Multiple bar diagrams are constructed to represent two or more than two variables for
the purpose of comparison. For example, a multiple bar diagram may be constructed
to show proportion of males and females in the total, rural and urban population or
the share of canal, tube well and well irrigation in the total irrigated area in different
states.
Example 3.5 : Construct a suitable bar diagram to show decadal literacy rate in India during
1951–2011 as given in Table 3.5 :
 Construction
(a) Multiple bar diagram may be chosen to represent the above data.
(b) Mark time series data on X-axis and literacy rates on Y-axis as per the selected
scale.
(c) Plot the per cent of total population, male and female in closed columns

◆ Compound Bar Diagram:

When different components are grouped in one set of variables or different variables
of one component are put together, their representation is made by a compound bar
diagram. In this method, different variables are shown in a single bar with different
rectangles.
Example 3.6 : Construct a compound bar diagram to depict the data as shown in Table 3.6 :

Construction
(a) Arrange the data in ascending or descending order.
(b) A single bar will depict the gross electricity generation in the given year
and the generation of thermal, hydro and nuclear electricity.
 ◆ Pie Diagram:
Pie diagram is another graphical method of the representation of data. It is drawn to
depict the total value of the given attribute using a circle. Dividing the circle into
corresponding degrees of angle then represents the subsets of the data. Hence, it is
also called the Divided Circle Diagram. The angle of each variable is calculated
using the following formulae.

Example 3.7: Represent the data as given in Table 3.7 (a) with a suitable diagram.
Calculation of Angles
(a) Arrange the data on percentages of Indian exports in an ascending order.
(b) Calculate the degrees of angles for showing the given values of India’s export to major regions/
countries of the world, Table 3.7
(b). It could be done by multiplying percentage with a constant of 3.6 as derived by dividing the total
number of degrees in a circle by 100, i. e. 360/100

Construction
(a) Select a suitable radius for the circle to be drawn. A radius of 3, 4 or 5 cm may be chosen for the
given data set.
(b) Draw a line from the centre of the circle to the arc as a radius.
(c) Measure the angles from the arc of the circle for each category of vehicles in an ascending order
clockwise, starting with a smaller angle.
(d) Complete the diagram by adding the title, sub-title, and the legend. The legend mark is chosen for
each variable/category and highlighted by distinct shades/colours.

Precautions
(a) The circle should neither be too big to fit in the space nor too small to be illegible.
(b) Starting with a bigger angle will lead to accumulation of error leading to the plot of the
smaller angle being difficult.
 ➔ Thematic Maps:
➔ Dot Map:
The dot maps are drawn to show the distribution of phenomena such as population, cattle, types of
crops, etc. The dots of same size as per the chosen scale are marked over the given administrative
units to highlight the patterns of distributions
Requirement
(a) An administrative map of the given area showing state/district/block boundaries.
(b) Statistical data on selected themes for the chosen administrative units, i.e., total
population, cattle, etc.
(c) Selection of a scale to determine the value of a dot. (d) Physiographic map of the region,
especially relief and drainage maps.
Precaution
(a) The lines, demarcating the boundaries of various administrative units, should not be very
thick and bold.
(b) All dots should be the same size.
Example: : Construct a dot map to represent population data of 2011:
State Total Population Number of Dots

Jammu & Kashmir 12,548,926 63

Himachal Pradesh 6,856,509 34
Punjab 27,704,236 139
Uttarakhand 10,116,752 51
Haryana 25,353,081 127
Rajasthan 68,621,012 343
Uttar Pradesh 199,581,477 998
Bihar 103,804,637 519
Sikkim 607,688 3
Arunachal Pradesh 1,382,611 7
Nagaland 1,980,602 10
Manipur 2,721,756 14
Mizoram 1,091,014 5
Tripura 3,671,032 18
Meghalaya 2,964,007 15
Assam 31,169,272 156
West Bengal 91,347,736 457
Jharkhand 32,966,238 165
Orissa 41,947,358 210
Chhattisgarh 25,540,196 128
Madhya Pradesh 72,597,565 363
Gujarat 60,383,628 302
Maharashtra 112,372,972 562
Andhra Pradesh 84,665,533 423
Karnataka 61,130,704 306
Goa 1,457,723 7
Kerala 33,387,677 167
Tamil Nadu 72,138,958 361

Construction
 (a) Select the size and value of a dot.
(b) Determine the number of dots in each state using the given scale.
For example, the number of dots in Maharashtra will be 112,372,972/200,000 = 561.8
It may be rounded to 562, as the fraction is more than 0.5.
(c) Place the dots in each state as per the determined number in all states.
(d) Consult the physiographic/relief map of India to identify mountainous, desert,
and/or snow covered areas and mark lesser number of dots in such areas.

◆ Choropleth Map:
The choropleth maps are also drawn to depict the data characteristics as they are related to the
administrative units. These maps are used to represent the density of population, literacy/growth rates,
sex ratio, etc.
Requirement for drawing Choropleth Map:
(a) A map of the area depicting different administrative units.
(b) Appropriate statistical data according to administrative units.
Steps to be followed:
(a) Arrange the data in ascending or descending order.
(b) Group the data into 5 categories to represent very high, high, medium, low and very low
concentrations.
(c) The interval between the categories may be identified on the following formulae i.e., Range/5 and
Range = maximum value – minimum value.
(d) Patterns, shades or colour to be used to depict the chosen categories should be marked in an
increasing or decreasing order.
Example 3.13: Construct a Choropleth map to represent the density of population in India in
2011 as given in Table:

State Density of Population

Jammu & Kashmir 124

Himachal Pradesh 123
Punjab 550
Uttarakhand 189
Haryana 573
Rajasthan 201
Uttar Pradesh 828
Bihar 1102
Sikkim 86
Arunachal Pradesh 17
Nagaland 119
Manipur 122
Mizoram 52
Tripura 350
Meghalaya 132
Assam 397
West Bengal 1029
Jharkhand 414
Orissa 269
Chhattisgarh 189
Madhya Pradesh 236
Gujarat 308
Maharashtra 365
Andhra Pradesh 308
Karnataka 319
Goa 394
Kerala 859
Tamil Nadu 555

Construction
(a) Arrange the data in ascending order as shown above.
(b) Identify the range within the data. In the present case, the states recording the lowest and highest
density of population are Arunachal Pradesh (17) and Bijar (1102), respectively. Hence, the range
would be 1102 – 17 = 1085.
(c) Divide the range by 5 to get categories from very low to very high.
(200/ 5 = 217. We can convert this value to a round number, i. e., 200
(d) Determine the number of the categories alongwith the range of each category. We will finally get
following categories :
 Below 200 Very low (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttrakhand, Chhattisgarh,
Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya)
200 - 400 Low (Rajasthan, Tripura, Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa)
400 - 600 Medium (Punjab, Haryana, Jharkhand, Odisha, Tamil Nadu)
600 - 800 High
800 & Above Very high (Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Kerala, Bihar)
(e) Assign shades/patterns to each category ranging from lower to higher hues.

Choropleth Map needs to done,

Wait for Further instructions
Meanwhile, write the theory.

➔ Isopleth Map:
The variations within the data, in many cases, may also be observed on the basis of natural
boundaries. For example, variations in the degrees of slope, temperature, occurrence of
rainfall, etc. possess characteristics of the continuity in the data. These geographical facts may
be represented by drawing the lines of equal values on a map. All such maps are termed the
Isopleth Map.
The word Isopleth is derived from Iso meaning equal and pleth means lines. Thus, an
imaginary line, which joins the places of equal values, is referred as Isopleth. The more
frequently drawn isopleths include Isotherm (equal temperature), Isobar (equal pressure),
Isohyets (equal rainfall), Isonephs (equal cloudiness), Isohels (equal sunshine), contours
(equal heights), Isobaths (equal depths), Isohaline (equal salinity), etc.
Requirement:
(a) Base line map depicting point location of different places.
(b) Appropriate data of temperature, pressure, rainfall, etc. over a definite period of time.
(c) Drawing instruments, especially French Curve, etc.
Rules to be observed:
(a) An equal interval of values be selected.
(b) Interval of 5, 10, or 20 is supposed to be ideal.
(c) The value of Isopleth should be written along the line on either side or in the middle by
breaking the line.
Interpolation:
Interpolation is used to insert the intermediate values between the observed values of at two
stations/locations, such as temperature recorded at Chennai and Hyderabad or the spot heights
of two points. Generally, drawing of isopleths joining the places of same value is also termed
as interpolation.
Method of Interpolation For interpolation, follow the following steps:
(a) Firstly, determine the minimum and maximum values given on the map.
(b) Calculate the range of value i.e. Range = maximum value – minimum value.
(c) Based on range, determine the interval in a whole number like 5, 10, 15, etc. The exact point of
drawing an Isopleth is determined by using the following formulae
(d) Draw the isopleths of minimum value first; other isopleths may be drawn accordingly.

Section D: Spatial Information Technology

➔ What is Spatial Information Technology?

The word spatial is derived from space. It refers to the features and the phenomena distributed
over a geographically definable space, thus, having physically measurable dimensions.
Spatial Information Technology relates to the use of the technological inputs in collecting,
storing, retrieving, displaying, manipulating, managing and analysing the spatial information.
It is an amalgamation of Remote Sensing, GPS, GIS, Digital Cartography and Database
Management Systems.
➔ What is GIS (Geographical Information System)?
A system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analysing and displaying
data, which are spatially referenced to the Earth. This is normally considered to involve a
spatially referenced computer database and appropriate applications software.
It is an amalgamation of Computer Assisted Cartography and Database Management System
and draws conceptual and methodological strength from both spatial and allied sciences such
as Computer Science, Statistics, Cartography, Remote Sensing, Database Technology,
Geography, Geology, Hydrology, Agriculture, Resource Management, Environmental
Science, and Public Administration.
➔ Forms of Geographical Information: Spatial and Non - Spatial Data:
 Two types of the data represent the geographical information. These are spatial and non –
spatial data.
The spatial data are characterised by their positional, linear and areal forms of appearances.
These data forms must be geometrically registered to a generally accepted and properly
defined coordinate system and coded so that they can be stored in the internal database
structure of GIS.

On the other hand, the data that describe the spatial data are called Non–spatial or attribute data. The
spatial data are the most important prerequisite in a spatial or geographical information system.
➔ Advantages of GIS over Manual Methods:
The maps, irrespective of a graphic medium of communication of geographic information and
possessing geometric fidelity, are inherited with the following limitations :
(i) Map information is processed and presented in a particular way.
(ii) A map shows a single or more than one predetermined theme.
(iii) The alteration of the information depicted on the maps requires a new map to be drawn.
Contrarily, a GIS possesses inherent advantages of separate data storage and presentation. It
also provides options for viewing and presenting the data in several ways. The following
advantages of a GIS are worth mentioning :
1. Users can interrogate displayed spatial features and retrieve associated attribute information
for analysis.
2. Maps can be drawn by querying or analysing attribute data.
3. Spatial operations (polygon overlay or buffering) can be applied on an integrated database
to generate new sets of information.
4. Different items of attribute data can be associated with one another through shared location
code.
➔ Components of GIS:
The important components of a Geographical Information System include the following:
(a) Hardware: Hardware comprises the processing, storage, display, and input and output
subsystems.
(b) Software: Software modules for data entry, editing, maintenance, analysis, transformation,
manipulation
(c) Data: data display and output. Database management system to take care of the data
organisation.
 (d) People: GIS users have a wide range from hardware and software engineers to resources
and environmental scientists, policy-makers, and the monitoring and implementing agencies.
These cross-section of people use GIS to evolve a decision support system and solve real time
problems.
(e) Procedures: Procedures include how the data will be retrieved, input into the system,
stored, managed, transformed, analysed and finally presented in a final output.

➔ Spatial Data Formats:

The spatial data are represented in raster and vector data formats.
Sequence of GIS Activities:
The following sequence of the activities are involved in GIS-related work :
1. Spatial data input: The spatial database into a GIS can be created from a variety of sources.
(a) Acquiring Digital Data sets from Data Supplies - The present day data supplies make the
digital data readily available, which range from small-scale maps to large-scale plans. At a practical
level users must consider the following:
• The scale of the data
• The geo-referencing system used
• The data collection techniques and sampling strategy used
• The quality of data collected
• The data classification and interpolation methods used
• The size and shape of the individual mapping units
• The length of the record
(b) Creating digital data sets by manual input
The manual input of data to a GIS involves four main stages :
• Entering the spatial data.
• Entering the attribute data.
• Spatial and attribute data verification and editing.
• Where necessary, linking the spatial to the attribute data.
 The manual data input methods depend on whether the database has a vector topology or grid
cell (raster) structure. The most common ways of inputting spatial data in to a GIS are
through:
• Digitisation
• Scanning
2. Entering of the attribute data:
Attribute data define the properties of a spatial entity that need to be handled in the GIS, but
which are not spatial. The attribute data acquired from sources like published record, official
censuses, primary surveys or spread sheets can be used as input into GIS database either
manually or by importing the data using a standard transfer format.
3. Data verification and editing:
The spatial data captured into a GIS requires verification for the error identification and
corrections so as to ensure the data accuracy. The errors caused during digitisation may
include data omissions, and under/over shoots.
4. Spatial and attribute data linkages:
The linkages of spatial and the attribute data are important in GIS. It must, therefore, carefully be
undertaken. Linking of attribute data with a non-related spatial data shall lead to chaos in ultimate
data analysis.
• Linkages
•Exact Matching
•Hierarchical Matching
•Fuzzy Matching
5. Spatial analysis:
The strength of the GIS lies in its analytical capabilities. What distinguishes the GIS from other
information systems are its spatial analysis functions. The analysis functions use the spatial and
non-spatial attributes in the database to answer questions about the real world.
The following spatial analysis operation may be undertaken using GIS :
(i) Overlay analysis:
The hallmark of GIS is overlay operations. An integration of multiple layers of maps using
overlay operations is an important analysis function. In other words, GIS makes it possible to
overlay two or more thematic layers of maps of the same area to obtain a new map layer.
(ii) Buffer analysis:
Buffer operation is another important spatial analysis function in GIS. A buffer of a certain
specified distance can be created along any point, line or area feature. It is useful in locating
the areas/population benefitted or denied of the facilities and services, such as hospitals,
medical stores, post office, asphalt roads, regional parks, etc.This kind of analysis is called
proximity analysis.