Article Not peer-reviewed version

An Improved Image Compression

Algorithm Using 2D DWT and PCA

with Canonical Huffman Encoding

*
RAJIV RANJAN and Prabhat Kumar

Posted Date: 2 August 2023

doi: 10.20944/preprints202308.0165.v1

Keywords: Canonical Huffman Coding (CHC); 2D Discrete Wavelet Transform (2D DWT); hard thresholding;

Lossy Image Compression

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Article
An Improved Image Compression Algorithm
Using 2D DWT and PCA with Canonical
Huffman Encoding
Rajiv Ranjan 1,* and Prabhat Kumar 2
1 Department of IT, BIT Sindri, Dhanbad 828123, India
2 Department of CSE, NIT Patna, Patna 800005, India
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Image compression is a top priority today due to the need for faster encoding and
decoding. To achieve this, the present study has proposed the use of Canonical Huffman Coding
(CHC) as an entropy coder, which has a lower decoding time complexity than binary Huffman
codes. For image compression, combining of the Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) and CHC with
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) has been recommended. The lossy method has been
introduced by using PCA, followed by DWT and CHC to enhance compression efficiency. By using
DWT and CHC instead of PCA alone, the reconstructed image has been found to have a better peak
signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) value. This study has developed a hybrid compression model
combining the advantages of DWT, CHC and PCA. With the increasing use of image data, better
image compression techniques are necessary for efficient use of storage space. The proposed
technique has achieved up to 60% compression while maintaining high visual quality. This method
has also outperformed the currently available techniques in terms of both PSNR (in dB) and bit-per-
pixel (bpp) scores. This approach has been tested on various color images, including Peppers
512×512 and Couple 256×256, showing improvement by 17 dB and 22 dB, respectively, while
reducing bpp by 0.56 and 0.10, respectively. For grayscale images, i.e., Lena 512×512 and Boat
256×256, the proposed method has shown an improvement by 5 dB and 8 dB, respectively, with a
decrease of 0.02 bpp in both cases.

Keywords: Canonical Huffman Coding (CHC); 2D Discrete Wavelet Transform (2D DWT); hard
thresholding; Lossy Image Compression

1. Introduction
With phenomenal rise in the use of digital images in the Internet era, researchers are
concentrating on image-processing applications [1,2]. The need for image compression has been
growing, due to the pressing need to minimize data size for transmission as a result of the constrained
capacity of the Internet. The primary objectives of image compression are to store large amounts of
data in a small memory space and transfer data quickly [2].
There are primarily two types of image compression methods: lossless and lossy. Lossless
compression guarantees that the original and reconstructed images are exactly the same. On the other
hand, Lossy compression, although used in many domains, can result in data loss to a certain extent
for greater redundancy reduction. Here, the original image is first transformed using the forward
transform before quantizing the final image. The compressed image is then produced using entropy
encoding. This process is shown in Figure 1.

© 2023 by the author(s). Distributed under a Creative Commons CC BY license.

Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 2 August 2023 doi:10.20944/preprints202308.0165.v1

Figure 1. Lossy Image Compression Block Diagram in General.

The lossy compression can additionally be classified into two primary methods [3,4]:
Firstly, the direct image compression method, which works on sampling the image in a spatial
domain. This method comprises techniques, such as, block truncation (Block Truncation Coding
(BTC) [5], Absolute Moment Block Truncation (AMBTC) [6], Modified Block Truncation Coding
(MBTC) [7], Improved Block Truncation Coding using K-means Quad Clustering (IBTC-KQ) [8],
Adaptive Block Truncation Coding using edge-based quantization approach (ABTC-EQ) [9]) and
vector quantization [10].
Secondly, the Image transformation method that comprises Singular Value Decomposition
(SVD) [11], Principal Component Analysis (PCA) [12], Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) [13] and
Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) [14]. Through this method image samples are transformed from
the spatial domain to the frequency domain to concentrate the energy of the image into a small
number of coefficients.
Presently, researchers are emphasizing the DWT transformation tool due to its pyramidal or
dyadic wavelet decomposition properties [15], facilitating high compression and superior-quality
reconstructed images. The present study has also demonstrated the benefits of the DWT-based
strategy using Canonical Huffman coding, which was explained as the entropy encoder in the
preliminary work by the same authors [16]. A comparison of Canonical Huffman coding with the
basic Huffman coding reveals that Canonical Huffman coding has a smaller code-book size and
requires less processing time.
In the present study, the issue of enhancing the compression ratio has been resolved by
improving quality of the reconstructed image and by thoroughly analyzing the necessary parameters,
such as, PSNR, SSIM, CR and BPP, for standard test images. PCA, DWT, normalization, thresholding
and Canonical Huffman coding methods have been employed to achieve high compression with
excellent image quality. In course of the present study, Canonical Huffman coding has proved to be
superior to both Huffman and arithmetic coding, as explained in Section III D.
The present authors have developed a lossy compression technique during the study using the
PCA [12] which is marginally superior to the SVD method [23] and DWT [16] algorithms for both
grayscale and color images. Canonical Huffman coding [16] has been used to compress the
reconstructed image to a great extent. The authors have also compared the parameters, obtained in
their proposed method with those provided in the block truncation [24] and the DCT-based
approaches [25].
In the process of the study, the authors have also examined several frequently cited images in
the available literature. Slice resolutions of 512x512 and 256x256 have been used, which are
considered to be the minimum standards in the industry [26]. Also, the present authors have
calculated the compression ratio and the PSNR values of their methods and have compared them to
other research findings [5–9,16,19].
The present paper is based on the following structure. A Literature Review is presented in
Section II. Section III discusses the approach adopted in the present study, which also covers the
necessary concepts. Section IV details the proposed algorithm. The parameters for performance
evaluation are discussed in Section V. Section VI presents the experiment findings while Section VII
marks the conclusion.
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 2 August 2023 doi:10.20944/preprints202308.0165.v1

2. Literature Review
An overview of several published works on this subject highlights various other methods,
studied by many other researchers. One approach that has gained considerable attention among the
research communities in recent years is a hybrid algorithm that combines DWT with other
transformation tools [10]. S M Ahmed et al. [17] detailed their method of compressing ECG signals
using a combination of SVD and DWT. Jayamol M. et al. [8] presented an improved method for block
truncation coding of grayscale images, known as IBTC-KQ. This technique uses K-means quad
clustering to achieve better results. Aldzjia et al. [18] presented a method for compressing color
images using the DWT and Genetic Algorithm (GA). Messaoudi et al. [19] proposed a technique
called DCT-DLUT, which involves using the discrete cosine transform and a lookup table, known as,
DLUT to demarcate the difference between the indices. It is a quick and effective way to compress
lossy color images.
Paul et al. [10] proposed a technique, called, DWT-VQ (Discrete Wavelet Transform-Vector
Quantization) for generating an YCbCr image from an RGB image. This technique compresses images
while maintaining their perceptual quality at levels that are acceptable in a clinical setting. A K
Pandey et al. [20] presented a compression technique that uses the Haar wavelet transform to
compress medical images. A method for compressing images using the Discrete Laguerre Wavelet
Transform (DLWT) was introduced by J A Eleiwy [21]. However, this method concentrates only on
approximate coefficients from four sub-bands of DLWT post-decomposition. As a result, this
approach may affect the quality of the reconstructed images. In other words, maintaining a good
image quality while achieving a high compression rate can prove to be a considerable challenge in
image compression. Additionally, the author did not apply the Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR) or
the Structural Similarity Index Measure (SSIM) index to evaluate the quality of the reconstructed
image.
M. Alosta et al. [22] examined the arithmetic coding for data compression, where they measured
the compression ratio and bit rate to determine the extent of the image compression. However, their
study did not assess the quality of the compressed images, specifically the PSNR or SSIM values,
which correspond to the compression rate (CR) or bits per pixel (BPP) values.

3. Fundamental Concepts
Various phases of the suggested strategy for the present study have been outlined in this section.
These include Canonical Huffman coding, DWT and PCA. A transformation is a mathematical
process through which a function, taken as an input, is mapped into itself. Transformation can extract
hidden or valuable data from the original image. Moreover, in comparison with the original data, the
transformed data may be more amenable to mathematical operations. Therefore, transformation tools
are a significant means for image compression.
The most widely used transformation methods include the Karhunen-Loeve transform (KLT)
[27], Walsh Hadamard transforms (WHT) [28], SVD [11], PCA [12], DCT [13], DWT [14] and Integer
Wavelet Transform (IWT) [29].
The DCT method is commonly used for compressing images. However, it may result in image
artifacts when compressed with JPEG. Moreover, DCT does not have the multi-resolution transform
property. In all these respects, DWT is an improvement [30]. With DWT, one obtains the resulting
filtered image after going through various levels of discrete wavelet decomposition. One can also
collect statistics on the frequency domain for the following procedure via multi-level wavelet
decomposition. By combining noise reduction and through information augmentation, better image
reconstruction can be ensured following compression [2].
Accordingly, the preferred method of choice for image compression during the present study
has been DWT [14]. Because of its high energy compaction property and lossy nature, the image
compression technique can remove unnecessary data from an image to achieve the desired
compression level. It produces wavelet coefficients iteratively by dividing an image into its low-pass
and high-pass components. These wavelet coefficients de-correlate pixels and Canonical Huffman
coding eliminates redundant data.
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 2 August 2023 doi:10.20944/preprints202308.0165.v1

3.1. Principal Component

The principal components are a small number of uncorrelated variables, derived from many
correlated variables by means of the PCA [12] transformation technique. The PCA technique explores
the finer points in the data to highlight their similarities and differences. Once the patterns are found,
datasets can be compressed by reducing their dimensions without losing the basic information.
Therefore, the PCA technique is suitable for image compression with minimal data loss.
The idea of the PCA technique is to take only the values of the principal components and use
them to generate other components.
In short:
 PCA is a standard method for reducing the number of dimensions.
 The variables are changed into a fresh set of data, known as primary components. These principal
components are combinations of initial variables in linear form and they are orthogonal.
 The first principal component accounts for the majority of the potential variation in the original
data.
 The second principal component addresses the data variance.

Mathematical Concepts of PCA

The PCA Algorithm: The following steps make the PCA Algorithm:
Step-01: Obtaining data.
Step-02: Determining the mean vector (µ).
Step-03: Subtracting the mean value from the data.
Step-04: Doing a covariance matrix calculation.
Step-05: Determining the covariance matrix's Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors.
Step-06: Assembling elements to create a feature vector.
Step-07: Creating a novel data set.

Mathematical Example

Two-dimensional patterns have to be taken into account, i.e., (2, 1), (3, 5), (4, 3), (5, 6), (6, 7), and
(7, 8). It has to be followed by the principal component calculation.
Step-01:
Data is obtained. x1 = (2, 1), x2 = (3, 5), x3 = (4, 3), x4 = (5, 6), x5 = (6, 7) & x6 = (7, 8).
2 3 4 5 6 7
The vectors provided are— .
1 5 3 6 7 8
Step-02:
The mean vector (µ) is identified.
Mean vector (µ) = ((2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7) / 6, (1 + 5 + 3 + 6 + 7 + 8) / 6) = (4.5, 5)
4.5
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝜇 =
5
Step-03:
The mean vector (µ) is subtracted from the data.
x1 – µ = (2 – 4.5, 1 – 5) = (-2.5, -4)
Similarly other feature vectors are obtained.
After removing the mean vector (µ), the following feature vectors (xi) are obtained:
−2.5 −1.5 −0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5
−4 0 −2 1 2 3
Step-04:
A covariance matrix calculation is done.
∑
The covariance matrices are provided by—𝐶𝑜𝑣 𝑀𝑎𝑡 =
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−2.5 6.25 10
Now, 𝑚 = 𝑥 − 𝜇 𝑥 − 𝜇 = −2.5 −4 =
−4 10 16
Similarly the value of 𝑚 … 𝑚 is calculated.
Covariance matrix is now equal to (m1 + m2 + m3 + m4 + m5 + m6) / 6.
The matrices above are added and divided by 6:
2.92 3.67
𝐶𝑜𝑣 𝑀𝑎𝑡 =
3.67 5.67
Step-05:
The Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of covariance matrix are determined.
A value is considered to be an eigenvalue (λ) for a matrix M if it solves the defining equation
|M- λ |=0.
2.92 − 𝜆 3.67
Hence, one gets: = 0,
3.67 5.67 − 𝜆
By resolving this quadratic problem = 8.22, 0.38 is obtained.
Hence, eigenvalues λ1 and λ2 are 8.22 and 0.38, respectively.
It is obvious that the second eigenvalue is much smaller than the first eigenvalue.
Hence, it is possible to exclude the second eigenvector. The primary component is the
eigenvector that corresponds to the highest eigenvalue in the given data set. As a result, the
eigenvector is located matching eigenvalue λ1. To find the eigenvector, the equation is formulated.
𝑀𝑋 = 𝜆𝑋
X = Eigenvector, M = Covariance Matrix, and λ = Eigenvalue
By changing the values in the aforementioned equation, X2 =1 and X1=0.69 are obtained. Then
𝑥
these numbers are divided by the square root of the sum of their squares. The eigenvector V is 𝑥 =
0.566
.
0.821
𝑥 0.566
Hence, the principal component of the presented data set is 𝑥 = .
0.821

3.2. Discrete Wavelet Transform: The Operational Principle of DWT

The data matrix of the image is split into four sub-bands, which are LL (low pass vertical and
horizontal filter), LH (low pass vertical and high pass horizontal filter), HL (high pass vertical and
low pass horizontal filter) and HH (high pass vertical and horizontal filter). These sub-bands are used
to apply wavelet transform in computing (DWT [14] and Wavelet [HAAR] [25]). The concept behind
the decomposition of the image into the four sub-bands is explained in Figure 2.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2. Decomposition of discrete wavelets Transform: (a) Input Image, (b) Image Sub-bands, and
(c) 1-Level DWT Decomposition.

The process involves dividing the image into rows and columns after convolution. The Wavelet
decomposition and reconstruction phases make the DWT. The image input undergoes a process of
convolution that includes both low and high pass reconstruction phases. Figure 3a describes a one-
level DWT decomposition. In Figure 3b, the up arrow denotes the up-sampling procedure. The
wavelet reconstruction is the opposite of the wavelet decomposition.
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 2 August 2023 doi:10.20944/preprints202308.0165.v1

(a)

(b)
Figure 3. (a) Decomposition and (b) Reconstruction of a One Level Discrete Wavelet Transform.

In the data processing, various wavelet families are commonly used such as Haar ('haar'),
Daubechies ('db'), Coiflets ('coif'), Symlets ('sym'), Biorthogonal ('bior') and Meyer ('meyer') [20].
During the present study, the Haar wavelet transform was applied due to its comparatively modest
computational needs [25].

3.3. Thresholding: Hard Thresholding

The hard-thresholding method is used frequently in image compression. The hard-threshold
function works by 𝝋𝑻 𝒙 = 𝒙 ∙ 𝟏 |𝒙| > 𝑻 keeping the input value if it is greater than the set
threshold T. If the input value is less than or equal to the threshold, it is set at zero [31].

3.4. Entropy Encoder: Canonical Huffman coding

Canonical Huffman coding [16,32], is a significant subset of regular Huffman coding and has
several advantages over other coding schemes (Huffman, Arithmetic). Advantages include faster
computation times, superior compression and higher reconstruction quality. Many researchers are
working with this coding because of these benefits. The information required for decoding is
compactly stored since the codes are in lexicographic order.
For instance, if the Huffman code for 5 bits is "00010," only five will be used for canonical
Huffman coding, equaling the entire number of bits available in the Huffman code [33].

4. Proposed Method
In course of the present study, various approaches for compressing images have been examined,
including, transforming RGB color images into 𝒀𝑪𝒃 𝑪𝒓 color images [34], PCA transformation,
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 2 August 2023 doi:10.20944/preprints202308.0165.v1

wavelet transformation and extra processing by using thresholding, normalization and Canonical
Huffman coding.

4.1. Basic Procedure

To compress the image, the PCA approach has been applied first. Next the output of PCA has
been decomposed using DWT. Finally, the image has been further decomposed using Canonical
Huffman encoding. In order to breakdown 8-bit/24-bit key images with 256 x 256 and 512 x 512 pixel
sizes, a 1-level Haar wavelet transform has been used.

4.2. PCA Based Compression

The PCA procedure involves mapping from an n-dimensional space to a k-dimensional space
using orthogonal transformations (k<n). The principal components, which are unique orthogonal
features in this case, are the k-dimensional features that include the majority of the characteristics of
the original data set. Because of this, it is used in image compression.
PCA is a reliable image compression technique that ensures nominal information loss.
Compared to the SVD approach, the PCA method produces better results.

PCA_Algorithm

Encoding
𝑓 0,0 ⋯ 𝑓 𝑚−1
Input: The image𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 = ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑓 𝑛 − 1,0 ⋯ 𝑓 𝑛 − 1, 𝑚 − 1
Here, the values x and y represent the coordinates of individual pixels in an image. Depending
on the type, the value 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 corresponds to the color or gray level.
Step 1: Image normalization has to be done.
The normalization is carried out on the image data set 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 .
𝑓 0,0 ⋯ 𝑓 𝑚−1
𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 = ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ − 𝑓 ̅ 0,0 … 𝑓 ̅ 0, 𝑚 − 1
𝑓 𝑛 − 1,0 ⋯ 𝑓 𝑛 − 1, 𝑚 − 1
Here, 𝑓 ̅ 0,0 … 𝑓 ̅ 0, 𝑚 − 1 is the column vector containing the mean value for 𝑦 to𝑦 .
Step 2: Compute covariance matrix of 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦
𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 × 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 =
𝑚−1
Here, m is the number of element y.
Step 3: Compute Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues of 𝑐𝑜𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦
Using SVD equation 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑈𝐷 𝑈 , eigenvectors and eigenvalues are calculated.
Here, "U" represents the eigenvectors of " 𝐴𝐴 ", while the squared singular values in "D" are the
eigenvalues of " 𝐴𝐴 ". Eigenvector matrix denotes the principal feature of image data i.e. principal
component.

Output: Image data with reduced dimension

𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑈 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦
Here, 𝑈 is the transpose of the eigenvectors matrix and 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 is the adjusted
original image datasets.
It can also be expressed as:
𝑌 × =𝑈 × 𝑋 ×

Here, 'm' and 'n' represent the matrix's rows and columns, while 'k' represents the number of
principal components with𝑘 < 𝑚|𝑛.
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Decoding

By reconstructing the image data, one gets

𝑋 × =𝑈 × 𝑌 ×

In PCA, the compression ratio (ρ) is calculated as:

𝑛×𝑛
ρ=
𝑚×𝑘+𝑛×𝑘+𝑛

4.3. DWT-CHC Based Compression

The DWT details show zero mean and a slight variation. The more significant DWT coefficients
are used and the less significant ones are discarded by using a Canonical Huffman coding. The
algorithm based on DWT is presented below.

Algorithm:

Input: An image in grayscale 𝐺 𝐴 × 𝐵 of size 𝐴 × 𝐵

Output: A reconstruction of a grayscale image 𝑅 𝐴 × 𝐵 of size 𝐴 × 𝐵

Encoding of Image

Step 1: The DWT is applied to separate the grayscale image 𝐺 𝐴 × 𝐵 into lower and higher sub
bands.
( ad − amin )
a
Step 2: The equation n =
( amax − amin ) , is applied to normalize the lower and upper sub bands
in the range of (0, 1), where 𝑎 is 𝐺 𝐴 × 𝐵 coefficient matrix of the image, 𝑎 is the data to be
normalized, and 𝑎 and 𝑎 are the maximum and minimum intensity values, respectively.
Step 3: Hard thresholding on the higher sub-band is used to save the important bits and throw away
the unimportant ones.
Step 4: To acquire the lower and higher sub band coefficients, the lower sub band coefficient to the
range of 0 to 127 and the higher sub band coefficient to the range of 0 to 63 are assigned.
Step 5: The canonical Huffman coding is applied to each band.
Step 6: Compressed bit streams are obtained.

Decoding of Image

Step 1: Bit streams are compressed.

Step 2: The reverse canonical Huffman coding process is applied to retrieve the reconstructed lower
and higher sub band coefficient from the compressed bit streams of approximate and detail
coefficients.
Step 3: To get the normalized coefficients for the lower and higher sub bands, their respective
coefficients are divided by 127 and 63.
Step 4: The equation is applied to do inverse normalization on the normalized lower and higher sub
band.

ad an amax amin amin

= ×( − )+

Step 5: Inverse DWT is applied to obtain an image 𝑅 𝐴 × 𝐵 that has been rebuilt.
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 2 August 2023 doi:10.20944/preprints202308.0165.v1

4.4. PCA-DWT-CHC Based Image Compression

The method involves first compressing the image through the PCA, followed by decomposing
of the gray scale/color image by using a 1-level Haar wavelet transform. One gets approximate and
detailed images by applying this method. To produce a digital data sequence, the approximation
coefficients have to be normalized and encoded with Canonical Huffman coding. Moreover, while
normalizing the detail coefficients, any insignificant coefficients are removed through hard
thresholding. Finally, binary data is also obtained by using the Canonical Huffman coding.
The final compressed bit stream is created by combining all the binary data. This stream is then
divided into approximate and detailed coefficient binary data to reconstruct the image. The
qualitative loss is apparent only after a certain point by eliminating some principal components. This
entire procedure is termed as the DWT-CHC method. During the present study, the proposed
strategy has been found to work better when the PCA-based compression technique under the lossy
method, was used with DWT-CHC. The DWT outperforms PCA in terms of compression ratios while
the PCA outperforms the DWT in terms of the PSNR values. Evaluation of the necessary number of
bits yields the CR value for the PCA algorithm.
During the present experimentation, initially, the image was compressed by using the PCA. The
approximate image was then further compressed by using DWT-CHC. Accordingly, the image was
initially decomposed using PCA, then a few principal components were removed. The reconstructed
image was then computed. After that, the reconstructed image was used as the input image for the
DWT-CHC segment of the proposed method.
When several primary components were dropped from the PCA segment of the proposed
method, the compression ratio was found to be higher. The overall CR value was obtained by
multiplying the CR values of the PCA and the DWT-CHC.
To analyze an image, it is first decomposed, applying a Haar wavelet to its approximation,
horizontal, vertical and diagonal detail coefficients. Next, the approximation and the detail
coefficients are coded with the DWT-CHC. Encoding is the compression process and decoding is the
simple process of reversing the encoding stages from which the reconstructed image is derived. After
quantization, the image is rebuilt using the inverse DWT-CHC of the quantized block.
This approach combines the PCA and the DWT-CHC to reach its full potential. It uses PCA,
DWT and Canonical Huffman coding to achieve a high compression ratio while maintaining an
excellent image quality. The structural layout of the proposed image compression approach is shown
in Figure 4.

Figure 4. The suggested method's encoder and decoder flowchart.

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10

The steps in the suggested method are as follows:

Encoding:

Step 1:
(i) For a C(x, y) grayscale image with an x×y pixel size, by using the PCA method, is decomposed
first in order to obtain the Principal Component.
(ii) If the image is in color, the color transform is used to change the RGB data into 𝑌𝐶 𝐶 using the
formula.
𝑌 0.299 0.587 0.114 𝑅
𝐶 = −0.169 −0.331 0.500 𝐺
𝐶 0.500 −0.419 −0.081 𝐵
To determine the Principal Component from the 𝑌𝐶 𝐶 image, PCA decomposition is carried out.
Step 2: The image is reconstructed just by utilizing these principal components while taking into
account only the principal component for compression.
Step 3: Compression ratio is obtained.
Step 4: The decomposition level is set at 1.
Step 5: By utilizing the HAAR wavelet, DWT generates four output matrices: LL (known as the
approximate coefficients), LH, HL and HH (known as the detail coefficients). These matrices consist
of three components: vertical, horizontal and diagonal details.
Step 6: To obtain bit streams, the DWT-CHC algorithm is applied to these coefficients (Compressed
image).
Step 7: The compression ratio is calculated.
Step 8: To determine the final compression ratio of an image, the output from Steps 3 and 7 is
multiplied.

Decoding:

Step 1: The DWT-CHC approach is applied in reverse to obtain the approximate and detailed
coefficients.
Step 2: A reconstructed image is obtained.
Step 3: The PSNR value is determined.
The flowchart that follows further explains this idea:

5. Performance Assessment
A few of the parameters listed below can be used to gauge the efficacy of the lossy compression
strategy.
Compression Ratio (CR): CR [35] is a parameter that measures compressibility.
Mathematically,
𝑆
𝐶𝑅 =
𝑆
where 𝑆 = the dimension of the original image data, 𝑆 = A measure of the compressed
image data's size (in bits).
Bitrate (BPP): BPP equals 24/CR for color images and 8/CR for grayscale images.
Peak Signal to Noise Ratio (PSNR): It is a common metric for calculating the compressed image's
quality. Typically, the PSNR for 8-bit images is presented as [36]:
255
𝑃𝑆𝑁𝑅 𝑑𝐵 = 10log (1)
𝑀𝑆𝐸
where 255 is the highest value that the image signal is capable of achieving. The term "MSE" in
equation (1) refers to the image's mean squared error, written as
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1

2
MSE = ( f ( x, y ) − F ( x , y ) )
m x y

Here, the variable "m" represents the total number of pixels in the image. F (x, y) refers to the
value of each pixel in the compressed image, while f (x, y) represents the value of each pixel in the
original image.
Structural Similarity Index (SSIM): It is a process for determining how similar two images can
be [37].
Luminance change, 𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 =
Contrast change, 𝑐 𝑥, 𝑦 =
Structural change, 𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦 =
Here, SSIM can be evaluated as:
𝑆𝑆𝐼𝑀 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 ∙ 𝑐 𝑥, 𝑦 ∙ 𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦
y displays the image that was recreated, and x displays the original image.
𝜇 = average of x, 𝜇 = average of y
𝜎 = Variance of x, 𝜎 = Variance of y
Two variables, 𝑐 and𝑐 , are used to stabilise a division with a weak denominator.
𝑐 = 𝑘 𝐿 , 𝑐 = 𝑘 𝐿 , 𝑐 =
𝑘 = 0.001, 𝑘 = 0.002 as a rule
In this case, the pixel values range from 0 to 255 and are represented by L. The SSIM index that
is generated as a consequence ranges from -1 to 1.

6. Experiment Result
The outcomes of experiment for image compression, utilizing the PCA-DWT-CHC hybrid
approach, are shown in this section. Additionally, a comparison between the suggested approach
and other available methods (BTC [5], AMBTC [6], MBTC [7], IBTC-KQ [8], ABTC-EQ [9], DWT [16]
and DCT-DLUT [19]) has been made in this part. All experiments were conducted using the 512 x 512
and 256 x 256 input images (8-bit grayscale images, which are Lena, Barbara, Baboon, Goldhill,
Peppers, Cameraman, Boat and 24-bit color images, i.e., Aeroplane, Peppers, Lena, Couple, House,
and Zelda), as presented in Figures 5 and 6.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 5. Test images in grayscale for size 512×512 (a–d) & 256×256 (e–h).
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(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 6. 512x512 (a–c) and 256x256 (d–f) (color test images) in size.

All experiments were run in the interim on the MATLAB software platform using the hardware
configurations of an Intel Core i3-4005U processor running at 1.70 GHz, 4.00 GB of RAM and
Windows 8.1 Pro 64-bit as the operating system.
The compression performance of images for various approaches is shown in the next part which
is based on visual quality evaluation and objective image quality indexes, i.e., PSNR, SSIM, CR and
BPP.
Two measurements, namely, CR and BPP, reflect common aspects of image compression. The
PSNR and SSIM are used to assess the quality of the compressed image. Greater PSNR and SSIM
values indicate better image reconstruction whereas higher compression ratios and lower bitrates
indicate enhanced image compression.
The predictive approach was used to determine the threshold values, which were TH=0.10. For
both color (256×256×3 & 512×512×3) and grayscale (256×256 & 512×512) images, the principal
component values of 25, 25, 200 and 400 were taken, respectively, to reconstruct the image.

6.1. Visual Performance Evaluation of Proposed PCA-DWT-CHC Method

Based on the quality of the reconstructed images, the proposed hybrid PCA-DWT-CHC image
compression method was compared to the existing approaches. The reconstructed images for visual
quality comparison on the PSNR values, 34.78 dB, 33.31 dB, 33.43 dB and 37.99 dB with CR = 4.41,
4.04, 5.15 and 4.45 for the input grayscale images, i.e., ‘lena.bmp’ and ‘barbara.bmp’ of size 512×512
and ‘cameraman.bmp’ and ‘boat.bmp’ of size 256×256 are shown in Figures 7b,d and 8b,d. Figures
9a,b and 10a,b display the reconstructed image for visual quality comparison on the PSNR values
47.57 dB, 47.99 dB, 54.60 dB, and 53.47 dB with compression factors (in BPP) 0.27, 0.32, 0.69 and 0.70,
respectively, for the input color images ‘airplane.bmp,’ and ‘peppers.bmp’ of size 512×512 and
‘couple.bmp’ and ‘house.bmp’ of size 256×256.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

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Figure 7. Results of compression for the 512×512 grayscale images of Lena and Barbara. (a) Lena image
reconstruction using DWT with PSNR=29.90 dB and CR=2.43; (b) Lena image reconstruction using
the proposed method with PSNR=34.78 dB and CR=4.41 (c) Barbara image reconstruction using DWT
with PSNR=27.75 dB and CR=2.11 (d) Barbara image reconstruction using the proposed method with
PSNR=33.31 dB and CR=4.04.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 8. Compression outcomes for the grayscale images Cameraman & Boat of size 256×256 (a)
Reconstructed Cameraman image by DWT with PSNR=26.43 dB, CR=2.86, (b) Reconstructed
Cameraman image by Proposed Method with PSNR=33.43 dB, CR= 5.15 (c) Reconstructed Boat image
by DWT with PSNR=29.65 dB, CR=2.35 (d) Reconstructed Boat image by Proposed Method with
PSNR=37.99 dB, CR=4.45.

(a) (b)
Figure 9. Results of compression for the 512×512 color images Airplane & Peppers. (a) Reconstructed
image of an airplane using the proposed method, PSNR = 47.57 dB, and bpp = 0.27 (b) Peppers image
reconstruction using the proposed method, PSNR = 47.99 dB, and bpp = 0.32.

(a) (b)
Figure 10. Results of the color images' compression Couple & house with 256x256-sized (a)
Reconstructed image of a couple with PSNR of 54.60 d Band bpp of 0.69; (b) Reconstructed image of
a house with PSNR of 53.47 dB and bpp of 0.70.

The results in Figures 7–10 demonstrate that the proposed hybrid PCA-DWT-CHC method
yielded superior quality image reconstruction as compared to other image compression methods for
all input images. Based on the visual quality assessment of various standard test images, it has been
demonstrated that the proposed hybrid PCA-DWT-CHC method is more efficient in reconstructing
images as compared to the other available methods.
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6.2. Objective Performance Evaluation of Proposed PCA-DWT-CHC Method

According to the experiment results, the suggested PCA, followed by the DWT-CHC approach,
proved to be better in terms of PSNR, SSIM, BPP and CR values when compared to the other methods,
as shown in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1. Comparative performance of BTC [5], AMBTC [6], MBTC [7], IBTC-KQ [8], ABTC-EQ [9],
DWT [16] and proposed method for Gray Scale Images.

Tested Block Size (4×4) Pixels Block Size (8×8) Pixels

Method
Image PSNR SSIM BPP CR PSNR SSIM BPP CR
BTC 21.4520 0.7088 2 4 21.4520 0.7088 1.2500 6.4000
AMBTC 35.3706 0.9905 2 4 32.0885 0.9639 1.2500 6.4000
MBTC 35.8137 0.9904 2 4 32.6268 0.9662 1.2500 6.4000
Lena
IBTC-KQ 40.3478 0.9874 4 2 36.4511 0.9664 2.5000 3.2000
(512×512)
ABTC-EQ 36.9919 0.9632 2.5734 3.1087 33.8401 0.9305 1.8267 4.3794
DWT 29.9001 0.8943 3.2855 2.4349 29.9001 0.8943 3.2855 2.4349
Proposed 34.7809 0.9985 1.8158 4.4058 34.7809 0.9985 1.8158 4.4058
Lena DWT 27.0772 0.8326 3.2713 2.4455 27.0772 0.8326 3.2713 2.4455
(256×256) Proposed 36.9556 0.9447 1.7831 4.4865 36.9556 0.9447 1.7831 4.4865
BTC 19.4506 0.6894 2 4 19.4506 0.6894 1.2500 6.4000
AMBTC 29.8672 0.9747 2 4 27.8428 0.9429 1.2500 6.4000
MBTC 30.0710 0.9757 2 4 28.1069 0.9451 1.2500 6.4000
Barbara
IBTC-KQ 36.3729 0.9847 4 2 33.5212 0.9632 2.5000 3.2000
(512×512)
ABTC-EQ 32.1986 0.9551 2.6966 2.9667 30.5587 0.9244 1.9487 4.1053
DWT 27.7496 0.9242 3.7896 2.1111 27.7496 0.9242 3.7896 2.1111
Proposed 33.3092 0.9986 1.9806 4.0392 33.3092 0.9986 1.9806 4.0392
BTC 20.1671 0.7288 2 4 20.1671 0.7288 1.2500 6.4000
AMBTC 26.9827 0.9639 2 4 25.1842 0.9181 1.2500 6.4000
MBTC 27.2264 0.9653 2 4 25.4677 0.9216 1.2500 6.4000
Baboon
IBTC-KQ 33.8605 0.9777 4 2 31.2925 0.9550 2.5000 3.2
(512×512)
ABTC-EQ 30.6787 0.9400 3.0363 2.6348 28.7947 0.9089 2.1571 3.7086
DWT 25.9806 0.9479 4.2012 1.9042 25.9806 0.9479 4.2012 1.9042
Proposed 28.0266 0.9984 2.0917 3.8247 28.0266 0.9984 2.0917 3.8247
BTC 18.0719 0.6252 2 4 18.0719 0.6252 1.2500 6.4000
AMBTC 32.8608 0.9825 2 4 29.9257 0.9438 1.2500 6.4000
MBTC 32.2422 0.9828 2 4 30.3195 0.9472 1.2500 6.4000
Goldhill
IBTC-KQ 39.9867 0.9840 4 2 36.1776 0.9599 2.5000 3.2000
(512×512)
ABTC-EQ 36.3085 0.9536 2.7986 2.8586 33.6061 0.9210 2.0778 3.8502
DWT 28.8597 0.9255 3.6259 2.2064 28.8597 0.9255 3.6259 2.2064
Proposed 33.6289 0.9986 1.9020 4.2061 33.6289 0.9986 1.9020 4.2061
BTC 19.4540 0.6306 2 4 19.4540 0.6306 1.2500 6.4000
AMBTC 30.5655 0.9409 2 4 26.7127 0.8547 1.2500 6.4000
MBTC 31.1372 0.9444 2 4 27.4445 0.8596 1.2500 6.4000
Peppers IBTC-KQ ----------- --------- -------- --------- ----------- --------- -------- ---------
(256×256) ABTC-EQ 32.0306 0.9551 2.6966 2.9667 28.9805 0.8985 2.6966 4.0499
DWT 27.3524 0.8212 3.1735 2.5209 27.3524 0.8212 3.1735 2.5209

Proposed 37.1723 0.9431 1.7422 4.5918 37.1723 0.9431 1.7422

4.5918
BTC 20.7083 0.7214 2 4 20.7083 0.7214 1.2500 6.4000
AMBTC 28.2699 0.9322 2 4 25.8654 0.8831 1.2500 6.4000
MBTC 29.0746 0.9392 2 4 26.9365 0.8934 1.2500 6.4000
Cameraman
IBTC-KQ 36.7714 0.9890 4 2 33.6339 0.9754 2.5000 3.2
(256×256)
ABTC-EQ 33.9790 0.9725 2.6418 3.0282 31.2452 0.9531 1.8325 4.3656
DWT 26.4333 0.7483 2.7925 2.8648 26.4333 0.7483 2.7925 2.8648
Proposed 33.4238 0.8578 1.5536 5.1492 33.4238 0.8578 1.5536 5.1492
Boat DWT 29.6486 0.8758 3.4099 2.3461 29.6486 0.8758 3.4099 2.3461
(256×256) Proposed 37.9922 0.9575 1.7985 4.4482 37.9922 0.9575 1.7985 4.4482
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Table 2. Comparative Performance of Proposed Method and DCT-DLUT [19] for Color Images.

Proposed method DCT-DLUT

Image
PSNR Bpp PSNR Bpp
Airplane
47.57 0.27 31.16 0.48
(512×512)
Peppers
47.99 0.32 31.19 0.88
(512×512)
Lena
48.95 0.37 32.65 0.74
(512×512)
Couple
54.60 0.69 32.62 0.79
(256×256)
House
53.47 0.70 23.27 0.79
(256×256)
Zelda
53.74 0.71 32.01 0.82
(256×256)
Average 59.71 0.51 35.81 0.75

In other words, from Tables 1 and 2, one could conclude that the proposed method is superior
to the BTC [5], AMBTC [6], MBTC [7], IBTC-KQ [8], ABTC-EQ [9] & DWT-CHC [16] and DCT-DLUT
[19] for working on the grayscale and color images. This could be explained by the fact that among
all the different compression methods, the PSNR and SSIM values in the proposed method are higher
than the other available methods. Similarly, the CR value is higher than that of all other methods.
Again, the bitrate values of the proposed method are noted to be less than all the other methods for
color images.
The graphs in Figure 11–18 show the PSNR, SSIM, CR and the Compression factor (in bpp)
results for eight grayscale images. Figures 19–22, on the other hand, present graphs for the PSNR and
Compression factor (in bpp) for six other color images. While comparing data from these graphs with
the results of various other available techniques, the former demonstrated that the proposed method
works better than the presently available ones.

Compression outcomes for grayscale images of size 512×512

50
40
PSNR (in dB)

30
20
10
0
BTC AMBTC MBTC IBTC-KQ ABTC-EQ DWT Proposed
Different Techniques for Image Compression.

Lena Barbara Baboon Goldhill

Figure 11. Comparison of various compression techniques used on the different test grayscale images
(Lena, Barbara, Baboon and Goldhill).
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Compression outcomes for grayscale images of size 512×512

1.2
1

SSIM Index
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
BTC AMBTC MBTC IBTC-KQ ABTC-EQ DWT Proposed
Different Techniques for Image Compression

Lena Barbara Baboon Goldhill

Figure 12. Comparison of various compression techniques used on the different test grayscale images
(Lena, Barbara, Baboon and Goldhill).

Compression outcomes for grayscale images of size 512×512

5
Compression Ratio (CR)

4
3
2
1
0
BTC AMBTC MBTC IBTC-KQ ABTC-EQ DWT Proposed
Different Techniques for Image Compression

Lena Barbara Baboon Goldhill

Figure 13. Comparison of various compression techniques used on the different test grayscale images
( Lena, Barbara, Baboon and Goldhill).

Compression outcomes for grayscale images of size 512×512

5
Compression factor (in bpp)

4
3
2
1
0
BTC AMBTC MBTC IBTC-KQ ABTC-EQ DWT Proposed
Different Techniques for Image Compression

Lena Barbara Baboon Goldhill

Figure 14. Comparison of various compression techniques used on the different test grayscale images
(Lena, Barbara, Baboon and Goldhill).
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Compression outcomes for the grayscale images of size 256×256

40

30
PSNR (in dB)
20

10

0
1 2 3 4
Various test grayscale images

DWT Proposed

Figure 15. Comparison of various compression techniques used on the different test grayscale images:
1- Lena, 2-Peppers, 3-Cameraman, and 4-Boat.

Compression outcomes for the grayscale images of size 256×256

1

0.95
SSIM Index

0.9

0.85

0.8

0.75
1 2 3 4
Various test grayscale images

DWT Proposed

Figure 16. Comparison of various compression techniques used on the different test grayscale images:
1- Lena, 2-Peppers, 3-Cameraman, and 4-Boat.

Compression outcomes for the grayscale images of size

256×256
5
Compression Ratio (CR)

4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4
Various test grayscale images

DWT Proposed

Figure 17. Comparison of various compression techniques used on the different test grayscale images:
1- Lena, 2-Peppers, 3-Cameraman, and 4-Boat.
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Compression outcomes for the grayscale images of size 256×256

4

Compression factor (in bpp)

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1 2 3 4
Various test grayscale images

DWT Proposed

Figure 18. Comparison of various compression techniques used on the different test grayscale images:
1- Lena, 2-Peppers, 3-Cameraman, and 4-Boat.

Compression outcome for the color images of size 512×512

60
50
PSNR (in dB)

40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3
Various test color images

DCT-DLUT Proposed

Figure 19. Comparison of various compression techniques used on the different color test images: 1-
airplane, 2-pepper, and 3-Lena.

Compression outcome for the color images of size 512×512

1
oompression factor (in bpp)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
1 2 3
Various test color images

DCT-DLUT Proposed

Figure 20. Comparison of various compression techniques used on the different color test images: 1-
airplane, 2-pepper, and 3-Lena.
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Compression outcome for the color images of size 256×256

60

50

PSNR (in dB) 40

30

20

10

0
1 2 3
Various test color images

DCT-DLUT Proposed

Figure 21. Comparison of various compression techniques used on the different color test images: 1-
Couple, 2-House, and 3-Zelda.

Compression outcome for the color images of size 256×256

0.85
Compression factor (in bpp)

0.8

0.75

0.7

0.65

0.6
1 2 3
Various test color images

DCT-DLUT Proposed

Figure 22. Comparison of various compression techniques used on the different color test images: 1-
Couple, 2-House, and 3-Zelda.

Figures 11, 14, 19 and 21 display the PSNR characteristics, while Figures 12 and 16 show the
SSIM index. The CR values are found in Figures 13 and 17 and the compression factor (in bpp) can
be seen in Figures 14, 18, 20 and 22. It is evident from the four PSNR plots that the proposed hybrid
PCA-DWT-CHC method performs better than the DWT and other existing approaches in terms of
PSNR values. The hybrid PCA-DWT-CHC method displays significant improvements. When tested
on the Lena image, it resulted in a gain of approximately 6 dB, -2 dB, -6 dB, -1 dB, -1 dB and 13 dB in
PSNR. The CR values, on the other hand, showed a gain of 2, 1, 2.40, 0.4058, 0.4058 and 0.4058. The
values for other standard test images can be obtained from Table 1 and Figures 11, 14, 19, 21, 13 and
17.
The proposed method aims to enhance the image compression without compromising the image
quality. In comparison to other methods, such as, DWT, ABTC-EQ, IBTC-KQ, MBTC, AMBTC and
BTC, this process has proved to maintain or even improve the original image quality. The proposed
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hybrid PCA-DWT-CHC method for color images has revealed a significant increase in the PSNR
values for Airplane, Peppers, Lena, Couple, House and Zelda images with gains of 16.41 dB, 16.80
dB, 16.30 dB, 21.98 dB, 30.20 dB and 21.73 dB. Additionally, this method has been found to reduce
the compression factor (in bpp) by 0.21, 0.56, 0.37, 0.10, 0.09, 0.11 and 0.24. The parameters concerning
the PSNR values are presented in Figures 19 and 21 and concerning the compression factor (in bpp)
are presented in Figures 20 and 22.
The proposed method has also improved the SSIM index by 0.3734, 0.0161, 0.0058, 0.0146, 0.0450
and 0.0731 for the Goldhill grayscale image.
In other words, the suggested hybrid method has established with data that it could yield better-
quality image reconstruction as compared to the other methods.
It has also shown improvement in image compression, as indicated by its higher CR values and
lower compression factor (in bpp). Figures 12 and 16 demonstrate that the SSIM characteristics,
showing that the proposed hybrid PCA-DWT-CHC method ensure the highest SSIM values for all
the test images. In other words, the proposed method is able to reconstruct all the images with greater
similarity to the original ones as compared to the other available methods.

6.3. Time Complexity Analysis OF Proposed PCA-DWT-CHC Method

The speed of an entropy coder's encoding and decoding process is essential for real-time
compression. In order to give a clear idea of whether entropy coders can be used in real-time
applications, their time complexity needs to be explained. During the present study, the total time
needed for an entropy coder to encode and decode data to ensure proper evaluation of its time
complexity was assessed. The average time requirements were calculated and compared for analysis
purposes. Table 3 presents the average time requirements of two entropy coders for encoding and
decoding processes (ATTREDP). According to Table 3, the Canonical Huffman coding entropy coder
is quicker than other entropy coders. Compared to the Huffman coding, the process of encoding and
decoding of the four test images respectively takes 404.37, 388.05, 276.00 and 336.15 less time. The
proposed hybrid PCA-DWT-CHC transform proves to be faster than other hybrid transform methods
which use Huffman coding [16] as an entropy coder. Therefore, one could claim the proposed method
to be effective for applications that require real-time image compression

Table 3. Time Complexity Comparison of Entropy Coders.

Image Canonical Huffman Coding Huffman Coding

(256×256) Compression time (s) Compression time (s)
Boat 95.33 509.70
Cameraman 70.06 458.11
Goldhill 86.90 362.90
Lena 74.45 410.60

7. Conclusion
The present study envisaged to develop a method that will improve the image quality and
compression. By combining PCA, DWT and Canonical Huffman Coding, a new approach has been
developed for compressing images. Accordingly, the proposed method has been able to outperform
the existing methods, such as, BTC, AMBTC, MBTC, IBTC-KQ, ABTC-EQ, DWT and DCT-DLUT.
Lower bit rates and better PSNR, CR and SSIM values indicate improved image quality. A
comparison of the PSNR, SSIM, CR and BPP values, resulting from the proposed technique with that
of the other available approaches confirms the superiority of the proposed method.
The findings from the objective and subjective tests indicate that the newly developed approach
offers a more efficient image compression technique as compared to the existing techniques. For
example, when working with grayscale images of 256×256 and 512×512 resolutions, improved results
in metrics, such as, PSNR, SSIM, BPP and CR have been established. Again, in the case of color images
of 256×256×3 and 512×512×3 resolutions, improved PSNR and lower BPP results have been noted.
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Hence, one could conclude that the proposed technique performs better than BTC, AMBTC, MBTC,
IBTC-KQ, ABTC-EQ and DWT for grayscale images. Moreover, it is more useful with regard to the
color images as compared to the ‘DCT-DLUT’. Therefore, this present research has the potential to
greatly improve the storage and transmission of image data across the digital networks

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Short Biography of Authors

RAJIV RANJAN (Member, IEEE) holds a B. Tech in information
technology, an M. Tech in computer science and engineering with a
specialization in information security, and is currently pursuing a Ph.
D. in computer science and engineering. He works as an Assistant
Professor at BIT Sindri in Dhanbad, India. He has worked in numerous
reputable technological institutions before that. He has 15 years of both
teaching and research experience. He has published numerous articles
in international journals and conferences as the author or coauthor. His
areas of interest in study span cryptography, image compression, and
data compression.
PRABHAT KUMAR (Senior Member, IEEE) is a Professor in
Computer Science and Engineering Department at National Institute of
Technology Patna, India. He is also the Professor-In-charge of the IT
Services and Chairman of Computer and IT Purchase Committee, NIT
Patna. He is the former Head of CSE Department, NIT Patna as well as
former Bihar State Student Coordinator of Computer Society of India.
He has over 100 publications in various reputed international journals
and conferences. He is a member of NWG-13 (National Working Group
13) corresponding to ITU-T Study Group 13 “Future Networks, with
focus on IMT-2020, cloud computing and trusted network
infrastructures”. His research area includes Wireless Sensor Networks,
Internet of Things, Social Networks, Operating Systems, Software
Engineering, E-governance, Image Compression etc. He is a renowned
scholar, reviewer, and teacher of excellence on a global scale.

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