Group Two Construction Tech Report

1 CHAPTER ONE
1.1 TERMINOLOGIES IN CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Construction technology bares a number of terminologies which can be categorized under various phases of
construction as mentioned below;
1.1.1 PRELIMINARY PHASE.

In construction, the preliminary stage refers to the initial phase of a project before the actual construction work
begins. This stage involves various preparatory activities and assessments necessary to lay the groundwork for
the construction process. Some key elements of the preliminary stage in construction include:
1.1.1.1 Project Planning:

This involves defining project objectives, determining feasibility, setting budgets, and establishing timelines. It
may also include obtaining necessary permits and approvals from regulatory authorities.
1.1.1.2 Site Investigation:

This involves conducting surveys and assessments of the construction site to gather information on factors such
as soil conditions, topography, environmental impact, utilities, and any potential hazards.
1.1.1.3 Soil investigation

Soil investigation, also known as geotechnical investigation or soil testing, is a crucial step in the planning and
design of any construction project, especially before the substructure phase. It involves the assessment of soil and
rock conditions at a project site to determine their engineering properties and suitability for supporting structures.
Here's an overview of the soil investigation process:
1.1.1.4 Design Development:

This involves refining the project design based on site conditions, regulatory requirements, and client preferences.
It may include architectural, structural, and MEP (mechanical, electrical, and plumbing) design phases.
1.1.1.5 Budgeting and Cost Estimation:

This involves preparing detailed cost estimates and budgets based on the project scope, design, and procurement
requirements. It helps ensure that the project remains within budget constraints.
1.1.1.6 Procurement:
This involves sourcing and purchasing materials, equipment, and services required for the construction project.
It may also involve tendering processes to select contractors and subcontractors.
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1.1.1.7 Risk Assessment and Management:
This involves identifying potential risks and uncertainties associated with the project and developing strategies
to mitigate them. It may include factors such as financial risks, schedule delays, and unforeseen challenges.
1.1.1.8 Project Scheduling:

This involves developing a detailed construction schedule that outlines the sequence of activities, timelines, and
milestones for the project. It helps coordinate resources and ensure timely completion of the project.
1.1.1.9 Site preparation

Site preparation refers to the process of getting a piece of land ready for construction or development. It
involves several steps to ensure that the site is properly graded, cleared, and made suitable for the intended use.
Here are some common activities involved in site preparation:
• Site Clearing:
This involves removing any vegetation, trees, rocks, and debris from the site. It may also involve clearing any
existing structures or buildings.
• Grading:
Grading is the process of leveling the land to the desired elevation and slope. This ensures proper drainage and
stability for construction.
• Site layout plan
A building construction site layout plan is a detailed drawing that illustrates the arrangement and organization
of various elements and activities on a construction site. It serves as a blueprint for managing resources,
coordinating construction operations, ensuring safety, and optimizing efficiency throughout the building
process. Here are the key components typically included in a construction site layout plan:
✓ Property Boundary and Site Dimensions: The plan shows the boundaries of the construction site,
along with its dimensions, orientation, and any relevant legal descriptions.
✓ Access Points and Entrances: Access points, such as gates, driveways, and entrances to the
construction site, are indicated on the plan. These are essential for the movement of vehicles,
equipment, and personnel onto and off the site.
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✓ Temporary Facilities: Temporary facilities, such as site offices, trailers, restrooms, break areas, and
first aid stations, are shown on the plan. These facilities provide essential amenities for construction
personnel and support the administrative and logistical needs of the project.
✓ Construction Trailers and Storage: Locations of construction trailers, storage containers, tool cribs,
and temporary structures used for storing equipment, materials, and supplies are identified on the plan.
✓ Utility Connections and Services: Points of connection for utilities, such as water, sewer, electricity,
gas, and telecommunications, are depicted on the plan, along with routing and distribution systems
within the construction site.
✓ Construction Fencing and Barricades: Perimeter fencing, barricades, and safety barriers are installed
around the construction site to establish boundaries, control access, and enhance safety for workers and
the public.
✓ Traffic Control and Signage: Traffic control measures, including signage, traffic cones, flagging
stations, and designated vehicle routes, are implemented to manage vehicular and pedestrian traffic
within the construction site.
✓ Material Handling and Delivery Areas: Locations for material receiving, unloading, and staging are
identified on the plan, along with access points for delivery trucks and cranes.
✓ Emergency Access and Egress: Emergency access routes, fire lanes, emergency exits, and evacuation
assembly areas are marked on the plan to ensure swift and safe response in case of emergencies.
• Temporary structures
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Temporary structures on a building site are temporary constructions erected to facilitate the construction
process, ensure safety, and provide support during various stages of a construction project. These structures
serve different purposes and are often essential for efficient and safe construction operations.
Here are some common temporary structures found on building sites;
✓ Temporary Fencing and Barricades: Temporary fencing and barricades are installed around
construction sites to establish boundaries, control access, and enhance safety for workers and the
public. They help prevent unauthorized entry, protect pedestrians and vehicles from hazards, and
mitigate the risk of accidents or injuries.
✓ Temporary Access Roads and Platforms: Temporary roads, ramps, and platforms may be
constructed to facilitate transportation and movement of heavy equipment, vehicles, and materials on
and around the construction site. These structures provide stable surfaces for traffic and reduce the risk
of soil erosion and damage to surrounding areas.
✓ Temporary Enclosures and Weather Protection: Temporary enclosures, such as construction tents,
tarps, and weatherproof barriers, are installed to protect exposed areas of the building from weather
elements, such as rain, wind, and snow. They help maintain a controlled environment for construction
activities and prevent damage to materials and equipment.
✓ Temporary Utilities and Services: Temporary utilities, such as power generators, water supply lines,
and temporary lighting, are installed to provide essential services to the construction site before
permanent utilities are connected. These temporary systems ensure uninterrupted operation of
construction activities and support the needs of workers on site.
✓ Temporary Site Offices and Facilities: Temporary site offices, trailers, restrooms, and storage
facilities are set up to accommodate project management, administrative staff, and workers during the
construction phase. These facilities provide a comfortable and functional workspace and support the
logistical needs of the construction site.
• Excavation:
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Excavation involves digging, trenching, or filling to prepare the site for construction. This may include
removing soil, rock, or other materials to create a level surface.
• Utilities Installation:
Underground utilities such as water, sewer, electricity, and gas lines may need to be installed or relocated
before construction begins.
• Erosion Control:
Measures are taken to prevent soil erosion during and after site preparation. This may include installing erosion
control blankets, silt fences, or retaining walls.
• Site Access:
Roads, driveways, or access points may need to be constructed to allow equipment and personnel to access the
site.
• Environmental Considerations:
Depending on the location and regulations, site preparation may need to comply with environmental regulations
such as erosion control, protection of wetlands, or habitat preservation.
• Permitting and Compliance:
Obtaining necessary permits and ensuring compliance with local building codes and regulations is an essential
part of site preparation.
• Safety Measures:
Safety protocols and measures should be in place to ensure the well-being of workers and the public during site
preparation activities.
• Surveying:
Surveying the site to determine property boundaries, elevation changes, and other relevant information is
typically done before site preparation begins.
Effective site preparation is crucial for the success of any construction project. It sets the stage for the
construction phase and ensures that the site is ready for further development.
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Overall, the preliminary stage in construction sets the foundation for the successful execution of the project by
addressing various logistical, technical, and administrative aspects before the actual construction work begins.
1.1.2 SUBSTRUCTURE PHASE
In building construction, the term "substructure" refers to the part of the structure that is located below ground
level or below the surface of the supporting ground. It is essentially the foundation system and any other structural
elements necessary to support the superstructure (the above-ground portion of the building) and transmit its loads
safely to the ground. The substructure plays a crucial role in ensuring the stability, durability, and overall
performance of the building.
Components and activities of the substructure typically include:
1.1.2.1 Components
1.1.2.1.1 Foundation
The foundation is the lowest part of the building's structure and serves to transfer the building loads to the
underlying soil or bedrock. Foundations are designed to distribute the weight of the building evenly and prevent
settlement or movement.
Common types of foundations include shallow foundations (such as spread footings, strip footings, and mat
foundations) and deep foundations (such as piles and caissons), selected based on factors such as soil conditions,
building loads, and site constraints.
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1.1.2.1.2 Classification of foundations
• Shallow
• Deep foundations
Shallow
Shallow foundations, also known as spread footings or simply footings, are structural elements of a building or
other construction that transfer the load from the structure to the underlying soil or rock near the surface. They
are called "shallow" because they are typically constructed close to the ground surface, as opposed to deep
foundations which extend deeper into the ground.
Shallow foundations are used when the soil or rock directly beneath the building is strong enough to support the
load without the need for significant excavation or structural reinforcement. They are commonly used in
residential and small commercial buildings where the loads are relatively light and the soil conditions are
favorable.
Types of shallow foundations
• Wall Footing
• Isolated column/Column Footing
• Combined Footing
• Cantilever (Strap) Footing
• Mat (Raft) Foundation
Deep foundations
Deep foundations are structural elements used to transfer loads from a structure to deeper, more competent soil
or rock layers when the near-surface soil is unable to support the loads. They are called "deep" because they
extend significantly below the ground surface to reach stronger, more stable soil or rock layers.
Deep foundations are typically used in large structures or where the soil conditions near the surface are poor,
such as areas with soft or loose soil, high water tables, or seismic activity. They are also employed in projects
requiring the support of heavy loads or where shallow foundations would be impractical or uneconomical.
Types of deep foundations
• Pile Foundation
• Pier Foundation
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• Well (Caissons) Foundation
1.1.2.1.2.1 Footings
Footings are horizontal structural elements that support the foundation walls and distribute the building loads
over a larger area of soil. They are typically made of reinforced concrete and are constructed below the frost line
to prevent frost heave. Footings may be continuous (running along the entire length of the foundation) or isolated
(located under individual columns or walls).
1.1.2.1.2.2 Subgrade Preparation

Subgrade preparation involves excavating and compacting the soil to provide a stable base for the foundation and
footings. Proper subgrade preparation is essential to ensure adequate support and minimize settlement.
1.1.2.1.2.3 Plinth Walls

Plinth walls are vertical structural elements that enclose the perimeter of the building's foundation. They provide
lateral support and resist soil pressure, groundwater pressure, and other external forces. Plinth walls may be made
of reinforced concrete, masonry, or other materials, depending on design requirements and site conditions.
1.1.2.1.2.4 Starter Columns

Starter columns, also known as starter bars or starter reinforcement, are structural elements used in reinforced
concrete construction. They are typically vertical bars or rods placed at the bottom of concrete columns or walls
before pouring concrete. The purpose of starter columns is to provide a connection between the foundation or
base slab and the column, ensuring proper load transfer and structural integrity.
Starter columns are embedded into the foundation or base slab during construction, and they extend vertically to
the required height of the column. These bars are usually anchored securely into the foundation to prevent
movement or displacement once the concrete is poured.
1.1.2.1.2.5 Intermediate beams
Intermediate beams, also known as secondary beams or simple beams, these are structural elements used to
support the loads of floors, roofs, or other structural components within a building. Unlike primary beams, which
typically span longer distances and support larger loads, intermediate beams are smaller and span shorter
distances between columns or walls.
1.1.2.1.2.6 Ground beams

Ground beams, also known as grade beams or footing beams, are structural elements used to support and
distribute the loads of a building or other structures to the underlying soil or foundation. They are typically
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constructed at ground level and are located either directly beneath the walls of a building or along the perimeter
of the building's foundation.
1.1.2.1.2.7 Formwork
Formwork refers to the temporary or permanent molds or structures used to contain and shape concrete or other
materials during the construction process. It is an essential part of concrete construction and is used to give
concrete its desired shape and finish until it hardens and gains sufficient strength.
1.1.2.1.2.8 Oversite concrete

Oversite concrete, also known as blinding concrete or leveling concrete, refers to a layer of concrete that is poured
directly onto the ground surface as a base for construction activities. It is typically placed over the prepared
ground before the main structural elements of a building are constructed.
1.1.2.1.2.9 Waterproofing and Drainage

Waterproofing measures, such as membranes, coatings, and drainage systems, are installed to protect the
substructure from moisture infiltration and water damage. Proper drainage is essential to prevent water buildup
around the foundation and minimize the risk of foundation failure.
There are numerous types of waterproofing materials available, each with its own characteristics, advantages,
and applications. Here are some common types of waterproofing materials:
• Bituminous Coatings: Bituminous coatings are asphalt-based compounds that provide excellent
waterproofing properties. They are applied as liquid or semi-solid coatings to surfaces such as concrete,
masonry, or metal to form a durable waterproof barrier. Bituminous coatings are commonly used for
below-grade waterproofing of foundations, basements, and retaining walls.
• Liquid Membranes: Liquid membrane waterproofing systems consist of liquid-applied coatings that
form a seamless, flexible membrane when cured. These coatings are typically made of polymer-modified
asphalt, polyurethane, or acrylic compounds and are applied with a brush, roller, or spray equipment.
Liquid membranes are suitable for horizontal and vertical surfaces and can accommodate complex shapes
and details.
• Sheet Membranes: Sheet membranes are preformed waterproofing membranes made of rubber,
bitumen, or synthetic materials such as PVC or TPO. They are available in rolls or sheets and are adhered
or mechanically fastened to the substrate to create a continuous waterproof barrier. Sheet membranes are
commonly used for below-grade waterproofing, roofing, and plaza deck applications.
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• Cementitious Waterproofing: Cementitious waterproofing materials are cement-based compounds that
are mixed with water to form a slurry or mortar. They penetrate into the pores of concrete or masonry
substrates, filling voids and forming a crystalline structure that blocks water penetration. Cementitious
waterproofing is commonly used for interior and exterior waterproofing of concrete structures, such as
basements, tanks, and water features.
• Polyurethane Sealants: Polyurethane sealants are flexible, elastomeric sealants that are applied as a
liquid and cure to form a durable, watertight seal. They are commonly used for sealing joints, gaps, and
cracks in building components such as concrete, masonry, metal, and wood. Polyurethane sealants are
resistant to UV exposure, weathering, and movement, making them suitable for both interior and exterior
applications.
• Elastomeric Membranes: Elastomeric membranes are flexible, rubber-like membranes that provide
excellent waterproofing and weatherproofing properties. They are typically made of synthetic rubber or
thermoplastic materials and are available in liquid-applied or sheet form. Elastomeric membranes are
commonly used for roofing, plaza deck, and below-grade waterproofing applications where flexibility
and durability are required.
• Polymer-modified Cementitious Coatings: Polymer-modified cementitious coatings combine cement
with polymer additives to improve adhesion, flexibility, and durability. These coatings are applied as a
slurry or mortar to concrete, masonry, or other substrates to provide waterproofing protection. Polymer-
modified cementitious coatings are commonly used for waterproofing exterior walls, balconies, and
planters.
• Geotextiles and Drainage Systems: Geotextiles and drainage systems are used in conjunction with
waterproofing materials to manage subsurface water and relieve hydrostatic pressure. Geotextiles are
permeable fabrics that are installed as a drainage layer or filter between the waterproofing membrane and
the backfill material. Drainage systems, such as French drains or dimple mats, provide a path for water
to drain away from the structure's foundation.
1.1.2.1.2.10 Utilities
Underground utilities, such as water lines, sewer lines, and electrical conduits, may be installed within the
substructure to provide essential services to the building. These utilities must be properly integrated into the
foundation and site infrastructure to ensure functionality and accessibility.
Overall, the substructure forms the structural backbone of the building, providing support, stability, and
protection against various environmental factors. It is essential to ensure that the substructure is designed and
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constructed to meet the specific requirements of the building and the site conditions, as it lays the foundation for
the entire structure's integrity and longevity.
1.1.2.2 Activities
1.1.2.2.1.1 Shoring
Shoring is a temporary structural support system used to stabilize a structure, excavations, or trenches during
construction, renovation, or repair work. It involves the installation of vertical supports, known as shoring posts
or shoring towers, to prevent collapse or movement of the surrounding soil or structure.
1.1.2.3 Materials
1.1.2.3.1.1 Gravel
Gravel is a loose aggregation of small, often rounded rock fragments. It is a common construction material used
for various purposes due to its versatility, availability, and drainage properties. Gravel particles range in size from
granules (2-4 mm) to boulders (greater than 256 mm), with the most commonly used sizes falling between these
extremes.
1.1.2.3.1.2 Water
In construction, "water" typically refers to the liquid substance essential for various construction processes, rather
than the chemical compound itself. Water plays a crucial role in construction activities and is used for a wide
range of purposes, including:
1.1.2.3.1.3 Hardcore
In construction, "hardcore" refers to a dense and durable material used as a base or sub-base layer in various
construction projects, particularly for roads, pathways, driveways, and foundations. Hardcore serves as a solid
and stable foundation to support the weight of structures, vehicles, and other loads.
1.1.2.3.1.4 Cement
Cement is a crucial building material used in construction for binding materials together to form concrete, mortar,
or grout. It acts as the primary adhesive agent in these mixtures, providing cohesion and strength to the final
product.
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1.1.2.3.1.5 Aggregates
Aggregates are granular materials used in construction as components of concrete, mortar, asphalt, and other
building materials. They typically constitute the majority of the volume in such mixtures and serve to provide
bulk, stability, and mechanical properties to the final product. Here are some key points about aggregates:
Types of Aggregates:
• Fine Aggregates: These are smaller particles, typically sand or crushed stone dust, with particle sizes ranging
from 0.075mm to 4.75mm in diameter. Fine aggregates are commonly used in mortar and concrete mixes to
fill voids and improve workability.
• Coarse Aggregates: Coarse aggregates are larger particles, typically crushed stone, gravel, or recycled
concrete with particle sizes ranging from 4.75mm to 75mm in diameter. They provide strength and bulk to
concrete mixes and are also used in road construction and drainage applications.
1.1.2.3.1.6 Timber
Timber refers to wood that has been processed and prepared for use in construction, woodworking, or other
applications. It is derived from trees and is one of the oldest and most widely used building materials in the world
due to its abundance, versatility, and renewability.
1.1.2.3.1.7 Reinforcements
Reinforcements, in the context of construction and engineering, are materials or elements added to structures to
enhance their strength, durability, and resistance to various types of loads and stresses. Reinforcements are
commonly used in concrete, masonry, and steel structures to improve their performance and longevity.
1.1.2.3.1.8 Bricks
Bricks are rectangular blocks made from fired clay, shale, concrete, or other materials commonly used in
construction for building walls, pavements, and other structures. They are one of the oldest and most traditional
building materials, dating back thousands of years.
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1.1.2.3.1.9 Blocks
In the context of construction, "blocks" typically refer to large, rectangular building units made from materials
such as concrete, clay, or aerated autoclaved concrete (AAC). These blocks are commonly used in construction
for building walls, partitions, and other structural elements. Here are some key points about blocks:
1.1.3 SUPERSTRUCTURE PHASE.
In buildings, the superstructure refers to the part of the structure that is built above the foundation or substructure.
It includes all components of the building that are above ground level, such as floors, walls, roofs, doors,
windows, and any other elements that contribute to the overall form and function of the building.
The superstructure is what gives a building its shape, provides shelter and protection, and houses the functional
spaces such as rooms, corridors, and amenities. It is typically constructed using materials like concrete, steel,
wood, brick, or a combination of these materials, depending on the design requirements, structural considerations,
and architectural preferences.
Under superstructure we have quit a number of terminologies and these are classified as follows;
1.1.3.1 Components
1.1.3.1.1 Walls
Stud - The vertical framing members in wall construction. Typically made of wood or metal, studs are
fundamental in providing structural support and are spaced at regular intervals (often 16 or 24 inches on center).
Joist - Horizontal structural members used to support a floor or ceiling. While not a part of the wall itself,
joists intersect with wall structures and are crucial in overall building framing.
Header - A horizontal support beam over openings such as doors and windows in a wall. Headers redistribute
the load around the opening to other parts of the wall structure.
Sill - The horizontal bottom part of a frame, such as in a window (window sill). In the context of a wall, it refers
to the lower horizontal member that rests on the foundation.
Sheathing - The boards or sheet material fastened to the studs, joists, or rafters that cover a structure. In walls,
sheathing is typically made of plywood or OSB (Oriented Strand Board) and provides rigidity and a base for
installing exterior finishes.
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Cladding - The exterior material that covers the wall sheathing. Cladding can be made of wood, vinyl, brick,
stone, or other materials and serves as the first barrier against the environment.
Vapor Barrier - A material used to prevent moisture from penetrating walls, essential for protecting the
building from water damage and mold growth.
Insulation - Materials used within walls to reduce heat transfer and improve energy efficiency. Insulation can
be made from fiberglass, foam, cellulose, or other materials.
Drywall (also known as plasterboard, wallboard, or gypsum board) - A panel made of calcium sulfate dihydrate
(gypsum), with or without additives, typically extruded between thick sheets of facer and backer paper. It is
used for the construction of interior walls and ceilings.
Masonry - The building of structures from individual units of materials such as bricks, stones, or concrete
blocks, usually bound together by mortar.
Pointing - The finishing of mortar joints in brick or stone wall construction. Load-bearing wall - A structural
wall that carries the weight of elements above it, such as floors or the roof, in addition to its own weight.
Non-load bearing wall - A wall that supports only its own weight and does not support any structural weight
of the building. It is primarily used for partitioning.
Foundation - The lowest part of the wall structure, typically below ground level, that distributes the load of the
wall and the rest of the building to the ground.
Lintel - A horizontal structural member placed over an opening to support the load above it. Lintels can be
made of wood, steel, or concrete.
Cavity Wall - A wall consisting of two separate walls (or leaves), with a space (cavity) between them to
prevent moisture penetration and provide thermal insulation.
Parapet Wall - A continuation of a wall above the roof level, commonly seen on rooftops or balconies for
safety or aesthetic purposes.
1.1.3.2 Materials
Concrete: A composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement
that hardens over time. It's one of the most widely used construction materials due to its durability and strength.
Cement: A binder, a substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to other materials to bind
them together. Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use.
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Rebar (Reinforcing Bar): Steel bars or mesh of steel wires used as a tension device in reinforced concrete and
reinforced masonry structures to strengthen and aid the concrete under tension.
Aggregate: Materials like sand, gravel, or crushed stone, mixed with cement and water to form concrete.
Mortar: A mixture of sand, a binder such as cement or lime, and water, used to bond building blocks such as
stones, bricks, and concrete masonry units together.
Brick: A small rectangular block typically made of fired or sun-dried clay, commonly used in building walls.
Bricks can also be made from concrete, lime, or other composite materials.
Plaster: A building material used for coating, protecting, and decorating internal walls and ceilings. It usually
consists of cement, lime, or gypsum mixed with water and sand.
Drywall (also known as gypsum board or plasterboard): A panel made of gypsum plaster pressed between
two thick sheets of paper. It is used to make interior walls and ceilings.
Plywood: An engineered wood product made from three or more thin layers of wood veneer glued together.
Each layer's grain is rotated up to 90 degrees to one another, which increases strength and resistance to splitting.
OSB (Oriented Strand Board): A type of engineered wood similar to particle board, formed by adding
adhesives and then compressing layers of wood strands (flakes) in specific orientations.
Insulation: Materials or substances used to reduce the rate of heat transfer. Common insulation materials
include fiberglass, cellulose, rock wool, polystyrene, polyurethane foam, and reflective foils.
Cladding: The application of one material over another to provide a skin or layer intended to control the
infiltration of weather elements, or for aesthetic purposes. Materials used for cladding include wood, metal,
vinyl, and composite materials.
Asphalt: A sticky, black, and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum used for road construction,
and as a waterproofing agent.
Masonry: The building of structures from individual units of materials such as bricks, stones, or concrete
blocks, usually bound together by mortar.
Glass: Often used in windows and facades, glass is a transparent material made by cooling molten ingredients
such as silica sand with rapid cooling. It can be toughened or laminated for additional strength and safety
properties.
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Steel: An alloy of iron and carbon, and sometimes other elements. Steel is widely used in construction due to
its high tensile strength and durability. It is commonly found in the framework of large buildings and in
reinforcing concrete.
Veneer: A thin layer of material (wood, stone, or brick), used as a decorative face on a less attractive base or
structure.
Terrazzo: A composite material poured in place or precast, which is used for floor and wall treatments. It
consists of chips of marble, quartz, granite, glass, or other suitable material, mixed with a binder.
1.1.3.3 Activities
Excavation: The process of moving earth, rock, or other materials with tools, equipment, or explosives. It
includes trenching, earthwork, tunneling, and wall shafts.
Grading: Leveling and shaping the ground to prepare a site for construction, ensuring proper drainage and
foundation support.
Foundation Work: Activities involved in building the base of a structure, which includes digging footings,
laying foundations, and constructing slabs.
Framing: Constructing the skeletal structure of a building, including the framework of walls, floors, and roof.
Framing materials often include wood, steel, or concrete.
Roofing: The process of covering a building to protect it from the weather. Common tasks include installing
underlayment, shingles, tiles, or other roofing materials.
Plumbing: Installing and maintaining systems for water supply and drainage. This includes fitting pipes, water
heaters, fixtures, and sewage systems.
Electrical Installation: Installing and configuring the electrical wiring, fixtures, and power systems in a
building. HVAC Installation: Installing heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems to control the
temperature and air quality in buildings.
Insulation: Applying materials within walls, floors, and ceilings to prevent heat loss or gain, thereby improving
energy efficiency.
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Drywall Installation: The process of installing panels of gypsum board to walls and ceilings, then finishing
them with taping and plastering to create smooth surfaces. Painting: Applying paint or other coatings to
surfaces for protection and aesthetic purposes.
Flooring: Installing the surface layer of floors, which could be wood, tile, carpet, or other materials. Glazing:
Installing windows, skylights, and other glass surfaces in a building.
Landscaping: Modifying the visible features of an area of land including living elements like flora and fauna,
as well as abstract elements like lighting conditions.
Commissioning: The process of assuring all systems and components of a building are designed, installed,
tested, operated, and maintained according to the operational requirements of the owner or final client.
Demolition: The targeted removal of existing structures or parts of structures to make way for new
construction or for safety reasons.
Surveying: The practice of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional positions of points and the
distances and angles between them. This is used to establish maps and boundaries for ownership or
governmental purposes.
Scaffolding: Erecting a temporary structure used to support a work crew and materials to aid in the
construction, maintenance, and repair of buildings, bridges, and all other man-made structures.
Quality Control: The processes by which entities review the quality of all factors involved in production. In
construction, this involves ensuring that the materials and workmanship meet or exceed the project
specifications and regulatory requirements.
Safety Management: Implementing and managing safety practices on a construction site to prevent accidents
and ensure the health and safety of workers.
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Regulatory bodies in Uganda
Regulatory bodies are organizations or agencies that oversee and enforce compliance with laws, standards and
regulations with in specific industries or sectors. They play crucial role in ensuring public safety, fairness and
market integrity. Here are some key examples across various sectors of Uganda;
➢ Bank of Uganda (BoU); This regulates and supervises financial institutions, including banks and non-
banking institutions in Uganda.
➢ Uganda Communications Commissions (UCC); This regulates the communications sector, including
telecommunications, broadcasting and postal services.
➢ National Environment Management Authority (NEMA); Over sees environmental management and
protection.
➢ Uganda Revenue Authority (URA); Responsible for tax administration and collection.
➢ Uganda National Bureau of Standards; Ensures quality standards for products and services.
➢ Insurance Regulatory authority of Uganda; Regulates the insurance industry.
➢ Capital Markets Authority (CMA); Oversees the capital markets, including the securities market.
➢ Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERA); Regulates the electricity supply industry.
➢ National Drug Authority (NDA); Regulates the manufacture, import, and distribution of
pharmaceuticals and health-related products
➢ Uganda Investment Authority (UIA); Promotes and facilitates investment in Uganda.
➢ Uganda Civil Aviation Authority (CAA); Regulates civil aviation activities and ensures aviation safety
and security.
➢ Uganda Coffee Development Authority (UCDA); Regulates the coffee industry, ensuring quality and
promoting Ugandan coffee.
➢ National Social Security Fund (NSSF); Manages and regulates the national social security fund
contributions.
➢ The Surveyor’s Registration Board (SRB); This regulates and controls the profession and activities of
registered land surveyors and valuation surveyors and advises the government in relation to those
functions.
➢ The Engineers Registration Board (ERB); This regulates and control engineers and their profession
with in Uganda
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CHAPTER 2
Introduction
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction and
maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as bridges, roads,canals,
dams and buildings. Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline in the world after military
engineering, and it was defined to distinguish non-military (civilian) engineering from military engineering. It
is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical
engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipalor urban engineering, water resources
engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering, surveying, and construction engineering. Civil
engineers have saved more lives than all the doctors in history through development of clean and safe water and
sanitation systems.
Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practicesof Civil
engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient
Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter.
During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and
sailing.
Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and theterm
engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used
interchangeably. The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances
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of large structure constructions.
The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in
1819 by Captain Alden Partridge. The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United Stateswas awarded by
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by
Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.
In a nut shell, Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its historyis
intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil
engineering is a wide-ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub- disciplines, its history is
linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment,
mechanics and other fields.
Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried outby artisans,
such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge wasretained in guilds and
seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existedwere repetitive, and increases in
scale were incremental.
One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problemsapplicable to civil
engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which
underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions suchas Archimedes' screw.
Brief HISTORY OF CONSTRUCTION
Construction is an ancient human activity that dates as far back as 400 BC. It started from using constructed
materials to produce shelters for regulating the effect of climates on humans. Soon, the advent of agriculture
paved the way for various construction materials such as timber and animal skin. In Egypt and the Middle East,
timbers were used to construct dwellings for humans and as storage facilities for plants.
During the late Stone Age, hunter-gatherers used circular rings of stones to form the foundations of shelters.
Then animal skins were used, along with crude huts made of wooden poles to shed snow or rain and reduce
sunlight penetration. Primitive builders soon developed tholoi – a construction material made of dry-laid stone
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to build dwellings with domed roofs. The tholoi were the beginning of masonry construction because of their
durability.
In the Neolithic (New Stone Age), dwellings began to be more permanent. Another variation of roofing
material was introduced; Thatch. Reeds or dried grasses were tied together in small bundles in an overlapping
pattern. However, the problem with this construction is that it leaked badly.
History of Construction in the Stone Age
In the beginning, construction was required simply for the purpose of creating shelter from the environment.
The shelters made by Nomads were usually only made to last a couple of days, and would later need to be
rebuilt. In a cave in South-West France excavated by historians, rings of stone were found dating back to
12,000 BCE. The stone was used to hold down tents made of animal hide and wooden poles. However, once
humans began to develop agriculture, they started to spend more time in one place. That required more durable
shelters. The remnants of such structures are scarce, but remains of buildings constructed out of clay have been
found by scientists in the Middle East. As well as providing shelter, permanent structures became used for
various other functions, including food storage and religious ceremonies.
Ancient Egyptian Construction
Historians say that what we know as traditional construction actually started in Ancient Egypt. The Egyptian
pyramids are one of the first instances of large-scale permanent structures. The majority of pyramid building
took place between 2,550 – 2,400 BCE. The structures built by the Egyptians involved a great deal of skill in
engineering and architecture. Everything was typically made of stone, and many historians wonder how
Egyptians were able to make such large complex structures without modern tools. What we do know is that
these buildings took a significant amount of time and labour to construct. Archeological experts say it took 20
years and around 200,000 men to complete a single structure.
The original heights of many pyramids dating back to that period have decreased, because materials used for
the outer layers were stolen to create new structures. However, most of the structures have remained
uncompromised even 4,000 years later.
Bricks and Mortar

It would be wrong to write a blog post about construction without the bricks and mortar of construction – bricks
and mortar! (I couldn’t resist.)
Bricklaying goes all the way back to 7,000 BCE in Southern Turkey, where they were used at the site of an
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ancient settlement. We also saw bricks in ancient Egyptian construction. These early examples of brick
construction were made of straw and clay, and due to the material could only be used in warm climates.
China had one of the earliest appearances of bricks like the ones we are familiar with today. They were made of
fired red clay and used as flooring in houses in 4,000 BCE. You also see bricks used in a lot of Ancient Roman
structures. The Romans discovered that bricks were cheap to make and easier to lay for those with a lower skill
level. In fact, the Romans introduced fired bricks to the entire country thanks to mobile kilns. The bricks would
be stamped with the mark of the legion who supervised the brick production. This is something we still often
see today as a form of branding materials.
Although the materials used for bricks may have changed, the technique has stayed the same. Apart from wood,
brick still remains one of the most popular building materials in construction.
Construction industry in uganda
Uganda is a low income developing country located in Sub-Saharan Africa, with a population of 36.35 million,
a GDP of US$19.88 Billion growing at a rate of 3.4%, against an inflation of 14% (World Bank, 2003). With a
GNI per capita based on the Atlas method of US$440, Uganda remains a very poor country and far from the
middle income status it aspires to achieve in one generation, and in order to achieve
higher development outcomes, the transformation of its economy will be hinged on how the country
manages its resources, in particular the fast-growing and youthful population, as well as the recently
discovered oil (ibid). The construction industry contributes over 12% of Uganda’s gross domestic
product (GDP) and has witnessed steady growth for the last 20 years and despite the recent upsurge in inflation,
the sector has remained on a steady path of growth and development (Uganda National Commission for
UNESCO, 2013).
The management of the construction industry in Uganda can be divided into three major service groups
offering professional services, construction services, and support services.
These groups are monitored by regulatory bodies and institutions to ensure that they run systematically and in
accordance with their objectives.
Challenges of the construction industry in Uganda and other developing countries

Whereas the importance of the construction industry, its challenges as well as risks are well publicised, with
several similarirites in both developed and developing countries, the scale and magnitude of such challenges
and risks in developing countries is much higher.
The World Bank (1984) summarises a number of such challenges in developing countries:
inadequate procurement and contracting procedures leading to delayed payments without
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adequate compensation of contractors; inexperienced and excessively rigid contract supervision; inadequate
trainining of staff; construction business proprietors who tend to outgrow their capacity to
manage construction risk; lack of a sound framework for institutional and legal arragement;
compromised construction standards and delayed completion of projects; price fluctuations of materials and
other resources.
Wells (2007) has widely discussed the challenge of regulating the informal sector in most developing
countries characterised by engagement of casual and temporary workers,
direct procurement of construction services without formal contracts and without engagement of
registered professionals and contractors, use of unregistered enterprises and the prevalence of
unfinished structures usually without planning permission.
Furthermore, low levels of technology utilisation, out-dated construction methods, lack of financial capacity,
low investment in research and development, as well as poor communication, poor workmanship, skills
shortage and low levels of industrialisation continue to undermine the potential of Uganda’s construction
industry to achieve higher development outcomes for the national economy (Alinaitwe, Mwakali and Hanson,
2006 & 2007; Katende, Alinaitwe and Tindiwensi, 2011).
However, whereas much of the research on improvement of performance in the construction industry focuses
on contractors and their supply chains, Alinaitwe (2008) argues that the performance of construction
industry clients on the supply chain is also questionable, as they frequently delay payments to contractors, and
contribute to a majority of variations and change orders (attributable to incomplete designs and briefs) that arise
during the construction phase of projects.
It can therefore be acknowledged that there is no simple solution that will resolve all the challenges
Uganda’s construction industry faces, and therefore a continuous performance improvement agenda has to be
upheld in order to reduce the performance gap between the construction industry and other sectors of
the economy. This background therefore makes the potential of paradigms, work processes
and technologies being introduced for the construction industries around the world such as Lean
Construction, Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) and Building Information Modelling (BIM) to address some of
the challenges facing the construction industry of Uganda very relevant.
CHAPTER 3
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SITE VISIT
A site visit is a physical inspection of a construction site. It’s an opportunity for the project team behind
the build to see the work in progress and to identify any potential problems.
A BRIEF SUMMERY OF THE SITE REPORT FOR THE SITE VISITED BY GROUP TWO AS
COURSE WORK
The visit to the Four storied building site at Kamuli Road was conducted by students of group 2 doing bachelor
degree in Civil Engineering -Kyambogo university offering construction technology two on 17th March., 2024.
Students visited the Construction Site with the purpose of observing and understanding the Construction
practice on the site in order to minimize the gap between construction practices and academics for the students,
The visit schedule between 9:00 am to 1:00pm allowed students to observe the functioning of each
Construction activity and interactions between different stakeholders was at maximum which allowed students
queries to be answered.
Some of the objectives of the above site visit were;
• To meet site representatives, local officials, tribal organizations, community members, and other
stakeholders.
• To establish contacts to facilitate the collection of relevant information.
• To tour the site to determine activities and possible ways that community members might be exposed to
contaminants.
• To Obtain first-hand knowledge of current site conditions.
Merits of carrying out a site visit
✓ While we may think we know a space or building inside out from all the overtime put into drawing
plans, elevations, and sections, not to mention creating photorealistic renderings, site visits might prove
that the actual space turns out looking and feeling a lot different from what we had envisioned. Physical
factors such as time of day, temperature, and human traffic all affect our perception of a space or
building, but the effects of these can never be conveyed sufficiently through mere two-dimensional
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drawings and it is by being on-site that we experience these factors at work and get an accurate
understanding of the space.
✓ Sometimes, site visits before the design phase of a project is crucial in helping us understand the local
culture of a place. When a project is located in a place unfamiliar to us, a site visit not only allows us to
conduct site analysis, but also exposes us to the local way of life and the unique culture of the place. No
amount of research in the office can beat being on-site and being physically and psychologically
immersed within the environment. This is important so that we can create design solutions that are
sensitive and responsive to the particular needs and characteristics of a place.
✓ We learn most of the specifics of construction and construction methods on-site. It is widely agreed
among professionals that architectural education in schools rarely does a good job of exposing students
to methods of construction. Schools are focused on teaching students to think conceptually and to sell
their architectural designs, but when it comes to actual materials and construction, being on-site lets us
witness how different materials and components come together and the processes and mechanisms
involved in building. In fact, ask any professional in the field and they are likely to tell you that most of
their knowledge of construction came from years of on-site experience.
✓ Site visits allow us to learn from the expertise of other professionals. Most of the times, site visits mean
meeting professionals of other fields. Through our discussion of problems and solutions with
professionals such as engineers, contractors, and electricians, we not only gain knowledge of other
disciplines that will be helpful to our work, but more importantly see their expertise being applied in
real life on the job site. Understanding aspects of a design from their perspective also helps us foresee
and prevent potential problems in our design proposals.
✓ Site visits expose us to concerns of safety. Probably one of the first images that comes to mind when
we speak of a construction site is that of people wearing helmets, and this shows just how important
safety is on-site. When drawing or specifying a curtain wall glass panel on the computer, we do not
have to personally deal with the physicality and weight of this massive material. At a site visit,
however, the physical presence of large and heavy materials poses an immediate threat to our safety.
An awareness of on-site safety is crucial to a smooth and successful construction process.
✓ Site visits train us to think and make decisions on our feet. When a project runs into a problem at the
construction site, architects and designers often need to have discussions with other professionals to
arrive at a decision on the spot. From a substitution of materials to signing an agreement, these things
force us to be alert to various factors and consequences under a tight time constraint. Many of these
decisions have major impacts on a project timeline and cost, so it is important to have the critical
awareness and thinking skills needed to make such decisions when they are required of us.
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✓ Discussions and negotiations during site visits build our interpersonal and communication skills. As
different disciplines often have different methods of working, discussions and negotiations with a
multidisciplinary team on-site require us to have good communication skills so that we can effectively
convey our thoughts and relate to everyone involved. These conversations allow us to build
interpersonal skills and learn from the various communication and working strategies of other
professionals so that we become better at collaboration, management, and leadership.
✓ When things do not go as planned, site visits let us understand why and how a design failed.
Sometimes, what we draw as two-dimensional plans, elevations, sections, and construction details fail
to translate successfully into three-dimensional realities. It is useful to see the physical space or
materials and talk with other professionals on-site to understand exactly how and why a design did not
turn out the way we envisioned.
Preliminaries in construction
What are preliminaries?

Preliminaries are works involved in administering a project and providing site-based services and general plant
facilities. Section A of SMM7 covers these items. These relate to the contract as a whole. In addition, these are
not confined to any particular work section. Similarly, it is shown in Section B of the SLS573:1999.
Providing these in a separate bill, the contractor has the opportunity to price them independent of unit rates.
Accordingly, any costs included in the preliminary items shall not include again in the unit rates.
Overheads are the cost component in the unit rates for support activities, such as site or head office staff or
temporary workshops. These are not covered by specific items in the Bills of Quantities. Thus, contractually
speaking, preliminaries and OH & P are different items. Therefore, the Contractor is not supposed to include
the cost of preliminaries in unit rates.
The Preliminaries section of the tender documentation fulfills a number of functions from the estimator’s point
of view. It provides a high-level overview of the project. For instance, it includes a description of the project,
the detail of the site, details of the conditions of the contract, Employer’s requirements, Contractor’s general
cost items, etc.
Items included under preliminaries
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In the Preliminary bill, following items of temporary works, which are not represented in the permanent work
items, are included as necessary.
1. Project Particulars
2. Drawings
3. Site and Access
4. Description of the Works
5. Insurances and Bonds
6. Supervision / staffing/ site management
7. Safety / health / welfare
8. Scaffolding
9. Safeguarding the work
10. Water for works
11. Lighting & power
12. Temporary roads
13. Site accommodations
14. Temporary fences, hoardings
15. Name board
16. Setting out, surveying, testing, etc.
Pricing preliminaries
There are large numbers of items under preliminaries. However, we cannot exactly price the cost of all of them.
Therefore, we consider major costs which include staff, contractor’s equipment, access roads, scaffolding, site
accommodation,
temporary supplies, cleaning, etc.
Pricing preliminaries is generally one of the last operations before adjudication of the tender price.
The process of converting an estimate into a tender is usually termed as ‘tender adjudication’. A decision
on working methods, major equipment, gang strengths, subcontractors, temporary works such as scaffolding,
roads, hutting, etc., and the proposed construction program have all been identified when pricing preliminaries.
This will indicate any need for overtime or out-of-sequence working to meet the contract completion date. It
may identify the costs of any potential liquidated damages that need to be included in the tender sum. It will
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also allow assessment of any provision for cost fluctuations in the case of a fixed price tender.
Individual contractors have their own checklist of items to assist the estimator in calculating site overheads.
Fixed and time-related charges

Main components of a preliminary item are as follows:
• Fixed charges – the cost of which is to be independent of duration. That is to say, charges those are not
proportional either to the quantity of the work or its duration.
• Time-related charges – the cost of which is to be dependent on duration. That is to say, charges that are
directly proportional to either the quantity of the work or its duration.
How to analyze a preliminary item

Example 1 – Temporary Accommodation
The contractor shall provide suitable accommodation for the clerk of works, with a minimum floor area of 20
m2 including desk, four chairs, filing cabinet and all necessary air conditioning, lighting and
cleaning.
In this case, contractor decides to use container hut converted as an office.
Data
Contract period: 144 weeks, Transport of container to and from site: UGX: 15,000 per trip, hire of container
hut: UGX: 3,000.00 per week, Hire of furniture, etc.: UGX: 500per week
Fixed charges
Transport to and from site 2 trips × UGX: 15,000 = 30,000
Erection 10 hours & Dismantle 5 hours of unskilled labor
15 hours laborer @ UGX: 1,500 = 22,500
Total of fixed charges = 52,500
Time related charges

Hire of hut 144 weeks @ UGX: 3,000 per week = 432,000
Furniture and other 144 weeks @ UGX: 500 per week = 72,000
Cleaning – 2 hours per week × 144 weeks
288 hours @ UGX: 125 = 36,000
Total of time related charges = 540,000
Total (fixed and time related charges) = 592,500
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Example 2 – Site Fencing
The contractor is to allow for enclosing all boundaries of the site. It shall be the contractor’s responsibility to
provide all necessary precautions, protection and security to safeguard the works using fences, hoardings, gates,
etc. as considered necessary.
Data
Contract period: 144 weeks

Fencing
Fixed charges; erection and taking down = 20,000
50 metres of solid fencing; 1.8 metres high @ UGX: 300.00 / m = 10,000
1 pair gates and security = 5,000
= 35,000
Maintenance and repairs
1 hour per week labourer × 144 weeks @ UGX: 125 = 18,000
Total = 53.000
Payments for preliminaries in interim bills

There is no specific contract provision governing how to pay for preliminaries.
1st method – Time Related

Some consultants pay for preliminaries in Interim bills considering the total contract time.
Example: Total Contract Value = UGX: 1,000,00

Preliminaries = UGX: 200,000
Permanent Works = UGX: 800,000
Contract Period = 05 months
In each interim bill add UGX: 200,000 / 5 =UGX: 40,000 to the value of completed permanent works to arrive
the total bill value.
2nd method – Work Related

Some consultants pay for preliminaries in Interim bills calculating a proportionate value to the value of
permanent works completed up to that interim bill.
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Example: Total Contract Value = UGX: 1,000,000
Preliminaries = UGX: 200,000
Permanent Works = UGX: 800,000
Contract Period = 05 months
Value of permanent works completed up to 3rd Interim bill = UGX: 400,000
Add UGX: (400,000.00 x UGX: 200,000.00)/ UGX: 800,000 = Rs: 100,000.00 to the value of completed
permanent works to arrive the total bill value.
COURSE WORK
stakeholders.
contaminants.
COURSE WORK
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stakeholders.
contaminants.
COURSE WORK
stakeholders.
contaminants.
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GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Geotechnical investigations involve inspecting the soil and subsurface conditions of a specific site. These
investigations evaluate whether the soil is suitable for proposed use, development, or construction.
Geotechnical engineers and professionals conduct these studies to gather essential data for designing and
executing various projects.
A case of Geotechnical Investigations for the Proposed Warehouse Facility to be Built at Plot 3688, Block
111, Kyaggwe – Mukono District. Attached at the back.
Geotechnical report
This is a crucial document used in construction and engineering projects. It provides essential information about
the geological conditions of a site, helping engineers and designers make informed decisions.
Components of a geotechnical report
1. Introduction
• Objectives of the investigation;
• Scope of the investigations
2. Site description
• Topography
• Regional seismicity
• Climate
• Geology
3. Field Exploratory and laboratory testing
• Test pit excavation
• Ground water table
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• Soil sampling
• Dynamic cone Penetrometer (DCP) Test
• Laboratory Tests
❖ Particle size distribution
❖ Atterberg test results
❖ Natural moisture content
• Soil profile
• Determination of soil bearing capacities
4. Conclusion and Recommendations
Objectives of Geotechnical investigations.
The primary purpose of this study is to determine the stratigraphic characteristics of the site based on field and
laboratory tests.
Scope of the investigations
This entails the list of activities involved in a geotechnical investigation. some of the activities are as follows;
• Excavation and logging of trial pits to a maximum depth of 2.0m below ground surface level,
• Conducting Dynamic Cone Penetration (DCP) test to 2.0m at the surface and bottom of each excavated
test pit
• Collection of representative disturbed samples for laboratory testing
• Determination of groundwater level,
• Compilation of results and report writing
Site description
This entails the geographical location of site , topography and drainage direction , vegetation cover or any
existing structures , Regional seismicity( zonal map location according to the Seismic code of practice for
structural designs, 2003 (US 319: 2003) from the Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS) , Climate of
the area under investigation.
Field Exploratory and laboratory testing
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The field investigation covers logging of soil profile within the excavated trial pits, sampling and conducting of
the DCP test at the surface and bottom of the excavated trial pits. Several locations are investigated and the
following activities conducted at the different locations as given in sample Table 1 below. Samples Are
transported to the laboratory and tests carried out refer to the attached report.
Test Pit Excavation
Test pit excavations are generally carried out in accordance with the procedure described in BS5930:2015. The
excavations are undertaken with the use of hand tools. Within the excavated test pits, logging is done to show
the various subsoil strata as observed on site. Test pits are backfilled after obtaining disturbed samples and
conducting the DCP test.
Figure 1: Excavation of trial pits
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Ground Water Table
The water table is the boundary between the unsaturated zone and the saturated zone underground. Ground
water is encountered in trial pits at different depths for different trial pits. Ground water levels are summarized
in a table and details provided.
Soil sampling
Disturbed samples are picked at the bottom of the excavated test pits. The samples are properly packed and
safely transported to the laboratory for carrying out classification tests.
Dynamic Cone penetrometer (DCP) test
The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) test is carried out at the surface and bottom of all pits to determine the
bearing capacity of the founding soil. The DCP consisted of a cone of 600 fixed to the bottom of a vertical rod.
A weight of 8kg was repeatedly lifted and dropped onto a coupling at mid-height of the rod to deliver a
standard impact or blow to the cone and drove it into the soil (at a 575mm dropping height). A vertical scale
alongside the rod is used to measure the depth of penetration of the cone. The penetration per blow “penetration
rate” is recorded as the cone was being driven into the soil and then used to calculate the strength of the soil
through which it is passing. A change in penetration rate indicated a change in strength between the soil layers,
thus allowing strength of the soil to be determined. DCP and bearing capacity test results are tabulated and
attached in the report.
Figure 2: conducting DCP test at the surface and bottom of the pits
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Laboratory tests
Laboratory tests are carried out to determine classification of soil samples obtained. The classification tests
carried out include wet sieving (grain size distribution) and Atterberg limits. Table 2 shows a sample summary
of the geotechnical tests which are carried out on the samples with the procedures used.
The particle-size distribution (PSD), also known as granulometry, describes the relative amount of particles
present in a powder, granular material, or fluid dispersion according to their size. It is typically expressed by
mass and provides valuable insights into physical and chemical properties of materials.
An example of two trial pits 1 and 2 (TP01 & TP02) As shown on the gradation curves below, soils from all the
trial pits plot below the 50% passing line implying that they are coarse grained i.e., % passing the 200 sieve is
less than 50%. A summary of classification test results are attached in the report .
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Figure 3: Particle size distribution chart
• Atterberg Limits Tests
The Atterberg limits test is a fundamental geotechnical procedure used to assess the behavior of fine-grained
soils based on their moisture content. The Atterberg limits determine three critical water content levels in soil:
• Liquid Limit (LL): The moisture content at which the soil transitions from a plastic to a liquid
state.
• Plastic Limit (PL): The moisture content at which the soil changes from a semi-solid to a
plastic state.
• Shrinkage Limit (SL): The moisture content at which the soil shifts from a solid to a semi-
solid state.
These limits help classify soils, understand their behavior, and correlate them with engineering properties.
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Plasticity index (PI) values are plotted against Liquid (LL) values for the samples on the A-Line chart. Samples
plotted above the A-line within the regions of clays of low degree of plasticity as shown in an example below.
This implies that the fine portions of the soils are clays of high degree of plasticity. A summary of classification
test results is attached in the report .
Figure 4: A line-chart for tested samples
• Natural Moisture content
The natural moisture content test is a fundamental procedure in geotechnical engineering that helps determine
the water content present in a soil sample. Here are the key details about this test.
The Natural Moisture Content of the soils collected at TP01 and TP02 was 26.6% and 29.5% respectively.
Details of the moisture content results are attached in the report.
• Soil profile
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A soil profile refers to the vertical arrangement of soil layers or horizons from the ground surface downward to
where the soil meets the underlying rock.
The soil stratigraphy at the site consists of made ground of sandy CLAY with some gravel underlain with
clayey SAND as shown in table below. Detailed logs are presented in Appendix 2, of the attached report.
TP01 TP02
0.0-1.2m: Moist firm pinkish brown sandy CLAY 0.0-1.0m: Moist firm pinkish brown sandy CLAY
with some gravel (Made ground) with some gravel (Made ground )
1.2-2.0m: Wet firm to stiff yellowish grey clayey 1.0-2.0m: Wet firm to stiff yellowish grey clayey
sand sand
• Determination of Soil Bearing Capacities
The in-situ soil bearing capacities are assessed and evaluated from the field using the DCP test method as
described in section 3.3. The maximum pressures the soils are capable of resisting have been estimated from the
field N-values using empirical relations. For purposes of computing the soil’s bearing capacity (see Tables
below tables). the following assumptions were made:
• The commonly used Peck et al’s (1967) relationship between N-values and unconfined compressive
strength is valid.
• The maximum allowable settlement is 25mm.
5. Recommendations and conclusions
Investigation is carried out to determine the soil type underlying the proposed site and determine its bearing
capacity. From the investigation results, the recommendations and conclusions are drawn accordingly.
Attached is the Geotechnical Investigations for the Proposed Warehouse Facility to be Built at Plot 3688, Block
111, Kyaggwe – Mukono District for the details including the test results of all the above captured tests that
carried out .
ARCHITECTURAL DRWAINGS
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Architectural drawings play a crucial role in the design and communication of architectural ideas. They serve
as visual representations of buildings, spaces, and structures. Here are some common types of architectural
drawings along with relevant examples:
1. Architectural Collage and Illustrations:
❖ These drawings combine various elements to create a visual narrative. They often blend
different media, such as photographs, sketches, and digital renderings.
2. Architectural Sketches:
❖ Sketches capture the essence of an idea quickly and informally. They can be conceptual or
detailed.
3. Conceptual Designs:
❖ These drawings explore initial design concepts. They focus on form, spatial relationships, and
overall vision.
4. Architectural Diagrams and Axonometric:
❖ Diagrams simplify complex ideas into visual representations. Axonometric drawings show
three-dimensional objects in a two-dimensional format.
5. Architectural Drawings and Blueprints:
❖ These technical drawings provide detailed information for construction. They include floor
plans, elevations, sections, and details.
Components of Architectural Drawings
1. Line Styles and Line Weights:

• Lines are fundamental in architectural drawings. They define, outline, and capture attention.
• Use different line styles and weights to enhance legibility and emphasize critical parts of the
drawing.
• For example:
▪ Thick bold lines can represent sectional walls.
▪ Thinner lines can depict window glazing.
▪ Dashed lines may indicate hidden components like beams.
2. Textures, Hatches, and Colors:
• Textures add depth and life to drawings. They represent material qualities.
• Apply appropriate textures, hatches, or solid colors to surfaces.
• Contrast different textures to make elements decipherable.
• Creatively used textures can tell a compelling story within the drawing.
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Figure 5: Roof plan showing different line styles, weights and hatches
3. Scale:
• Consider the real-world translation of the design.
• Determine the appropriate scale for the drawing.
• Scale ensures that the drawing accurately reflects the building’s proportions and dimensions.
4. Components and Details:
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• Architectural drawings include various components:
▪ Floor Plans: Bird’s-eye view of each floor, showing room layouts, doors, windows,
and architectural features.
▪ Elevations: Depict the building’s exterior from different angles.
▪ Sections: Cutaway views showing interior details.
▪ Details: Zoomed-in views of specific components (e.g., windows, doors, stairs
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Figure 7: showing first floor layout
Figure 6: showing ground floor layout plan
Figure 8: showing second floor layout plan Figure 9: Showing Elevations
5. Annotations and Dimensions:

• Annotations provide additional information, such as labels, notes, and symbols.
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• Dimensions indicate sizes, distances, and proportions.
• Clear annotations and accurate dimensions are crucial for construction.
Figure 10: showing a section through the building capturing Dimensions, Annotations, notes and scale
STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS:
These are a type of technical drawing used by architects, engineers, and construction professionals to illustrate
and communicate the structural design of a building or other structure.
Purpose and Importance:

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• Structural drawings convey the design intent of the building’s load-bearing components.
• They guide contractors, builders, and engineers during construction.
• These drawings ensure that the building is safe, stable, and compliant with regulations.
Components and details of structural drawings
1. Structural Plans:
✓ Illustrate the positions of various floors, foundations, and the roof of the building.
✓ Show the layout of structural elements, including columns, beams, and load-bearing walls.
✓ Specify the size and shape of these elements.
Figure 11: showing foundation layout
2. Foundation Details:
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✓ Depict the footings and foundation systems.
✓ Include information about reinforcement, concrete mix, and dimensions.
✓ Show the depth and layout of foundation elements.
Figure 12: showing a section through the foundation
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3. Column Details:
✓ Provide information about column sizes, reinforcement, and spacing.
✓ Show the connection details between columns and footings or beams.
Figure 13: column details
4. Beam Details:
✓ Illustrate the beam sizes, reinforcement, and span lengths.
✓ Specify the type of beam (e.g., reinforced concrete, steel, or timber).
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Figure 14: beam details
5. Slab Details:
✓ Show the thickness and reinforcement of floor slabs.
✓ Indicate the spacing of bars and any additional features (such as drop panels).
Figure 15: slab details
6. Wall Details:
✓ Depict the thickness, height, and reinforcement of load-bearing walls.
✓ Specify openings for doors and windows.
7. Staircase Details:
✓ Show the design of staircases, including risers, treads, and handrails.
✓ Indicate the structural support for staircases.
8. Connection Details:
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✓ Provide information about joints and connections between structural elements.
✓ Specify the type of fasteners (e.g., bolts, welds) used.
Figure 16: purlin connection detail
9. Reinforcement Details:
✓ Include rebar schedules for columns, beams, and slabs.
✓ Specify the diameter, spacing, and placement of reinforcement bars.
10. Load Paths and Load Transfer:
✓ Show how loads (such as dead loads, live loads, and wind loads) are transferred through the
structure.
✓ Indicate the load paths from roof to foundation.
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Figure 17: Column footing reinforcement detail
Common Symbols and Annotations:
✓ Dimension Lines: Indicate sizes and distances.

✓ Arrows: Show load directions.
✓ Reinforcement Symbols: Represent steel bars (rebars) in concrete elements.
✓ Hatching Patterns: Depict materials (e.g., concrete, steel).
✓ Notes and Labels: Provide additional information.
Reading Structural Drawings:
✓ Understand the scale (e.g., 1:50, 1:100) to interpret dimensions accurately.

✓ Pay attention to sectional views for hidden details.
✓ Refer to schedules for material specifications and quantities
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COST OF PRODUCING AND APPROVAL OF CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS
Construction drawings Approval fees vary from different authorities and location of the projects, below is the
range of Approval fees ;
A case example of proposed commercial development to be built on plot 6077 block 167 Namayina jjolwe
cell Kabubbu ward Kasangati town council, Wakiso district, this is a 2 storied building with a floor area
of 110SM , and it’s Under KCCA
i) Building Assessment fees.
This refer to the charges associated with evaluating and assessing various aspects of a building or development
project. These fees are typically collected by relevant authorities or agencies to cover the costs of reviewing
plans, conducting inspections, and ensuring compliance with regulations
This is normally charged in square meters and normally 1500 Ugx per SM in rural areas normally higher in
Municipalities and cities (between 2000-2500/- Ugx). For this particular case the Assessment fee was 820,000/-
Ugx
ii) Boundary wall fees.
This normally ranges between a lumpsum of 100,000- 150,000? - and between 200,000-250,0000/- Ugx in
urban centers
iii) Site inspection fees
This also varies from 100,000 to 400,000/- Ugx from rural areas to urban areas , regarding this case in
particular the charge 400,000/- Ugx per site visit.
iv) Structural fees .
This fees is charged for buildings with structural plans and charged per floor. For this particular project the
total fee was 600,000/- Ugx
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v) Building permit fees.
This refers to the charges associated with obtaining a building permit for construction, alteration, remodeling,
or repair work. These fees are imposed by local authorities and are typically based on the scope and value of the
project.
For this particular project the charges were 500,000/- Ugx
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Figure 18: showing Payment Registration slip for payment of building control fees
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Bills of Quantities
The survival of any business is heavily depends on the success of commercial management. When it
comes to commercial management in construction industry, Bill of Quantities (BOQ) is the term
which brings attention of every construction professionals and stakeholders.
It is one of the communication tool which connects the parties (Client, consultant & contractor) of
construction project. Keith defines, BOQ is a schedule which categories, details and quantifies the
materials and other cost items to be used in construction project. It is important to know that; direct
costs & indirect costs are to be considered for complete cost of the project which are covered in
different parts of the BOQ.
Generally, BOQ is in tabular form which contents description, unit, quantity, rate & amount in
different columns.
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Sample BOQ Document, PDF
Description column provides a brief explanation of what to be done. For example, in the first item, the
32mm diameter CPVC pipes should be laid for cold water services in 20 bar operating pressure.
Specification & drawings are other two important items to be analyzed in detail for clear
understanding. Here the term engineer means the consultant for the project.
THE IMPORTANCE OF BOQ

BOQ shall be used in every phase (pre-contract & post-contract) of the project but need of BOQ
differs based on different contract agreements & project. The major usages are listed below.
It provides basic idea of the project by giving the quantities to tenderers.
It defines the extent of the work. (But it should be identified in line with drawings & specification as
well).
It gives estimated or anticipated contract sum. (very important to client)
It provides a basis for valuation of variation. (Variation is to be discussed in detail).
THE MAJOR PARTS OF BOQ
Parts of BOQ can be varied according to the project size as well the practices. Generally, it has
measured works, Preliminaries & Provisional sums. The contract sum would be addition of these three
items.
Preliminaries
In construction industry, preliminaries is known as the indirect cost for execution of project but these
are the costs which is very much vital for the construction activities. The reason for these cost
mentioned separately is it is very difficult to distribute these cost amongst with measured works. The
examples for preliminaries listed below.
➢ Charges for performance bond, advance payment guarantee & Workmen compensation
➢ Maintenance of the site clean
➢ Requirement of site office, site stores & staff accommodation.
➢ Cost towards the project management staff (QS, Project Manager, Engineering professionals)
➢ Charges for drawings & safety
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From the above-mentioned examples, it can be understood these costs cannot be distributed to work
item but without these expenses there will be no project.
Measured works
It is the actual or estimated work will be carried out to complete the project. The works have been
measured in different units. They are liner meter, square meter, cubic meter, number, item & etc.
Value of measured works will be calculated by multiplication of quantities and rate.
Provisional sums
It is the sum which is allocated for the undersigned works at the tender time. It will be adjusted after
the execution of the project.
In summary BOQ is very much important for the commercial management purposes. It should be
understood by every construction professional to deliver a quality and expected product to client. In
other words, to provide value for money.
Building services
What is Building Services?

❖ Building function cannot be limited to provide shelter only. Basically “Building Services” is what that
make the building comes to life. i.e. what makes the building work.
❖ Building should be designed in such a way to provide an environment where people can feel comfortable,
work, live and achieve.
❖ So, everything inside a building which makes it safe and comfortable, comes under the title of “Building
Services”
❖ A building must do what it was designed to do-not just provide shelter but also provide a safe, comfortable
and livable environment.
❖ Building services contribute largely to the sustainability and functioning of the building.
❖ Building services systems are essential provisions for a building, accounting for 20% to 40% of the total
construction cost. Figure 1 shows the cost breakdown of a typical government office building.
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Building service is one of the important parts for a building because it will make a building to function well.
Building service is responsible for the design, installation, and operation and monitoring of the mechanical,
electrical and public health systems required for the safe, comfortable and environmentally friendly operation of
modern buildings. Modern technology of building service can make a building to become more safety or more
comfortable. While building developers are increasingly being asked to analyze and improve building security,
developing technologies assisting engineers in the pursuit of safe working environments couldn't have better
timing. Hence, innovation of new building service is important so that the level of safety and comfortable can be
increases. Building services influence the architecture of a building and play a significant role on the sustainability
and energy demand of a building. Within building services engineering, new roles are emerging, for example in
the areas of renewable energy, sustainability, low carbon technologies and energy management. With buildings
accounting for around 50% of all carbon emissions, building services engineers play a significant role in
combating climate change. As such, a typical building services engineer has a wide-ranging career path.
Communication lines, telephones and IT networks (ICT) also make an important role in building service, and the
modern technology for the ICT is fiber optics that makes use of fiber optics than normal internet cable, hence this
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can hugely increases the speed of internet because fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel
along them with less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for
illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight
spaces.
Building services include:

• HVAC
• Water supply
• Drainage and Plumbing
• Lighting-Day and Artificial
• Communications, Telephones and IT Networks
• Energy Supply- Gas, Electricity and renewable resources
• Automation
• Kitchen
• Acoustics
• Fire Detection and Protection
• Security and Alarm Systems
• Escalators and Lifts
• Ventilation and Refrigeration
• Harnessing Solar, Wind and Biomass energy
• Facade Engineering
Importance of Building Services:
• Today with the advancement of sciences and technology, all those building services listed above are more
modern and became indispensable for buildings.
• As an example, certain types of building such as department store or industrial buildings are almost 100%
dependent of electrical lighting, ventilating and space heating.
• High rise buildings rely on vertical transportation and high-speed pressure for water supply.
• Although those services are indispensable for modern buildings, they also have an impact. In fact the
implementation of those services demands a considerable amount of floor and ceiling so proper planning
is necessary for their allocation. Increase of ceiling and floors will lead to an increase of the cost of
construction to which building construction team should be aware of. One of the considerable impacts
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on building is the increase of energy consumption which does not only affect the building but the
environment as well.
• In fact, designing, construction, operating and maintaining buildings demand a considerable amount of
energy, water and other resources which lead to a large amount of waste.
• The complexity of mechanical and electrical systems varies according the living standard of the society,
the climatic conditions of the region and the occupancy and quality of the building.
Main objectives of BSE design
• Hygiene (prevent disease & ensure health)

• Safety (protect against risks)
• Comfort (physio- & psycho- well-beings)
Classification of Building Services:
Building should be design with features to provide better lighting, comfortable space, temperature and air
quality, convenient power and communication capability, high quality sanitation and reliable systems for the
protection of life and property. Building services are mainly divided into mechanical, electrical and building
operation systems. They are all very important and should be put into consideration during planning, designing
and construction of a building.
1. Mechanical systems include:

o HVAC Systems: heating, ventilation and air conditioning.
o Site drainage: water, drainage, sanitary disposal.
o Plumbing: water distribution, water treatment, sanitary facilities.
o Fire protection: water supply, stand pipe, fire and smoke detection, annunciation.
o Gas supply
2. Electrical systems include:

o Electrical power: normal, standby, emergency power supply and distribution.
o Lighting: interior, exterior, emergency light.
o Auxiliary: telephone, data, audio and video sound.
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3. Building operation systems include:
o Transportation: elevators, escalators, moving walkways.
o Processing: product, food, services.
o Automation: environmental control and management.
Careers in Building Services Industry

There is a very wide range of roles in the building services industry, here are a few:
➢ Service Technicians: Install, maintain, service, repair and troubleshoot HVAC equipment and other
building services using diverse knowledge of electrical components, motors, control systems, air flow,
piping design, thermodynamics and refrigeration systems.
➢ Commissioning Technicians: Carry out the setting up and tuning of new HVAC systems and complex
building services.
➢ Draftspersons: Use sophisticated computer aided design and drawing systems together with technical
knowledge and skills to design and document HVAC and other building services systems for manufacture
and installation.
➢ Plumbers: Fabricate, install and repair pipe and ductwork systems that carry fluids such as heating and
cooling water and air for air conditioning and ventilation throughout buildings. They also install the plant
and equipment that heats and cools and pumps the fluids and heats and cools and moves the air.
➢ Engineers: Conceive and design building services systems based on functional requirements and the
need to conserve energy and water, they also play roles in solving problems and ensuring that systems
are maintained correctly and operate efficiently. They address areas thermodynamics, electrical theory,
fluid mechanicals, mechanical design, materials technology and regulatory and code compliance.
➢ Sprinkler Fitters: Fabricate, install and repair fire sprinkler and fire hydrant systems that protect
building occupants and buildings from the effects of fire.
➢ Alarms Technicians: Install, maintain, service, repair and troubleshoot complex fire and life safety
monitoring and alarm systems that help protect building occupants and buildings from the effects of fire.
➢ Controls Technicians: Install, maintain, service, repair and troubleshoot the sophisticated computerized
building automation systems (BAS) that control the efficient operation of HVAC, electrical and fire and
life safety systems in modern buildings.
➢ Electricians: Install, maintain, service, repair and troubleshoot lighting and power systems.
➢ Contractors and Business Owners: Combines technical and entrepreneurial skills to communicate an
assess customer needs and derive appropriate technical solutions.
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Building services engineers work closely with other construction professionals; architects, structural engineers
and quantity surveyors. They influence the architecture of a building and play a significant role on the
sustainability and energy demand of a building. Within building services engineering, new roles are emerging,
for example in the areas of renewable energy, sustainability, low carbon technologies and energy management.
With buildings accounting for around 50% of all carbon emissions, building services engineers play a
significant role in combating climate change. As such, a typical building servicemengineer has a wide-ranging
career path:
Design: designing layouts and requirements for building services for residential or commercial developments.
Construction: supervising the construction of the building services, commissioning systems and ongoing
maintenance and operation of services.
Environmental: developing new energy saving methods for construction, designing new and improved energy
conservation systems for buildings.
Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC): specialising in the design, development, construction and
operation of HVAC systems.
Electrical technology: specializing in the design and development of electrical systems required for safe and
energy sustaining operation of buildings.
Significance of building services
• Building & construction industry is an important sector in every society and it shapes the built
environment in which we live
• Building services installations are essential provisions for every building and could account for 20-40%
of total building cost
• BSE affects people's comfort, health & productivity
• BSE influences the building's performance, local & global environment (e.g. energy, water resources &
air pollution)
Main objectives of BSE design
• Hygiene (prevent disease & ensure health)

• Safety (protect against risks)
• Comfort (physio- & psycho- well-beings)
• Convenience (efficiency & productivity)
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Aspects of BSE work
• Main Aspects
o Understanding and using physics
o Using mathematics to solve technical or scientific problems
o Learning about buildings, roads etc and how they are built
o Analytical ability to understand and solve challenging problems
• Secondary Aspects
o Learning how machines work
o Understanding technical drawings and diagrams
o Improving or managing the environment
o Understanding the scientific uses and properties of materials
o Planning how work is to be carried out
o Problem solving by seeking new ideas
o Travelling around locally from place to place
o Learning about the uses of computers
o Explaining ideas and information to people
Related areas/disciplines
• HVAC+R (heating, ventilating & air-conditioning + refrigeration)

• Fire services
• Water supply & drainage
• Public health
• Gas & steam supply
• Electrical services
• Lighting systems
• Security
• Facade engineering
• Communication
• Acoustics
• Vertical transportation (e.g. lifts & escalators)
• Building management & control system
• Refuse disposal system
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Work activities
• Building services engineers design building services systems. They also supervise their installation and
operation. Certain types of buildings need complex building services. For example, computer rooms need
precise controls of temperature and humidity, hospital operating theatres must be completely sterile and
factories must prevent any harmful fumes from going into the atmosphere. Office buildings, swimming
pools, cold stores, museums and leisure centres also have particular requirements that building services
engineers need to meet.
• Some building services engineers are mainly office based as they specialize in design work. They work
closely with the architect, the customer and other members of the design team to prepare a design for a
building project. This includes all drawings and detailed specifications for use by the contractor. They
often use computer-aided design (CAD) packages for this work.
• Designs must meet environmental needs, use energy efficiently and meet the budget set by the customer.
Engineers need overall knowledge of the full range of building services, although they usually specialize
in either mechanical services or lighting/electrical services.
• Building services engineers maintain close links with other professionals such as the construction
manager and the surveyor to decide how many staff are needed and to work out costs. They supervise the
installation of the building services and inspect the quality of the work, dealing with any problems that
arise.
• BSE career opportunities also arise in the fields of Construction Project Management and Facilities
Management particularly in the area of modern industrial facilities involving clean room manufacturing,
such as in pharmaceutical and electronics production.
• Typical works of building services consulting firms include:
o Feasibility, inspection, technical reports, estimating
o Design, specification, drawings, tender procurement
o Contract management, site supervision, cost control
• Activities vary according to the specialist area of work and employer (for example, client/end-user,
building contractor or engineering consultancy). However, tasks typically involve:
o negotiating and developing project contracts and agreeing these with clients, if working in
consultancy, and putting out tenders;
o commissioning, organizing and assessing the work of contractors;
o working with detailed diagrams, plans and drawings;
o using specialist computer-aided design (CAD) software and other resources to design the systems
required for the project;
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o managing and forecasting spend, using whole life cycle costing techniques, ensuring that work
is kept to budget;
o designing site-specific equipment as required;
o overseeing and supervising the installation of building systems and specifying maintenance and
operating procedures;
o monitoring building systems and processes;
o making decisions about expired systems equipment and the appropriate location of new
equipment;
o facilities management;
o liaising closely with other professionals, including structural engineers, builders, architects and
surveyors, and in-house project teams;
o attending a range of project group and technical meetings;
o ensuring that the design and maintenance of building systems meets legislative and health and
safety requirements;
o advising clients and architects on energy use and conservation in a range of buildings and sites,
aiming to minimize the environmental impact and reduce the carbon footprint;
o working on a variety of projects within a short period of time.
Personal qualities and skills
• As a Building Services Engineer, you should be a good team worker as you will work closely with various
construction professionals such as Architects, Quantity Surveyors and Structural Engineers. You should
also be a good communicator as you have to explain ideas and designs to other members of the team.
You also need a creative and enquiring mind and an ability to solve problems.
• Building Services Engineers are concerned primarily with the progress of technology through innovation,
creativity and change. They develop and apply new technologies; promote advanced designs and design
methods; introduce new and more efficient production techniques and marketing and construction
concepts; and pioneer new engineering services and management methods. They may be involved with
the management and direction of high-risk and resource intensive projects. Professional judgement is a
key feature of their role, allied to the assumption of responsibility for the direction of important tasks,
including the profitable management of industrial and commercial enterprises.
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CONTRACTS
What is a Contract
A contract is an agreement between parties, creating mutual obligations that can be enforced by law.
A contract may be oral or written, however a written contract is always preferred. Contracts should clearly state
all requirements, responsibilities, terms and Some of the legal requirements governing contracts include;
• A contract must contain an offer
• Acceptance
• Provide for a consideration or payment
• Be executed by someone with the capacity and authority
• The terms and conditions in a contract should define breaches, copyrights, intellectual rights and force
majeure
Types of Contracts
(Project Management Institute. (2017). A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK guide)
(6th ed.). Project Management Institute)
a) Fixed Price/Lump sum contracts
These are also referred to as Firm-fixed or lump sum contracts/ they involve fixing a total price for a product or
service or result at the time of signing. These types of contracts may provide incentives for exceeding contract
requirements
• Firm-fixed Price Contracts
This is the most commonly used type of contract where a price is set at the beginning stage. It is favoured by
organizations because the price for goods is set at the outset and not subject to change unless the scope
of work changes.
• Fixed-Price Incentive Fee contracts
This fixed-price arrangement gives the buyer and seller some flexibility in that it allows for deviation from
performance, with financial incentives tied to achieving agreed-upon metrics. Typically, such financial incentives
are related to cost, schedule, or technical performance of the seller. Here, a price ceiling is set, and all costs above
the price ceiling are the responsibility
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of the seller.
• Fixed-Price with Economic Price Adjustment Contracts
This type is used whenever the seller’s performance period spans a considerable period of years, or if the
payments are made in a different currency. It gives a special provision allowing for predefined final adjustments
to the contract price due to changed conditions, such as inflation changes or cost increases (or decreases) for
specific commodities
b) Cost-reimbursable Contracts
These types of contracts involve payments (cost reimbursements) to the seller for all legitimate actual costs
incurred for completed work, plus a fee representing seller profit. This type should be used if the scope of work
is expected to change significantly during the execution of the contract.
Variations can include:
• Cost plus fixed Fee
The seller is reimbursed for all allowable costs for performing the contract work and
receives a fixed-fee payment calculated as a percentage of the initial estimated project costs. Fee amounts do not
change unless the project scope changes.
• Cost Plus incentive fee
The seller is reimbursed for all allowable costs for performing the contract work
and receives a predetermined incentive fee based on achieving certain performance objectives as set forth in the
contract. In CPIF contracts, if the final costs are less or greater than the original estimated costs, then both the
buyer and seller share costs from the departures based upon a pre-negotiated cost-sharing formula, for example,
an 80/20 split over/under target costs based on the actual performance of the seller.
• Cost plus Award fee
The seller is reimbursed for all legitimate costs, but the majority of the fee
is earned based on the satisfaction of certain broad subjective performance criteria that are defined and
incorporated into the contract. The determination of fee is based solely on the subjective determination of seller
performance by the buyer and is generally not subject to appeals.
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c) Time and Material Contracts
Time and material contracts (also called time and means) are a hybrid type of contractual arrangement with
aspects of both cost-reimbursable and fixed-price contracts. They are often used for staff augmentation,
acquisition of experts, and any outside support when a precise statement of work cannot be quickly prescribed.
STANDARD FORM OF CONTRACTS
FIDIC Contracts
FIDIC is the International Federation of consulting engineers known by its French acronym. it was formed in
1913, with the objective of promoting the interests of consulting engineering firms globally. It is best known for
its range of standard conditions of contract for the construction, plant and design industries. The FIDIC forms are
the most widely used forms of contracts internationally, including by the Uganda's Ministry of works and
transport and World Bank for its projects.
The FIDIC family of contracts
The FIDIC “rainbow suite” of new contracts was published in 1999 and includes
The Red Book: conditions of contract for construction for building engineering works designed by the Employer
The yellow book: Conditions of contract for Plant and Design-Build
A Silver book; Conditions of contract for EPC or turnkey projects
The Green Book; Conditions of short-term short form of contract
These new forms were first editions and designed by to be user friendly, with a standardized approach and a
reduction in the general conditions from over 60 to 20 clauses.
Additional forms in use since 1999 include;
The Blue Book: Contract for dredging and reclamation works
MDB/FIDIC Contract; FIDIC conditions incorporated in the standard building documents of multilateral
development banks
The White Book; Client or Consultant model services agreement
The Gold Book; FIDIC Design, Build and Operate projects.
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to assist with implementing it's founding objectives, the FIDIC approach to drafting contracts has always been
underpinned by the principle that its contracts must provide a fair allocation of risks between the parties to a
contract, and that risks should be borne by the party best able to control them.
Understanding the contract and General Provisions
The Red Book and yellow books have a similar structure with 20 general conditions. Both have guidance to assist
in the preparation of particular conditions and also the option to add particular conditions.
The red book (the construction contract for building an engineering works designed by the Employer) is intended
to be used where the employer is responsible for the design of the works. It is a re-measurement contract; meaning
that the employee and the contractor will agree in their contract that the rates for types of work and those rates
will be applied to the quantity of that work that the contractor carries out. The employer takes the risk that the
quantities it estimates will be more or less accurate, while the contractor must ensure that its unit prices for the
quantities are adequate.
The Yellow Book (the plant and design- build contract) is intended for use where the works are designed by the
contractor. It is a lump sum contract in which the contractor promises to deliver the project for a set price. The
contractor therefore takes the risk of quantities.
All FIDIC Books define the role of the engineer especially as the agent of employer, the engineer is primarily
responsible for contract administration
Roles of the engineer
• Issues instructions and notices
• Monitors works
• Acts as a certifier
NOTE: The engineer is no longer stated to be impartial. In the Red Book and yellow books, the engineer is
deemed to and in practice does act for the employer. The contractor’s main obligation under any construction
contract is of course the construction and completion of the works within the specified time for completion and
in accordance with the contract.
The contractor’s other obligations under the red and yellow books include:
• Fitness for purpose- ensuring that it's design will meet the employer’s requirements
• Design responsibility
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• Carrying out the works in a proper and Workman-like manner with properly equipped facili-ties or non-
hazardous materials
• Providing those facilities and choosing those materials
• Responsibility for method of working.
The contractor also has an obligation to perform certain administrative and other functions, to facilitate
performance; including providing information needed for the execution and completion of works and issuing of
notices including for events, increasing costs or completion time.
How to avoid pitfalls
❖ Contractors Claims:
A key limitation under the red and yellow books is the requirement to serve notice in respect of a claim for an
extension of time or additional payment. The contractor must give notice of its intention to play my as soon as
possible and no later than 30 days after the contractor becomes aware, or should have become aware of the new
event, he must then submit its fully detailed claim within 42 days or becoming aware of an event or circumstance
that gives rise to rise to a claim. Previously, failure to comply with these time limits meant that any compensation
may be limited to some supported by contemporary records. Now there is no entitlement to compensation if the
contractor fails to comply.
❖ Variations and adjustments
Using the red and yellow books a variation for changes to their works can arise
• by an employer's instruction
• an employer’s Request for a Proposal
• A contract ‘value engineering’ proposal.
variations may have an adverse impact on the contract or on the guarantees in place for the project. For example,
through a reduction in the safety or suitability of the works, this should be monitored and flagged up immediately.
A contractor could have liability even where it is simply following the engineer’s instructions.
The contractor is only obliged to comply with employer’s request for a variation unless the contractor cannot
readily obtain the necessary goods required for that variation. One issue to be aware of is where the engineer’s
suggestions can be deemed to be variations. This will be determined by the facts of a particular event. The Red
and Yellow books provide that if the engineer gives an instruction on the contract or confirms that instruction in
writing within two working days, then if the engineer does not reject this confirmation within two working days,
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that confirmation is deemed to constitute a written instruction of the engineer. It is therefore very important to
ensure that any verbal instruction that changes the scope of the works is confirmed in writing. The contractor
should not make alterations and modification to the works unless instructed or approved by the engineer
❖ Delay and extension of time
The contractor will be liable for damages if the actual completion date of the works occurs after the agreed
completion date unless the delay is caused by a matter for which an extension of time is available and the
contractor complies with the notice and other requirements under the contract.
The contractor may be entitled to an extension of time where there is;
• A variation or addition of work instructed
• exceptionally adverse weather
• unforeseeable shortages in the availability of personnel or goods
• delays caused by the employer
• a cause of delay under any other clause in the contract
• unforeseeable delay caused by complying with public authority procedures.
The contractor must strictly comply with the notice requirements under the contract including giving all necessary
information required in relation to the claim.
NOTE; that minutes of a meeting or a contractor’s progress report are unlikely to constitute proper notice.
❖ Dispute Resolution
Disputes under Red and Yellow Book contracts should be referred to Dispute Adjudication Board (D.A.B). The
D.A.B can be created at the start of the project or when this dispute occurs. It is an informal process which
encourages party involvement and recognizes the need for speed. The contracts provide that a D.A.B’s decision
will become final and binding 28 days after it is issued if the parties do not give a notice of dissatisfaction. Where
a notice of dissatisfaction is given, the parties are obliged to attempt amicable settlement of their disputes. Unless
such disputes are settled amicably, any dispute in respect of which the DAB’s decision has not become final and
binding will be settled by international arbitration.
The importance of record keeping
Keeping adequate records is essential to
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• establish entitlements to money and time.
• Defend subcontractor claims
• comply with contracts reporting obligations.
The effective administration of a FIDIC contract is essential to ensure that time and money claims are protected.
It is important to write notices in clear and unequivocal terms. Do not hint or insinuate. Keeping effective records
will assist contractors and employers to prove their entitlements and enable both parties to accurately ascertain
their positions in the event that a dispute arises.
Standard Contract JCT
The Joints Contract Tribunal (J.C.T)
This is the most common standard form construction contract used in the UK, accounting for about 70% of UK
projects. The joint contracts tribunal (JCT) is made up of seven members who represent a wide range of interests
in the building and construction industries. It produces standard forms of contract, guidance, notes and other
standard documentation for use in the industry. The intention of the JCT is that the contracts generated by them
represent a balanced allocation of risk between the parties
The JCT suite of contracts.
The most recent version is the 2011 suite. This takes account of changes of the housing grants, construction and
the regeneration Act 1996, which affects payment and dispute resolution. However, previous editions of JCT are
still in use.
The main contracts in the JCT suit are;
• Standard building contract (SBC)
• Design and build contract format
Format and structure that the standard format of a UCC contract is one articles of agreement to contract particulars
these contain project specific information and three conditions of contract
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The Public Procurement and Disposal of Public Assets Authority (PPDA)
For the case of Government departments and agencies in Uganda, they are obliged to follow the public
procurement law. The law emphasizes best practices including procurement and disposal principles, rules,
administrative review systems, codes of conduct, as well as suspension of providers for offenses and disciplinary
measures against public officers who commit malpractices.
The Public Procurement and Disposal of Public Assets Act 1 of 2003 set up the Public Procurement and Disposal
of Public Assets Authority (PPDA) as the principal regulatory body for public procurement and disposal.
The law is also complimented by Regulations, Guidelines, Forms and Standard Bidding Documentation. These
serve to assist the procuring and disposing entities and providers of services, supplies and works in carrying out
procurement and disposal processes.
Role of PPDA
The Act set up the Public Procurement and Disposal of Public Assets Authority (PPDA) in 2003 to:
• Ensure the application of fair, competitive, transparent, non-discriminatory and value for money,
procurement and disposal standards and practices
• Harmonize the procurement and disposal policy systems and practices of Central Government, Local
Governments and Statutory bodies
• Set standards for the public procurement and disposal systems in Uganda
• Monitor compliance of procuring and disposing entities
Tendering
Definition
It refers to the submission given as a reply for an invitation by a potential contractor or vendor. It gives an offer
to obtain services or goods. Although there are many tendering activities, in construction tendering mainly
focus on the selection of constructor for a given project. As a Quantity Surveyor, you should understand all
aspects of it whether you are working with contractor or consultant. Therefore, this article focus on tender
documents which are commonly used in construction industry.
Tender documents
The commonest tender documents in uganda include;
Instruction to bidders
Bidding data
Conditions of contract
Contract data
Standard forms
Specifications
Forms of bid
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Bills of Quantities
Schedules
Drawings
Standard forms (BID)
Instruction to bidders
By referring this a bidder can conduct a self-evaluation about themselves on the eligibility criteria. It gives a
complete picture about the procedures to be followed in particular project starting from preparation bid to
award of contract. In other words, it illustrates all activities till the finalization of the bidder to a project. For
example, a bidder can decide that going for the tender submission will be worth or not. In an instruction to
bidders below information shall be available.
Language of bid
Eligibility and qualification of the bidders
Rules related to joint ventures
Bid validity & Bid security
Pre-bid meetings & site visits
Bid finalization procedures
Bidding data
Employer shall provide necessary information before issuing tender documents to bidders. If any discrepancies
with instruction to bidders, bidding data shall supersede. The following information shall be found in a bidding
data.
✓ Employer’s name & address
✓ Scope of works
✓ Time for completion
✓ Qualification information & required registration
✓ Essential equipment requirement
✓ Bid validity & bid security
Conditions of contract
It refers to procedures to be followed throughout contract by all the stakeholders involved in a construction
project. Usage of conditions of contract is vital for smooth movement of activities. Depends on the complexity
of project and locations of projects, there are several condition s of contracts have been used. They are
published by various professionals’ bodies like as FIDIC (Fédération Internationale Des Ingénieurs – Conseils),
and CIDA (Construction Industry Development Authority). Depth understand of conditions of contract is
necessary to the successful management of construction project. Responsibilities and commitments to be
undertaken are notified in a detail manner.
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The following information shall be found in conditions of contract.
• Roles and powers of parties (Engineer/Employer/Contractor)
• Delays and commencements
• Variations and adjustments
• Contract price & payments
• Measurements & Termination
• Claims
• Disputes and arbitration
Conditions of contract shall be explained in a separate article in future. For example, clause by clause analysis.
Contract data
It is about referring the conditions of contract and adding or modifying specific terms related to the particular
project. In other words, although conditions of contract are being very useful for the management of project, at
occasions it may be irrelevant for specific project. If any discrepancies with conditions of contract, contract data
shall supersede. The following example shall clarify this in detail by using clauses.
Example;
SBD/02/Clause 2.1
Although it is stated that contractor can access to the site within 14 days from LOA received, but if employer
wishes to reduce to 7 days it can be done through contract data.
Standard forms
Forms are used in construction industry at the awarding stage to avoid disputes and maintain uniformity
amongst project. In other words, it confirms that every stakeholder in the contract is being committed fully and
risk has been shared. The following standard forms are available generally in construction contracts.
Letter of acceptance
Agreement
Performance security – Insuring a client against the risk of contractor failing to fulfill contractual obligations
Advance payment security – To secure the advance payment given to contractor against default by the
contractor
Retention money guarantee
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The tendering/Bidding Process
Owners and contractors alike rely on the bidding process to find the right partners for thriving, profitable projects.
However, exactly how a project owner or general contractor chooses to manage the bidding process — also
known internationally as tendering — varies according to project type and preference. Types of tendering include;
o Open tendering
Open tendering is used in both private and public construction, though it is nearly universal in the public sector
and only rarely used on private projects. Overall, open tendering tends to increase competition, leading to lower-
priced bids. However, project owners and General Contractors that use open tendering frequently use a request
for qualifications (RFQ) to ensure that only qualified contractors bid on the job.
If a private developer is working in a new area and lacks trusted contractor relationships or if the specialized
nature of the project demands expertise, they may open the bid up to all contractors in order to find a competitive
bid and develop partnerships with local contractors.
o Selective tendering
With selective tendering, the project owner or GC invites only a select number of bidders to submit bids. Selective
tendering tends to be the most common approach on private construction projects, which often require a high
degree of construction management or specialty trade expertise. Contractors are invited to bid based on their
existing relationship with the buyer, their performance on previous projects, or their expertise in a specific project
type.
Bids may be solicited through a bid management platform in order to streamline the process. Larger general
contractors often utilize their own prequalification process to select specialty contractors for their bid list.
Selective tendering allows for greater quality control. The buyer selects from a pool of contractors who have a
proven track record of delivering a specific type of work at a high standard. Pulling from a list of trusted
contractors enables the solicitor to reduce project risks and efficiently move to the next stage of construction.
On the other hand, selective tendering reduces overall competition, which could lead to higher prices overall.
Generally speaking, project owners and GCs who use selective tendering find that the benefit of working with
trusted partners outweighs the downside of less competition.
Additionally, selective tendering with known contractors may mean that a project can get started sooner and see
fewer delays throughout the construction process, which ultimately saves the buyer money.
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o Negotiated tendering
Negotiated tendering involves a project owner or GC negotiating directly with one bidder to determine the final
price and terms of the contract. This is typically used for complex projects or projects where the owner has an
established relationship with a specific contractor.
Negotiated tendering is common in many sectors of private construction. By negotiating directly with a known
partner, the buyer is able to streamline the bidding process, avoiding lengthy negotiation, prequalification, and
bid levelling. During the negotiated tendering process, the buyer works with the contractor to develop a realistic
budget, minimizing the risk of cost overruns.
n the other hand, negotiating tendering has the disadvantage of not allowing for any price comparison among
various bids. However, buyers that use negotiated tendering in their projects have in-house estimators that help
ensure that realistic cost estimates are informing every aspect of the project’s scope of work.
Why construction bidding matters
▪ Bidding is an essential part of the construction process and ensures that the owner receives the highest
quality of work while obtaining the best value for their available budget.
▪ By understanding the different types of bidding and defining key project parameters, owners and
contractors can select the best process to mitigate risk, deliver value and maximize efficiency on their
projects.
▪ Maintaining a historic cost database of bids can further minimize inefficiencies and risks, maximize
productivity, and protect profitability. Proactively approaching preconstruction, specifically the
tendering process, will set the foundation for success and ensure that the project is delivered on time, on
budget, and according to specifications.
THE STAGES OF BIDDING
1. A buyer releases a contract notice to the market, outlining the specifics of the contract that they are procuring.
Interested organisations can monitor contract notices until they identify something of interest to their business.
2. Companies interested in bidding for the contract must express an interest and access the full tender pack. Here,
all contract specifics will be outlined in full, as well as the invitation to tender document to which they need to
respond. Each tender is different, depending on the contract in question and how it will be evaluated, so it is
important to read these documents in full.
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3. Bid preparation: read and understand all contract documents and submit any clarification questions to the buyer
if anything is not clear. Nearly all public sector procurement exercises are operated via an online portal, and this
is where you must communicate with the buyer. At this stage it may also be worthwhile to conduct market
research, and compare your organisation against any likely competitors.
4. Commence writing the bid. Whether the bidding process is being completed solely in house or you are enlisting
professional bid writing support, once the above steps are all complete, it is then a case of drafting your answers
to the PQQ or ITT (invitation to tender) document. Remember to focus primarily on what the buyer is actually
asking you, rather than what you wish to put in your proposal.
5. Once you have drafted your bid response, ensure this is reviewed and proofread by another pair of eyes, if
possible, to finalise your bid document.
6. Submit your bid. Submission is done as per requirement for example online or in person. The submission must
be made ahead of the deadline and adhering to any particular requirements.
7. The outcome of your bid and an outline of which bidder(s) have been successful and contracts awarded will
be communicated in due course, usually via an email and available on the portal for you to access. It is common
for the award decision to be delayed, but ensure one must keep up with all communication from the authority so
that you are aware of this, and aware of the possible start date of the contract bid.
8. Whether your bid was successful or not, a request of feedback to support continual improvement for the next
bidding process is encouraged.
Bid documents
Bid documents are used to solicit proposals from prospective sellers. Terms such as bid, tender, or quotation are
generally used when the seller selection decision is based on price (as when buying commercial or standard
items), while a term such as proposal is generally used when other considerations such as technical capability or
technical approach are the most important. Specific procurement terminology used may vary by industry and
location of the procurement.
Depending on the goods or services needed, the bidding documents can include;
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• Request for information
Request for information (RFI) is used when more information on the goods and services to be acquired
is needed from the sellers. It will typically be followed by an RFQ or RFP.
• Request for quotation (RFQ).
An RFQ is commonly used when more information is needed on how vendors would satisfy the
requirements and/or how much it will cost.
• Request for proposal (RFP).
An RFP is used when there is a problem in the project and the solution is not easy to determine. This is
the most formal of the “request for” documents and has strict procurement rules for content, timeline,
and seller responses.
The buyer structures procurement documents to facilitate an accurate and complete response from each
prospective seller and to facilitate easy evaluation of the responses.
These documents include a description of the desired form of the response, the relevant procurement Statement
of Work (SOW), and any required contractual provisions. The complexity and level of detail of the procurement
documents should be consistent with the value of, and risks associated with, the planned procurement.
Procurement documents are required to be sufficiently detailed to ensure consistent, appropriate responses, but
flexible enough to allow consideration of any seller suggestions for better ways to satisfy the same requirements.
Source Selection criteria
In choosing evaluation criteria, the buyer seeks to ensure that the proposal selected will offer the best quality for
the services required. The source selection criteria may include but are not limited to:
▪ Capability and capacity;

▪ Product cost and life cycle cost;
▪ Delivery dates;
▪ Technical expertise and approach;
▪ Specific relevant experience;
▪ Adequacy of the proposed approach and work plan in responding to the SOW;
▪ Key staff’s qualifications, availability, and competence;
▪ Financial stability of the firm;
▪ Management experience; and
▪ Suitability of the knowledge transfer program, including training.
▪ For international projects, evaluation criteria may include “local content” requirements, for example,
participation by nationals among proposed key staff.
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SITE WORKS
When a builder is given possession of a building site the contractor will have been provided with the
site layout plan and the detail drawings necessary for him to construct the building(s). Under most
forms of building contract, it is the builder’s responsibility to see that the setting out is accurate. The
site having been taken over, the task of preparing for and setting out the building can be commenced.
These operations can be grouped under three headings:
➢ Clearing the site;
➢ Hoarding and fencing
➢ Setting out the building;
➢ Establishing a datum level.
Clearing the site

Site clearing is the first step in any construction project that involves removing any elements on the
land that may get in the way of the construction process. This includes shrubs, vegetation, rocks, and
other debris. The goal of site clearing is to create a construction site conducive to the project, allowing
the construction team to start working on building the actual structure.
There are many things to consider when clearing a site. To start, it’s important to clear out anything
that can get in the way of the construction project to allow for a safe and secure structure. However,
it’s also essential for teams to consider the environmental impact of their site clearing operations and
take steps to reduce it.
Importance
Most construction sites and properties are not ready for a structure to be built on the land. This is
because most properties contain a lot of debris and vegetation that will prevent the team from building
a solid foundation and a safe structure.
Site clearing can be seen as the construction equivalent of priming a surface before painting for a
better overall output. Without site clearing, teams will be working on uneven land with debris that can
get in the way of establishing solid foundations and meeting the ultimate goal of the project.
On top of that, most localities require teams to effectively clear a site before commencing with the
project. So, not only is it essential in improving the overall safety and stability of the project, most
construction projects won’t be allowed to start unless the site has been properly cleared?
When Is It Necessary?
Site clearing is necessary for all construction projects, as it is the first step in this process. Even if a
property has minimal debris, the team must clear the site before starting construction. Without clearing
the site, it will be much harder to build solid and stable structures. On top of that, an uncleared area
poses many hazards to workers that can lead to unforeseen accidents and incidents on-site.
Before teams start breaking ground and establishing the foundations of a project, it’s important for
them to clear the site first. So, before your team starts breaking ground and implementing the
construction project, it’s important to ensure that the site has been properly cleared and is free from
debris.
How is Site Clearing Performed?
Site clearing is a very comprehensive process with many steps, each of which with its own
requirements. On top of that, site clearing may look different depending on the type of project going
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on and the state of the property before clearing. However, these are the steps that most teams take
when performing site clearing:
➢ Determining the current state of the land and the debris that needs to be cleared
➢ Establishing a strategy for clearing the vegetation, rocks, and other debris and determining
what equipment is needed
➢ Clearing out any debris, removing old structures, and ensuring the site is graded and cleared
While site clearing is the first step in site preparation, the process doesn’t end there. Once teams are
done clearing a site, they may proceed with other preparation measures like surveying, soil testing,
and other processes before they start on the actual construction project.
Equipment Needed for Site Clearing

The type of equipment you will need to clear your site varies depending on the debris you need to
clear, the size of the property, and other factors. It’s important to select equipment that will easily
remove the debris, vegetation, and other things on the property you’re working on.
So, here are some of the most widely used pieces of equipment for site clearing and how they are
used:
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Hoarding and fencing
What is Construction Hoarding?

If you live in a big city or have ever visited one, you have probably seen construction hoarding.
Construction hoarding is defined as a fence or barrier between a construction site and the public. Its
purpose is simple, yet vital: to keep people safe. Construction sites – particularly those located along
pedestrian walkways – require construction hoarding to ensure that they don’t interfere with the
public .
Due to the additional materials and labour required to put up temporary hoarding, some may see it as a
hassle (albeit a necessary one). However, there are some major benefits to installing hoarding on your
building site! Before we get into the benefits of hoarding, let’s explore the different kinds of hoarding.
Types of Construction Hoarding
➢ Plywood
Timber (or more specifically, plywood) is one of the most popular materials used in construction
hoarding. Plywood is a lightweight material that can be used to enclose a construction site fairly
efficiently. Decals, construction signage and other graphics can be added to timber hoarding on the
exterior of the site for additional branding opportunities. Also, it can be a cost-effective type of
hoarding if you happen to have excess plywood laying around. However, this may not be the case in
modern times.
Lumber significantly increased in price at the beginning of the pandemic. Although the price of
lumber has since dropped to pre-pandemic levels, we all learned an important lesson about the
sometimes unpredictable nature of construction costs. Inflation and labour shortages have continued to
impact the price of many other construction materials.
For this reason, timber plywood may not always be the most economical option. If you are in
possession of some plywood, it is probably more valuable used elsewhere on your project.
➢ Temporary Fencing
Temporary fence can be an excellent option for construction hoarding, as it can be easily sourced and
it provides sufficient protection for the public. However, temporary fence on its own may not be
adequate for containing dirt and debris. Fortunately, this can be addressed by installing privacy
screening to help contain the dust produced by the site. You can even leverage your temporary fence
for advertising by adding some mesh banners.
That said, if the work is being performed in an outdoor setting you will need to account for extreme
weather, which can cause temporary fence to blow over. This is particularly important if you do plan
to hang any screening or signage from your fence. You may need to reinforce the fence, or consider a
more advanced stability solution like fence on jersey barrier . This provides an effective, stable breach
deterrent and hoarding system that will keep your site secure and the public safe.
It’s worth noting that temporary fencing is also more environmentally friendly than traditional
plywood hoarding. Plywood is generally a single-use material. Its integrity is affected by the
conditions on site, such as the weather – making it difficult to reuse plywood hoarding on another job.
Often, plywood hoarding cannot be recycled because it contains glue, nails, and other materials,
generating unnecessary waste. By contrast, temporary rental fence panels are built to withstand a lot of
abuse. They can be reused on multiple sites over the course of many years, making them a zero-waste
option.
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PVC- Polyvinyl chloride (better known as PVC) is another material commonly used for construction
hoarding. It can create an airtight barrier without any gaps to provide a secure temporary wall. It is
effective for protecting the public from the dangers of a construction site, and it can very easily be
branded with a company logo or rendering of the finished project.
One potential issue is that PVC hoarding is often disposed of at the end of the project, creating more
construction waste than a reusable solution like temporary fence. However, industry stakeholders are
beginning to popularize the use of recycled PVC for construction hoarding .
Benefits of Construction Hoarding

Although hoarding is usually a requirement of municipal construction or excavation bylaws, it
shouldn’t be seen as a necessary nuisance. In fact, it provides multiple benefits to the general
contractor. Here are the top three benefits of using construction hoarding on the job site:
Public Safety
Protecting public safety is really the primary purpose of construction hoarding, and one of its most
important benefits. In fact, this is the reason most cities in Canada require hoarding for construction
sites that are next to public access areas (for example, walkways, bridges, and shopping malls).
Hoarding around a site indicates to passersby that they are not to enter the area. You can further
reinforce this message by installing safety signage and warnings on your hoarding.
But to keep the public safe, the hoarding itself must not pose any danger to passersby. You want to
make sure your solution is durable and properly secured. To ensure your hoarding is reliable, install a
system that is wind resistant and safely secured into a base or the ground to prevent possible tipping.
Having properly secured hoarding is what will keep the public safe from potential hazards. Modu-Loc
has many methods for increasing stability of your temporary fence hoarding.
Site Security
Construction site hoarding not only protects the public, it also protects your project from the prying
eyes of the public. If you do not want your project to be revealed before it is finished, site hoarding is
great for keeping it hidden. In addition to providing privacy, site hoarding acts as a visual barrier
between your site and would-be thieves. Materials and tools being stored on your site are not visible to
passersby, protecting them from potential theft.
To further enhance site security , consider installing a system that acts as a visual breach deterrent. For
example, add security rails or barbed wire to the top of your hoarding. This way you can ensure your
masterpiece (and the tools you’re using to create it) stay safe and secure!
Branding Your Construction Site
One of the best (but most often overlooked) perks of installing construction hoarding is the branding
opportunity it provides. Hoarding provides the best bang for your buck when it comes to promoting
the project or your company. The investments you are making to keep the public safe can double as
advertising dollars if you brand your hoarding!
Branding your construction site is great for driving brand recognition, and can even increase sales. For
example, a contractor building a new condominium could use their construction hoarding to advertise
the development, and attract potential buyers looking for their next home.
Regulations for Construction Hoarding

The regulations for construction hoarding vary depending on the location of the job, as different
regions have different bylaws. For the most part, some form of construction hoarding is required on all
construction sites, indoor or outdoor, to protect public safety. However, certain parts of Canada may
have specific requirements for hoarding
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.
For example, performing construction work inside of a shopping mall may require air-tight hoarding.
In this case, plywood or PVC hoarding may be most suitable. This is to maintain the visual appeal of
the shopping Centre, while also protecting the public from harm. As well, it allows the property
manager and retailers to add their branding on the hoarding. One thing holds true for most indoor
construction work: your hoarding must contain the dust and noise generated by the project to avoid
disturbing those working or shopping in the building.
FENCING A building site and the compound can be given a degree of protection by surrounding with
a fence. The fence fulfils two functions: n it defines the limit of the site or compound; n it acts as a
deterrent to the would-be trespasser or thief. A fence can be constructed to provide a physical barrier
of solid construction or a visual barrier of open-work construction. If the site is to be fenced as part of
the contract it may be advantageous to carry out this work at the beginning of the site operations. The
type of fencing chosen will depend upon the degree of security required, cost implications, type of
neighborhood and duration of contract. A security fence around the site or compound should be at
least 1.800 m high above the ground and include the minimum number of access points, which should
each have a lockable barrier or gate. Standard fences are made in accordance with the
recommendations of BS 1722, which covers 13 forms of fencing giving suitable methods for both
visual and physical barriers: typical examples are shown
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Setting out the building;
The first task is to establish a baseline from which the whole of the building can be set out. The
position of this line must be clearly marked on-site so that it can be re-established at any time. For on-
site measuring a steel tape should be used (30 m would be a suitable length). Linen and plastic-coated
tapes are also available. The disadvantage with linen tapes is that they are liable to stretch. After the
baseline has been set out, marked and checked, the main lines of the building can be set out, each
corner being marked with a stout peg. A check should now be made of the setting-out lines for right
angles and correct lengths. There are several methods of checking whether a right angle has been
established, and in fact the setting out would have been carried out by one of these methods. A check
must still be made, and it is advisable to check by a different method to that used for the setting out.
The setting-out procedure and the methods of checking the right angles are illustrated in Fig. 1.1.1.
After the setting out of the main building lines has been completed and checked, profile boards are set
up as shown in Fig. 1.1.2. These are set up clear of the foundation trench positions to locate the trench,
foundations and walls. Profile boards are required at all trench and wall intersections
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FOUNDATION
A foundation is the base on which a building rests, and its purpose is to safely transfer the load of a
building to a suitable subsoil.
Choice of foundation type: The choice and design of foundations for domestic and small types of
buildings depends mainly on two factors:
The total loads of the building;
The nature and bearing capacity of the subsoil
Types of foundations
Foundations are usually made of either mass or reinforced concrete and can be considered under two
headings:
i. Shallow foundations: Those that transfer the loads to subsoil at a point near to the ground
floor of the building such as strips and rafts.
ii. Deep foundations: Those that transfer the loads to a subsoil some distance below the ground
floor of the building such as a pile
Excavations of foundation
Excavations may be classified as shallow, medium or deep as follows:
Shallow – up to 1.500 m deep;
Medium – 1.500–3.000 m deep
Deep – over 3.000 m deep.
The method of excavation and timbering to be used in any particular case will depend upon a number
of factors:
The nature of the subsoil can determine the type of plant or hand tools required and the amount
of timbering necessary.
The purpose of the excavation can determine minimum widths, minimum depths and the
placing of support members to give a reasonable working space within the excavation.
The presence of groundwater may necessitate the need for interlocking timbering, sump pits
and pumps; large quantities of groundwater may prompt the use of de-watering techniques.
The position of the excavation may impose certain restrictions such as the need for a license or
wayleave, highway authority or police requirements when excavating in a public road
Non-availability of the right type of plant for bulk excavation may mean that a different
method must be used.
The presence of a large number of services may restrict the use of machinery to such an extent
that it becomes uneconomic.
The disposal of the excavated spoil may restrict the choice of plant because the load and
unload cycle does not keep pace with the machine output
Before a foundation can be laid it is necessary to excavate a trench of the required depth and width.
On small contracts such as house extensions this is effectively carried out by hand, but on large works
it will be more economic to use some form of mechanical excavator.
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Timbering
This is a term used to cover temporary supports to the sides of excavations and is sometimes called
planking and strutting. The sides of some excavations will need support to: n protect the operatives
while working in the excavation; n keep the excavation open by acting as a retaining wall to the sides
of the trench. The type and amount of timbering required will depend upon the depth and nature of the
subsoil. Over a short period, many soils may not require any timbering, but weather conditions, depth,
type of soil and duration of the operations must all be taken into account, and each excavation must be
assessed separately. Suitable timbers for this work are: n Scots pine; n Baltic redwood; n Baltic
whitewood; n Douglas fir; n larch; n hemlock. Typical details of timbering to trenches are shown
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Different types of foundations
2 CHAPTER FOUR
2.1 YARD NAME
The name of the concrete product yard visited is called Bacra Contractors and suppliers Uganda Limited
2.2 LOCATION
It is located in Misindye, 3 km along Seeta-Bukerere Road from Seeta.
2.3 SIZE OF THE YARD

The yard is seated on approximately one acre which the company fully owns and has an estimated value
150million Uganda shilling.
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2.4 ORGANISATION STRUCTURE
2.5 PRODUCTION
The company produces quite a number of products which includes;
• Concrete pavers
• Fencing poles
• Concrete pavement slabs
• Curb stones
• Concrete louvers
• Concrete blocks
• Culverts
• Road barricades
2.5.1 Concrete pavers
Concrete pavers, also known as paving stones or pavers, are a popular type of landscaping and construction
material used for surfacing outdoor areas such as driveways, patios, walkways, and pool decks. They are typically
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made from molded concrete and come in a variety of shapes, sizes, colors, and textures, offering versatility and
aesthetic appeal to outdoor spaces.
Here are some key features and characteristics of concrete pavers:
Material: Concrete pavers are made from a mixture of Portland cement, aggregates (such as sand and gravel),
water, and coloring agents. The concrete mixture is poured into molds and compressed under high pressure to
create individual pavers with uniform dimensions and surface textures.
Shapes and Sizes: Concrete pavers come in a wide range of shapes and sizes, including square, rectangular,
circular, and irregular shapes. Standard sizes typically range from small "brick-sized" pavers to larger "slab-sized"
pavers, with thicknesses varying depending on the application and load-bearing requirements.
Colors and Textures: Concrete pavers are available in a variety of colors and surface textures to complement
different architectural styles and design preferences. They can mimic the look of natural stone, brick, cobblestone,
or other materials, providing a customizable and aesthetically pleasing surface for outdoor areas.
Installation: Concrete pavers are typically installed over a compacted base of crushed stone or gravel, followed
by a layer of bedding sand. The pavers are laid in a desired pattern or arrangement, with joints between them
filled with sand or polymeric jointing compound to lock them in place and prevent shifting. Proper installation
techniques are essential for ensuring stability, durability, and long-term performance of the paved surface.
Durability and Maintenance: Concrete pavers are durable and resilient, capable of withstanding heavy loads,
foot traffic, and exposure to the elements. They are resistant to cracking, fading, and staining, making them
suitable for outdoor use in various climates. Routine maintenance such as sweeping, occasional washing, and
sealing can help preserve the appearance and longevity of concrete paver surfaces.
Versatility: Concrete pavers are versatile and can be used in a wide range of applications, including driveways,
walkways, patios, pool decks, courtyards, and garden paths. They offer flexibility in design and can be easily
customized to fit irregular or curved spaces.
2.5.1.1.1 Process of production
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The production of concrete pavers involves several steps, from raw material preparation to the final curing of the
finished product. Here's an overview of the typical process:
Raw Material Preparation:
• Aggregate Selection: Aggregates such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone are selected based on their quality,
size, and gradation requirements. These aggregates form the bulk of the concrete mixture and provide strength
and durability to the pavers.
• Cement and Additives: Portland cement, along with supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash
or slag, is used as a binder in the concrete mixture. Additives such as color pigments or admixtures may also
be included to enhance certain properties of the pavers, such as color, strength, or workability.
Mixing:
The aggregates, cement, water, and any additives are carefully measured and mixed in precise proportions to
achieve the desired concrete mix design. The mixing process ensures uniform distribution of materials and proper
hydration of cement particles to form a workable concrete paste.
Molding:
The mixed concrete is poured into molds or forms that are shaped according to the desired size, shape, and texture
of the pavers. These molds may be made of steel, plastic, or rubber and can be reusable or disposable, depending
on the production process.
Compaction and Vibration:
Once filled, the molds are subjected to compaction and vibration to remove air voids, ensure proper consolidation
of the concrete mixture, and achieve a dense and uniform surface finish. This step helps prevent segregation and
improves the strength and durability of the pavers.
Curing:
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After compaction, the pavers are cured to allow the concrete to gain strength and durability over time. Curing
methods may include air curing, steam curing, or moist curing, depending on the production requirements and
desired properties of the pavers. Curing ensures that the concrete achieves its intended strength and durability
characteristics.
Quality Control and Testing:
Throughout the production process, quality control measures are implemented to ensure that the pavers meet
specified standards and performance criteria. Testing may include sampling and testing of raw materials, in-
process testing of concrete mixtures, and quality inspection of finished pavers to verify dimensions, strength,
color consistency, and surface finish.
Packaging and Storage:
Once cured and inspected, the finished pavers are stacked, packaged, and stored in a controlled environment to
prevent damage and maintain quality until they are ready for shipment to distribution centers or directly to
customers.
2.5.1.1.2 Cost
The cost of producing a rectangular paver of dimensions 200x100x120mm was 1400 Uganda shillings and sold
at 2900 Uganda shillings (whole sale price)
REFERENCES
1. Field Testing Manual for Tanzania, 2003, (Central Materials Laboratory);

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2. Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS), June 2003; Seismic code of practice for structural designs,
First Edition.
3. BOWLES J., 1997, Foundation Analysis and Design, Second Edition.
4. Craig’s Soil mechanics, 7th Edition.
5. BRINK, A. B. A. 1982, PARTRIDGE, T. C. AND WILLIAMS, A. A. B., -Soil survey for engineering –
Monographs on Soil Survey, Oxford Press.
6. BRYNE, G. AND BERRY, A.D. 2008, A guide to practical geotechnical engineering in Southern Africa. –
Franki, Fourth Edition.
7. JENNINGS, J. E. BRINK, A. B. A., AND WILLIAMS, A. A. B., 1973, Revised guide to soil profiling for
civil engineering purposes in South Africa. The Civil Engineer in S.A., Vol. 15 No. 1, January.
8. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. 1995, 1990. British Standards 1377: 1995 and British Standard
1377: 1990, Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes, London.
9. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. 1981. British Standards 1881:1981, Code of Practice for Site
Investigations, London.
10. KANIRAJ, S. R. 1995. Designs Aids in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Tata McGraw
Publishing Co. Ltd. New Delhi.
11. SCHMERTMANN, J. H. 1975. Measurement of in situ shear strength, keynote lecture, Proceedings of the
conference on in-situ measurement of soil properties, vol. II, American Society of Civil Engineers.
References
Project Management Institute. (2017). A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK guide)
(6th ed.). Project Management Institute.
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1 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 TERMINOLOGIES IN CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

1.1.1 PRELIMINARY PHASE.

1.1.1.1 Project Planning:

1.1.1.2 Site Investigation:

1.1.1.3 Soil investigation

1.1.1.4 Design Development:

1.1.1.5 Budgeting and Cost Estimation:

1.1.1.8 Project Scheduling:

1.1.1.9 Site preparation

• Site layout plan

Here are some common temporary structures found on building sites;

• Permitting and Compliance:

1.1.2 SUBSTRUCTURE PHASE

Components and activities of the substructure typically include:

Types of shallow foundations

Types of deep foundations

1.1.2.1.2.2 Subgrade Preparation

1.1.2.1.2.3 Plinth Walls

1.1.2.1.2.4 Starter Columns

1.1.2.1.2.5 Intermediate beams

1.1.2.1.2.6 Ground beams

1.1.2.1.2.8 Oversite concrete

1.1.2.1.2.9 Waterproofing and Drainage

1.1.3 SUPERSTRUCTURE PHASE.

Brief HISTORY OF CONSTRUCTION

History of Construction in the Stone Age

Ancient Egyptian Construction

Bricks and Mortar

Construction industry in uganda

Challenges of the construction industry in Uganda and other developing countries

Some of the objectives of the above site visit were;

Merits of carrying out a site visit

What are preliminaries?

Items included under preliminaries

Fixed and time-related charges

How to analyze a preliminary item

Time related charges

Contract period: 144 weeks

Payments for preliminaries in interim bills

1st method – Time Related

Example: Total Contract Value = UGX: 1,000,00

2nd method – Work Related

Some of the objectives of the above site visit were;

Some of the objectives of the above site visit were;

Some of the objectives of the above site visit were;

Components of a geotechnical report

Objectives of Geotechnical investigations.

Scope of the investigations

Field Exploratory and laboratory testing

Test Pit Excavation

Figure 1: Excavation of trial pits

Dynamic Cone penetrometer (DCP) test

• Atterberg Limits Tests

Figure 4: A line-chart for tested samples

• Natural Moisture content

• Determination of Soil Bearing Capacities

5. Recommendations and conclusions

Components of Architectural Drawings