Written Assignment Unit 3

1. The Hidden Node Problem

Definition:

The Hidden Node Problem is a significant issue in wireless networks where two nodes (devices)

are unable to sense each other's transmissions due to being out of range from one another.

This situation can lead to collisions when both nodes attempt to send data to a third node

simultaneously, resulting in data loss and inefficient communication (Kurose & Ross, 2017).

Spatial Configurations:

1. Configuration 1: A and B transmitting to C

- Imagine Node A is situated in a location where it can communicate with Node C but is

physically blocked from reaching Node B, which is positioned behind the same obstruction.

Node B, meanwhile, can also communicate with Node C but cannot detect the transmission

from Node A. If both nodes try to transmit data to Node C at the same time, their signals will

collide at Node C. This collision is undetectable to both Node A and Node B, leading to potential

data loss.

2. Configuration 2: D and E sending data to F

- In this scenario, Node D is far away from Node E, and both can successfully communicate

with Node F, who is located in between them. Since D and E are out of range of each other,

they cannot sense each other's transmissions. If Node D sends a message to Node F at the same
moment Node E does, the two transmissions will interfere with one another at Node F. Again,

neither D nor E is aware of the other’s activity, creating a classic hidden node scenario.

2. 4B/5B Encoding for the ASCII String “Sun”

Explanation of 4B/5B Encoding:

4B/5B encoding is a technique used in digital communications to ensure data integrity and

manage errors. It converts every 4 bits of data into a 5-bit code to provide a balance between

the number of ones and zeros in the signal, which helps maintain synchronization and reduces

the likelihood of errors (Ramaswami, Sivalingam, & Kumar, 2010).

Steps for Encoding the String “Sun”:

- ASCII Values:

- The ASCII value of 'S' is 83 (binary: `01010011`)

- The ASCII value of 'u' is 117 (binary: `01110101`)

- The ASCII value of 'n' is 110 (binary: `01101110`)

- Breaking into 4-bit groups:

- For 'S':

- First 4 bits: `0101` → 5-bit output: `11110`

- Next 4 bits: `0011` → 5-bit output: `01001`

- For 'u':
 - First 4 bits: `0111` → 5-bit output: `11010`

- Next 4 bits: `0101` → 5-bit output: `01001`

- For 'n':

- First 4 bits: `0110` → 5-bit output: `11000`

- Next 4 bits: `1110` → 5-bit output: `11101`

Final Encoded Output:

Combining all the 5-bit groups together, the 4B/5B encoding for the string "Sun" results in:

- For 'S': `11110 01001`

- For 'u': `11010 01001`

- For 'n': `11000 11101`

Thus, the complete encoded string is:

```

11110 01001 11010 01001 11000 11101

```

3. 16-bit Internet Checksum for the Binary Message

Internet Checksum Calculation:

transmitted data. It involves summing up 16-bit segments of data and then taking the one's

complement of the sum (RFC 1071, 1988).

Steps for Calculation:

1. Grouping into 16-bit words:

- Message: `00110001 00110010 00110011`

- Create two 16-bit words:

- Word 1: `00110001 00110010` (which is 49 + 50 in decimal)

- Word 2: `00110011` (which is 51 in decimal, add padding to make it a 16-bit word:

`00110011 00000000`)

2. Calculating the Sum:

- Convert to decimal:

- 49 (from `00110001`) + 50 (from `00110010`) = 99

- 99 + 51 (from `00110011 00000000`) = 150

3. Sum in Binary:

- 150 in binary is `10010110`.

- The one's complement is calculated by flipping all bits:

- The one's complement of `10010110` is `01101001`.

Therefore, the 16-bit Internet checksum is `01101001`.

4. CRC Checksum Calculation Using Polynomial 1011

Definition of CRC:

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is an error-detecting code used to detect accidental changes to

raw data. It uses polynomial division to produce a checksum that is appended to the data

(Tanenbaum & Wu, 2013).

Steps for Calculation:

1. Message and Polynomial:

- Message: `11011000`

- Polynomial: `1011` (which represents a degree of 3)

2. Append Zeros:

- To perform the CRC calculation, append three zeros (one less than the polynomial degree) to

the message:
 ```

11011000 000

```

3. Perform Binary Division:

- Using polynomial long division, divide `11011000 000` by `1011`:

```

1011

-----------------------

11011000 000 | 1011

1011

-----

01100

00000

11000

1011

-----

01010
 ```

4. Remainder:

- After completing the division, the remainder is `010`.

Therefore, the CRC checksum is `010`.

5. Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR)

Definition:

Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) is a diagnostic method primarily used in electrical

engineering to identify and locate faults in cables and transmission lines. TDR measures the

time it takes for a signal to travel down a cable and reflect back when it encounters a

discontinuity (like a fault or break) (Garmatyuk, 2015).

How TDR Works:

1. Pulse Generation:

- A TDR device sends a short electrical pulse along the transmission line.

2. Reflection Detection:

- When this pulse reaches a discontinuity (such as a break, short circuit, or impedance

mismatch), some of the signal reflects back toward the source.

3. Time Measurement:
 - The TDR measures the time it takes for the reflected pulse to return. Since the speed of the

signal is known (it travels at a fraction of the speed of light in the medium), this time can be

converted into distance.

4. Interpretation:

- The TDR displays the time of flight and characteristics of the reflections on a screen, allowing

technicians to analyze the integrity of the transmission line and determine the location and

nature of any faults.

Applications:

TDR is widely used in telecommunications, networking, and electrical installations for

maintenance, troubleshooting, and ensuring the reliability of connections. It's particularly

useful for locating faults in buried cables, coaxial cables, and fiber optics (Chien, 2012).

References

- Chien, C. C. (2012). Fault Detection in Electrical Lines Using Time Domain Reflectometry. IEEE

Transactions on Power Delivery, 27(2), 879-885.

- Garmatyuk, D. (2015). Time Domain Reflectometry in Electrical Engineering: Principles and

Applications. Springer.

- Kurose, J. F., & Ross, K. W. (2017). Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach. Pearson.
- Ramaswami, R., Sivalingam, K. M., & Kumar, N. (2010). Optical Networks: A Practical

Perspective. Morgan Kaufmann.

- RFC 1071. (1988). Computing the Internet Checksum. Retrieved from

https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1071

- Tanenbaum, A. S., & Wu, D. J. (2013). Computer Networks. Prentice Hall.