the process of providing

information to a query

It is principally concerned
in gathering information –
be it a decided case, a
provision of law, or an
definition
administrative issuance –
that would provide
illumination to a pending
issue.
 Legal research has uses and
application in almost every
field imaginable and is not
application
limited as a support service
to litigation.
 Since legal research
ultimately operates within
the legal and political
framework of our country,
we need to familiarize
ourselves with our political
of the Philippines
and legal institutions. For
the most part of our legal
research, this will be our
playground, so to speak.
• The branch of the government that
APPLIES THE LAW
• Doctrine of qualified political agency
“The President discharges his functions as chief
executive officer and commander-in-chief of the
country through his Secretaries who run their
respective Departments. The President shall control all
the executive departments, bureaus and offices. He shall
ensure that the laws be faithfully executed. This is a
principle in political law that, since the multifarious
executive and administrative functions of the Chief
Executive are performed by and through executive
departments, it is but necessary that the acts of the
secretaries of departments when performed and
promulgated in the regular course of business or
unless disapproved or reprobated by the Chief
Executive, are presumptively the acts of the Chief
Executive.” (Villena v. Secretary of the Interior, 67 Phil 464)
• Doctrine of qualified political agency

…all executive and administrative

organizations are adjuncts of the
executive department, and the
multifarious executive and
administrative functions of the Chief
Executive are performed by and
through the Executive Departments.
(DENR v. DENR Region 12 Employees, 409 SCRA 359)
• The branch of the government that
MAKES THE LAW

• The Constitution vests legislative

power in a bicameral Congress of the
Philippines consisting of a Senate and
a House of Representatives. This is the
authority, under the constitution to
make laws, and to alter and repeal
them. (Government of the Philippine
Islands v. Springer, 50 Phil. 276)
• The branch of the government that
INTERPRETS THE LAW

• It sees to it that the Constitution is

upheld in all actions, all legislations of
the government.
• The concept of “judicial supremacy”
• The concept of “judicial supremacy”
…When the judiciary mediates to allocate
constitutional boundaries, it does not assert any
superiority over the other departments; it does
not in reality nullify or invalidate an act of the
Legislature, but only asserts the solemn and
sacred obligation assigned to it by the
constitution to determine conflicting claims of
authority under the Constitution and to establish
for the parties in an actual controversy the rights
which that instrument secures and guarantees to
them. (Angara v. Electoral Commission, G.R. No.
45081, July 15, 1936.)
• The concept of “judicial supremacy”
is properly, the POWER OF JUDICIAL
REVIEW under the Constitution
• The power to hear and decide cases
pending between parties who have the
right to sue and be sued in the courts
of law and equity. (Lamb v. Phipps, 22
Phil. 559)
 • human resource agency of the entire
Philippine bureaucracy and is tasked
with the formulation, monitoring and
implementation of quality standards in
public service based on a merit system.
Civil Service Commission
• The civil service embraces all
branches, subdivisions,
instrumentalities, and agencies of the
Government, including GOCCs with
original charters.
 • charged by the Constitution to implement
and enforce election-related laws as well
as oversee and conduct the electoral
process.

• COMELEC, in the present Constitution,

Commission on Elections
has upgraded to constitutional status its
formerly statutory authority to grant the
Commission broader and more flexible
powers to effectively perform its duties
and to insulate it further from legislative
intrusions.
 • the government’s watchdog on the
disbursement and use of public funds.

• The Constitution specifically vests in

Commission on Audit the COA the authority to determine
whether the government entities
comply with laws and regulations in
disbursing the government funds. It is
the central auditor of the government.
 • Republic Acts
• Batas Pambansa
• Codes
in the Philippines
• Commonwealth Acts
• Jurisprudence
• The fundamental law of the land
 1935 Constitution 1973 Constitution 1987 Constitution
SEC. 8, ART. XIII. No franchise, certificate, SEC. 5, ART. XIV. No franchise, certificate, SEC. 11., ART. XII. No franchise, certificate,
or any other form of authorization for the or any other form of authorization for the or any other form of authorization for the
operation of a public utility shall be operation of a public utility shall be operation of a public utility shall be
granted except to citizens of the granted except to citizens of the granted except to citizens of the
Philippines or to corporations or other Philippines or to corporations or Philippines or to corporations or
entities organized under the laws of the associations organized under the laws of associations organized under the laws of
Philippines, sixty per centum of the capital the Philippines at least sixty per centum the Philippines at least sixty per centum
of which is owned by citizens of the of the capital of which is owned by such of whose capital is owned by such citizens,
Philippines, nor shall such franchise, citizens, nor shall such franchise, nor shall such franchise, certificate, or
certificate, or authorization be exclusive in certificate, or authorization be exclusive in authorization be exclusive in character or
character or for a longer period than fifty character or for a longer period than fifty for a longer period than fifty years. Neither
years. No franchise or right shall be years. Neither shall any such franchise or shall any such franchise or right be
granted to any individual, firm, or right be granted except under the granted except under the condition that it
corporation, except under the condition condition that it shall be subject to shall be subject to amendment, alteration,
that it shall be subject to amendment, amendment, alteration, or repeal in by the or repeal by the Congress when the
alteration, or repeal by the National Batasang Pambansa when the public common good so requires. The State shall
Assembly when the public interest so interest so requires. The State shall encourage equity participation in public
requires. encourage equity participation in public utilities by the general public. The
utilities by the general public. The participation of foreign investors in the
participation of foreign investors in the governing body of any public utility
governing body of any public utility enterprise shall be limited to their
enterprise shall be limited to their proportionate share in its capital, and all
proportionate share in the capital thereof. the executive and managing officers of
such corporation or association must be
citizens of the Philippines.
Law is, in its general and abstract sense, the science
of moral laws founded on the rational nature of man
that governs his free activity for the realization of
the individual and social ends of life under an aspect
of mutual conditional dependence.

In a specific and concrete sense, a rule of conduct,

just, obligatory, formulated by legitimate power for
common observance and benefit. (Lapitan v.
Philippine Charity Sweepstakes Office, 60 O.G. 6841)
How
are
made
SECOND
FIRST READING
READING
Title is read in the plenary
Sponsorship,
and referred to the
interpellation and
appropriate committee
amendments
THIRD
READING
PRESIDENT TO Bill is read for
APPROVE OR approval or rejection
REJECT BILL of the plenary

The enrolled bill will

be transmitted to the BICAMERAL
Office of the CONFERENCE
President TRANSMITTAL
Bicam Report will TO OTHER
contain reconciled CHAMBER
provisions
Same process
When researching statutes, it is important to take
into consideration the following:
• Legislative history
• Minutes of Committee Meetings
• Committee Reports
• Bicameral Committee Reports
• Legislative Record
• Legislative Journal
• Privilege Speeches
 Implementing Rules
and Regulations

administrative issuances by a government body or

agency that implements the provisions of a law
Republic Act No. 10366
• The body of decisions promulgated by the
Supreme Court
• These decisions interpret the provisions of the
law as well as resolve actual controversies that
arise from it between the parties.
1. Precedents
• Decisions by the SC that set the tone for all other
subsequent similar cases

• Stare decisis et non quieta movere

This doctrine enjoins adherence to judicial precedents and
requires courts in a country to follow the rule established
in a decision of the Supreme Court thereof. This decision
becomes a judicial precedent to be followed in subsequent
cases by all courts in the land.
• Republic v. Court of Appeals and Molina, 335 Phil. 664 (1997)
• Tan-Andal v. Andal. G.R. No. 196359, May 11, 2021
2. Landmark Cases
• Decisions by the SC that mark a turning point as
far as the appreciation and interpretation of laws
are concerned
• They introduce either a doctrine or a reversal of
such
• Republic v. Court of Appeals and Molina, 335 Phil. 664 (1997)
• Tan-Andal v. Andal. G.R. No. 196359, May 11, 2021
3. Pro Hac Vice Decisions
• Decisions by the SC that apply to a particular
entity or situation only and may not be applied to
other cases, no matter how similar they may be
4. Latest Decisions
• Decisions promulgated by the SC within the
current year the research is being made
4. Latest Decisions
• Decisions promulgated by the SC within the
current year the research is being made
• Secondary sources of authority such as law
dictionary or encyclopedia
• Law journals and reviews, legal treatises, and
annotated works
• Materials that are basically devoid of a legal nature
• It is not a product of legal process or exercise.
• Ex: News reports, speeches, articles, opinions, and
technical reports
• Article VI, Section 5(1) and (2), 1987 Constitution
(1) The House of Representatives shall be composed of not more than two
hundred and fifty members, unless otherwise fixed by law, who shall be
elected from legislative districts apportioned among the provinces, cities,
and the Metropolitan Manila area in accordance with the number of their
respective inhabitants, and on the basis of a uniform and progressive ratio,
and those who, as provided by law, shall be elected through a party-list
system of registered national, regional, and sectoral parties or
organizations.

(2) The party-list representatives shall constitute twenty per centum of the
total number of representatives including those under the party list. For
three consecutive terms after the ratification of this Constitution, one-half
of the seats allocated to party-list representatives shall be filled, as
provided by law, by selection or election from the labor, peasant, urban
poor, indigenous cultural communities, women, youth, and such other
sectors as may be provided by law, except the religious sector.
• R.A. 7941 or the Partylist System Act
• COMELEC Resolutions on partylist representation
• Jurisprudence
✓ BANAT v. COMELEC
✓ Ang Bagong Bayani –OFW Labor Party v. COMELEC
✓ Veterans Federation Party v. COMELEC
• Non-legal sources
✓ Newspaper articles and books that deal with the subject matter
Although almost all information
may be acquired through the
internet, it is highly
recommended that one should
try and experience doing legal
research through the old school
approach.
 • Citation is particularly
essential in the legal
profession because legal
analyses depend on the
examination of binding
rules and norms.
Overview
• Thus, it is imperative to
determine with precision
what these rules and
norms are. Citation
Ateneo Law Journal Legal Citation Guide, 4th ed. facilitates this
(2020). Ateneo de Manila Professional Schools
Library: Rockwell Drive, Rockwell Center, Makati
determination.
City, Philippines.
 1. It provides support or
contrast to assertions.
2. It allows proper
attribution of non-
original input.
Purposes
3. It helps readers identify
sources for further
study or research.
Ateneo Law Journal Legal Citation Guide, 4th ed.
(2020). Ateneo de Manila Professional Schools
Library: Rockwell Drive, Rockwell Center, Makati
City, Philippines.
 • A citation refers to the
sentence or clause
immediately preceding it.
• A citation is intended to:
A.2.1. attribute non-
original ideas;
Use A.2.2. provide authorities
relevant to the
discussion; or
Ateneo Law Journal Legal Citation Guide, 4th ed. A.2.3. offer sources for
(2020). Ateneo de Manila Professional Schools
Library: Rockwell Drive, Rockwell Center, Makati
further study or
City, Philippines. research.
 1. Cite first the sources to
which non-original ideas are
attributed, or those
authorities which directly
provide support or
opposition to the text.
2. Authorities for support must
Order of Authorities
be given first before those in
opposition. Support or
opposition is indicated by
Ateneo Law Journal Legal Citation Guide, 4th ed. introductory signals.
(2020). Ateneo de Manila Professional Schools
Library: Rockwell Drive, Rockwell Center, Makati
City, Philippines.
 3. Support or opposition may
be direct, indirect, or
analogous. Cite all
authorities for support in
the aforesaid order, before
those for the opposition in
the same order.
Order of Authorities

Ateneo Law Journal Legal Citation Guide, 4th ed.

(2020). Ateneo de Manila Professional Schools
Library: Rockwell Drive, Rockwell Center, Makati
City, Philippines.
 4 ARTURO M. TOLENTINO,
COMMENTARIES AND JURISPRUDENCE
ON THE CIVIL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
470 (1991). See also MELENCIO S. STA.
MARIA JR., PERSONS AND FAMILY
RELATIONS LAW 220 (7th ed. 2019) &
Richard Michael Fischl, Ideology and
Argument Construction in Contract Law, in
RESEARCH HANDBOOK ON CRITICAL
LEGAL THEORY 284-87 (Emilios
Order of Authorities Christodoulidis, et al. eds., 2019). Contra
Jose B.L. Reyes, Observations on the New
Civil Code on Points Not Covered by
Amendments Already Proposed, in CIVIL
CODE READER 440 (Carmelo V. Sison ed.,
2005) & Linda Greenhouse, Justices Rule
Ateneo Law Journal Legal Citation Guide, 4th ed. Press Can Be Sued for Divulging a Source’s
(2020). Ateneo de Manila Professional Schools Identity, N.Y. TIMES, June 25, 1991, at A1.
Library: Rockwell Drive, Rockwell Center, Makati
City, Philippines.
 4. Support or opposition may
also be given by authorities
in their own right, or when
related to other authorities.
Cite first the authorities which
support the text in their own
right, before citing those which
Order of Authorities must be related to other
authorities in order to
demonstrate support. Do the
same for the authorities in
opposition.
Ateneo Law Journal Legal Citation Guide, 4th ed.
(2020). Ateneo de Manila Professional Schools
Library: Rockwell Drive, Rockwell Center, Makati
City, Philippines.
 PHIL. CONST. art. III, § 14 (2). See also
TRANQUIL GERVACIO S. SALVADOR
III, CRIMINAL PROCEDURE 254 (2019).
Compare BERNAS, supra note 1, at 499,
with 2 FLORENZ D. REGALADO,
REMEDIAL LAW COMPENDIUM 461
Order of Authorities (11th ed. 2008). Contra WILLARD B.
RIANO, CRIMINAL PROCEDURE (THE
BAR LECTURE SERIES) 349 (2016).

Ateneo Law Journal Legal Citation Guide, 4th ed.

(2020). Ateneo de Manila Professional Schools
Library: Rockwell Drive, Rockwell Center, Makati
City, Philippines.
 4. Support or opposition may
also be given by authorities
in their own right, or when
related to other authorities.
Lastly, cite authorities
which are merely
intended to provide the
Order of Authorities
reader with tangential
sources for further study,
personal analysis, or
research.
Ateneo Law Journal Legal Citation Guide, 4th ed.
(2020). Ateneo de Manila Professional Schools
Library: Rockwell Drive, Rockwell Center, Makati
City, Philippines.
 Oposa v. Factoran, Jr., G.R. No. 101083,
224 SCRA 792, 812 (1993). Contra 4
TOLENTINO, supra note 2, at 405 & 2
REGALADO, supra note 3, at 733-35.
See generally PHIL. CONST. art. III, §
10; Reyes, supra note 2, at 434; RUBÉN
F. BALANE, JOTTINGS AND
JURISPRUDENCE IN CIVIL LAW
Order of Authorities (OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS)
502 (2020); CRUZ & CRUZ, supra note
1, at 574; & David Schneiderman, A
New Global Constitutional Order?, in
COMPARATIVE CONSTITUTIONAL
Ateneo Law Journal Legal Citation Guide, 4th ed. LAW 196 (Tom Ginsburg & Rosalind
(2020). Ateneo de Manila Professional Schools Dixon eds., 2011).
Library: Rockwell Drive, Rockwell Center, Makati
City, Philippines.
 1. Fonts and typefaces
2. Names
3. Dates
4. Quotations, corrections,
omissions, and emphases
Fundamentals 5. Rules on capitalization,
italicization, abbreviations
and acronyms, numbers and
numerals, spacing

The Maroon Manual: A Manual Of Style And Legal

Citation Of The Philippine Law Journal (2019 Ed.)
 Generally, serif fonts are
recommended for the body for
ease of reading, while sans serif
fonts are used in article titles,
Fundamentals headings, or newspaper
headlines. Fonts are a matter of
preference.

The Maroon Manual: A Manual Of Style And Legal

Citation Of The Philippine Law Journal (2019 Ed.)
SERIF
Lora Arial
Garamond Century Gothic
Century Lato
Times New Roman
Cormorant Montserrat
Bookman Old Style Segoe UI
RULE 1: In general, cite an author’s name as the source
lists it, but omit middle initials unless an author is
popularly known by these.

EXAMPLE: Juan Dela Cruz

Not Juan S. Dela Cruz

BUT: Vicente V. Mendoza

Jose B.L. Reyes
M.V.F. Leonen
RULE 2: When there are two authors, cite them using
an ampersand.

Example: Mark Dennis Joven & William Varias

Not: Mark Dennis Joven and William Varias

RULE 3: When there are more than two authors, either cite the
name of the first author and add “et al.” or list all the authors’
names. When there is a need to save space, the former method is
preferred. Include all authors’ names when doing so is
particularly relevant. When listing all the names, separate the
names with commas, but use an ampersand to set off the last
name. Note the period in “et al.”; a comma does not precede this
phrase.
IRENE CORTES ET AL., PHIL. MANUAL OF LEGAL CITATIONS
(1976).

IRENE CORTES, MERLIN M. MAGALLONA & MYRNA S.

FELICIANO, PHIL. MANUAL OF LEGAL CITATIONS (1976).
RULE 4: For proper nouns (e.g. juridical persons, businesses,
government agencies, and organizations), use the full name, but
apply the abbreviations below in the body text. However, never
abbreviate the first word of a name. The words “Philippine”
and “Philippines” are abbreviated to “Phil.” when they appears in
footnoted case names.
Association Ass’n
Incorporated Inc.
Brothers Bros.
Limited Ltd.
Company Co.
Number No.
Corporation Corp.
Example in body:
Manila Electric Co.
Association of Major Religious Superiors of the Philippines
Coca-Cola Bottlers Phil., Inc. v. Ilocos Professional &
Technical Employees Union

Example in footnote:
Manila Elec. Co.
Association of Major Religious Superiors of the Phil.
Coca-Cola Bottlers Phil., Inc. v. Ilocos Prof’l & Tech. Emp. Union
Not
Manila Electric Company
Ass’n of Major Religious Superiors of the Philippines
Coca-Cola Bottlers Philippines, Incorporated v. Ilocos Professional and Technical
Employees Union
RULE 5: Use <month> <day>, <year> format. Do not abbreviate
the name of month in the body text. However, for footnotes,
abbreviate names of months to the first three letters only, except
for “May,” “June,” “July,” and “Sept.”

Mar. 1, 2012
Sept. 2, 2023
RULE 6: Dates are usually placed at the end of a citation in
parentheses and often shortened to the year only. In general,
they are not enclosed in parentheses when necessary to identify
a source, as in letters, emails, unofficial or unpublished decisions,
and treaties.
For quotations of less than 50 words:
RULE 7: The quotation should be enclosed in double quotation marks (“ ”).
However, the quotation should not be blocked or set-off from the rest of the
text except when the material quoted would commonly be set-off such as
dialogues or poems. Quoted portions within the quotation should be enclosed
only in single quotation marks (‘ ’). If the entire quotation is in itself quoted,
only one set of double quotation marks should be used. The footnote number
should also follow immediately after the closing double quotations marks,
unless placing it elsewhere is more accurate.
Example:

According to the Court, the impediment to Sherbert's free

exercise is apparent: the decision of the unemployment
commission “forces her to choose between following the
precepts of her religion and forfeiting benefits, on the one
hand, and abandoning one of the precepts of her religion in
order to accept work, on the other hand.” 22
For quotations of at least 50 words:
RULE 8: The quotation should be blocked—that is, indented on the
left and right, single-spaced, and without double quotation marks. If
quotation and punctuation marks are used within the block
quotation, they should appear as they do in the original. The footnote
citation should also follow immediately after the final punctuation of
the quotation. Generally, the font size for the blocked quotation
should be one unit less than that for the body text.
Example:

According to Florin Hilbay, the Court in Sherbert v. Verner

said:

[T]he impediment to Sherbert’s free exercise is apparent: the

decision of the unemployment commission “forces her to
choose between following the precepts of her religion and
forfeiting benefits, on the one hand, and abandoning one of the
precepts of her religion in order to accept work, on the other
hand.” 22
RULE 9: In a block quote consisting of several paragraphs, further
indicate the paragraph structure by indenting the first line of each
paragraph. However, it is not necessary to indent the first line of a
quoted paragraph if it is not the first line of the paragraph being
quoted.
Example:

In Angara, the Court held:

[T]he judiciary in turn, with the Supreme Court as the final arbiter,
effectively checks the other departments in the exercise of its power to
determine the law, and hence to declare executive and legislative acts
void if violative of the Constitution.

But in the main, the Constitution has blocked out with deft
strokes and in bold lines, allotment of power to the executive, the
legislative and the judicial departments of the government.22
RULE 10: Always place commas and periods inside the quotation
marks. Place other punctuation marks inside the quotation marks
only if they are part of the original text.
RULE 11: A change in the case of a letter should be enclosed in
brackets. Inserted words, letters, and other marks should also be
bracketed. This rule applies to additional footnotes that are not
found in the original quotation.
Example:

According to the Court: “[T]he [unwarranted] decision of the

unemployment commission ‘forces her to choose between following the
precepts of her religion and forfeiting benefits, on the one hand, and
abandoning one of the precepts of her religion in order to accept work, on
the other hand.’”22
RULE 12: Substantial mistakes in the original should be followed by
“[sic]” but otherwise left as they appear in the original.

Example:

According to the Court: “The un-warranted [sic] decision was uncalled

for.”22
RULE 13: Omitted letters or punctuations must be indicated with
empty brackets [ ]. However, do not omit letters or punctuations
resulting from grammatical errors. In such cases, apply the
immediate preceding Rule. For omitted words, follow the immediate
succeeding Rule.

Example:

“Decision[ ]”
RULE 14: Omission of a word or words is generally indicated by the
insertion of an ellipsis: three periods set-off by a space before the
first and after the last period (…), which take the place of the word or
words omitted. The ellipsis is enclosed in brackets; whenever
enclosed in brackets, the ellipsis is not set-off by spaces as provided
in the preceding sentence. An ellipsis is never used when individual
words are merely altered.
Example:

According to the Court: “[T]he […] decision was uncalled for.” 22

RULE 15: A quotation should never begin with an ellipsis. In lieu of an
ellipsis, Rule 11 applies.
Not
According to the Court: “[…] the decision was uncalled for.” 22

But
According to the Court: “[T]he decision was uncalled for.” 22
RULE 16: In block quotes, when the omission consists of one or more
paragraphs, use three asterisks, centeraligned and separated by
single spaces, to indicate the omission.
Example:
It cannot he presumed that any clause in the Constitution is intended to
be without effect; and, therefore, such a construction is inadmissible
unless the words require it.

***

It has been stated at the bar that the appellate jurisdiction may be
exercised in a variety of forms, and that, if it be the will of the legislature
that a mandamus should be used for that purpose, that will must be
obeyed. This is true, yet the jurisdiction must be appellate, not original.
RULE 17: For consistency, use italics to emphasize parts of a quoted
text. Never underline.
RULE 18: Insert all parentheticals (i.e. “emphasis supplied,”
“emphasis omitted,” “emphasis in the original,” “citations omitted”)
in the footnote at the end of the citation. Capitalize the first word,
and end the parenthetical with a punctuation mark. Enclose
everything in parentheses.
Example

According to the Court: “[T]he decision was uncalled for.” 22

22 Id. (Emphasis supplied.)

Not

It has been stated at the bar that the appellate jurisdiction may be
exercised in a variety of forms, and that, if it be the will of the
legislature that a mandamus should be used for that purpose, that
will must be obeyed. This is true, yet the jurisdiction must be
appellate, not original. 22 (Emphasis supplied, citations omitted.)
RULE 19: In titles and headings, capitalize words. Articles,
conjunctions, and prepositions with less than five letters should
not be capitalized, but always capitalize the initial word and the
first word following a colon.
Example
Time is Up: Assessing the Life Tenure System in the American
Supreme Court and the Mandatory Retirement System in the
Philippine Supreme Court

But
A Human Rights Discourse on Campaign Finance in the
Philippines: An Analysis of the 1987 Philippine Constitution and
International Human Rights Law
RULE 20: Nouns pertaining to a specific person and entity must
always be capitalized, but not when they are used in a common or
generic sense.

Example
The President of the Commission agreed to the proposal.
The presidents publicly assented to the proposal.
RULE 21: The titles of specific laws, the names of specific courts,
and titles of specific persons must be capitalized.
Example
The Migrant Workers Act was passed in 1995.
The Regional Trial Court of Cebu convicted the accused.
Chief Justice Warren penned the two Brown decisions.

But
The judgments of regional trial courts do not have stare decisis effects.
RULE 22: Apart from emphasis and style, words and phrases are
italicized when they are non-English, unless they have been
incorporated into common English usage or are used as proper
nouns. However, long Latin phrases, “id.,” and procedural phrases
should remain italicized.
Example However
Reclusión perpetua Ignorantia legis non excusat.
Alevosía In re Shoop
Compañía Maritima
Ex turpi causa non oritur actio.

But
Mandamus
Radio Veritas
RULE 23: The lowercase letter “l” should be italicized when used as
a subdivision to distinguish it from the numeral “1.”
Example
Rep. Act No. 8042 (1995), § 6(l), amended by Rep. Act No. 10022 (2010).
RULE 24: In case of a long name of a juridical entity add a
parenthetical containing an abbreviation or acronym after the
name, then use the shortened name thereafter.
Example
The contracting-out of work was recently regulated in a memorandum
issued by the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE). In the
issuance, the DOLE…
RULE 25: Generally, abbreviations are not punctuated by periods,
whether they are used in the body text or footnotes. However,
when the acronym or abbreviation is used as a reporter name,
periods must be used, unless convention or other rules hold
otherwise.
Example
The U.S. entered into the Mutual Defense Treaty.
National Labor Relations Commission (NLRC)

But
1 C.A. Rep. 23

However
50 SCRA 23
RULE 26: If the abbreviation is the one officially used by or for the
juridical entity, do not enclose it in quotation marks. If the
abbreviation to be used for the entity is not official, enclose it in
quotation marks.
Example
Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE)

But
University of the Philippines College of Law (“UP Law”)
RULE 27: In case of any other long name, add a parenthetical
containing an abbreviation after the name, and then use the
shortened name thereafter. The abbreviation must be enclosed in
quotation marks even for documents commonly and officially
known for their abbreviations.

Example
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (“UNCLOS”)
NOTE: For the two preceding rules, the abbreviation must be
introduced at least once each in the body text and the footnotes if
it will be used in both. This is due to the assumption that one may
choose to read an article without going through the footnotes.
RULE 28: Countries such as the United States and United Kingdom
that are commonly identified by their acronyms may be
abbreviated when used as an adjective without having to first use
the full name. For all other uses, Rules 24 and 25 apply.
Example
The U.K. law would allow same-sex couples…
The People’s Republic of China (PRC) treated the said law as an act of
aggression…
RULE 29: The abbreviations “i.e.” and “e.g.” are not italicized;
neither are they followed by a comma.
RULE 30: When used in a parenthetical reference, titles of judges
and justices are abbreviated and italicized. Otherwise, their full
titles are spelled out.
Example
Justice Carpio-Morales, writing for the Court in Francisco…
“It takes the risk of reeking of an objectionable air of supreme judicial
arrogance.”

Carpio-Morales, J., dissenting in De Castro v. Jud. & Bar Council, G.R. No. 191002,
618 SCRA 639, 664, Apr. 20, 2010.
RULE 31: Generally, the numbers less than 10 are spelled out, but
when the first word of any sentence begins with a number, the
number must also be spelled out.
Example
Twenty-three petitioners similarly went to the Supreme Court.

But
The Supreme Court received petitions from 23 other parties.
RULE 32: When a number is a negative integer, or when it has a
decimal, numerals must be used.

Example
The temperature was -2 degrees Fahrenheit.
He lost 18.5 pounds.
RULE 33: For consistency, when a series includes numbers both
less than 10 and greater than or equal to 10, numerals must be
used.
Example
The accused minors were aged 9, 12, and 15.
RULE 34: Numerals with four or more digits must use commas to
separate every thousandth decimal place. Note that numerals are
written without interrupting spaces.
Example
1,234,567
RULE 35: For succeeding numbers, spell out the first.

Example
Fifty-five 100-meter dash runners
RULE 36: For exact currency amounts, begin with the proper ISO
4217 three-figure currency code followed by the amount using
numerals. However, for estimates or large numbers, begin with
append the currency, spelled out, at the end of the estimate.

Example But
GBP 10,550 1 million dollars
PHP 10,550 5 billion pesos
USD 10,550
RULE 37: An en dash is preceded and followed by a space, while an
em dash and a hyphen are not. Generally, an en dash (the width of
an “n”) is used to connect values in a range and is often used as a
substitute for “to,” an em dash (the width of an “m”) is as an
informal separator of a parenthetical reference, and a dash
connects compound words.
Example
[En dash] Only those 40 – 70 years old may be appointed to the Supreme Court.
[Em dash] The rule admits one—and only one—exception to the rule.
[Hyphen] The Judge who rendered the decision was criticized as narrow-minded.

But in footnotes
[En dash] REV. PEN. CODE, art. 4–7.
[En dash] Lopez v. Ct. of Appeals, G.R. No. 26549, 34 SCRA 116, 126–27
RULE 38: The percent sign (%) immediately follows the numbers to
which they pertain.

Example
97%
End