A Mini Project Report on

Compressive Spectrum Sensing for MIMO-OFDM Based Cognitive

Radio Networks
Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Electronics and Communication Engineering
by

Paladi Namitha 20321A0472

Pranathii Subburu 20321A0492
V Rishitha 20321A04A2

Under the esteemed Guidance of

Internal Guide

SVMG Phani Kumar C

Assistant Professor, ECE Department

Bhoj Reddy Engineering College for Women

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
(Sponsored by Sangam Laxmibai Vidyapeet, Accredited by NAAC with A Grade
approved by AICTE & affiliated to JNTUH) Vinaynagar, Santoshnagar X roads,
Saidabad, Hyderabad – 500 059
Ph: +91-40-2459 2400 Fax: +91-40-2453 7281, www.brecw.ac.in, [email protected]

2024-25
 Bhoj Reddy Engineering College for Women
(Sponsored by Sangam Laxmibai Vidyapeet, Accredited by NAAC with A Grade, approved by
AICTE & affiliated to JNTUH) Vinaynagar, I S Sadan X Roads, Saidabad,
Hyderabad 500 059, Telangana, India Telephone: 040-2453 7282,
Website: www.brecw.ac.in, Email: [email protected]

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Mini Project titled “Compressive spectrum sensing for
MIMO- OFDM- based cognitive radio network” is a bonafide work carried over by
Ms. Paladi Namitha (20321A0472), Ms. Pranathii Subburu (20321A0492) and Ms. V
Rishitha (20321A04A2) in partial fulfillment of the requirementsfor the award of the
degree Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering from
Bhoj Reddy Engineering College for Women, Hyderabad, affiliated to Jawaharlal
Nehru Technological University Hyderabad (JNTUH) during the Third Year second
semester of their B. Tech course (academic year 2023-2024).

SVMG Phani Kumar C S Manjula

Internal Guide HOD-ECE

Dr. J Madhavan External Examiner

Principal

Sangam Laxmibai Vidyapeet is an educational society for promotion of education among girls and women.
It is established in 1952 and registered under the Telangana Societies Registration Act
 Acknowlegment

The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of the task would be
incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible, whose constant
guidance and encouragement crown all the efforts with success.

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Mr. SVMG Phani Kumar C,
Assistant Professor and Project guide for the eminent guidance and supervision at every
stage.
We are thankful to Ms.S Manjula, Head of the Department, for her valuable
guidance and encouragement during our Project.

We also thank Dr. J Madhavan, Principal, BRECW for providing the wonderful
education environment in our college.

We are equally thankful to Ms. R Vyshnavi, Project Coordinator for her

continuous support and all the staff of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Department of BRECW for their timely help and suggestions in the Project.

Paladi Namitha (20321A0472) [email protected]

Pranathii Subburu (20321A0492) [email protected]
V Rishitha (20321A04A2) [email protected]
 Table of Contents

Particulars Page Number

List of Figures i

Abstract ii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Aim of the Project 5

1.3 Motivation 6

1.4 Objectives 6

1.5 Organization of the Report 6

1.6 Literature Survey 7

1.7 Conclusion 9

Chapter 2 Software Requirements 10

2.1 Introduction 10

2.2 Software Requirements 10

2.3 Conclusion 13

Chapter 3 MIMO-OFDM Based Cognitive Radio Network 14

3.1 Introduction 14

3.2 Existing System 14

3.3 Proposed System 17

3.4 Block Diagram 20

3.5 Methodology 20

3.6 Conclusion 21

Chapter 4 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications 22

4.1 Advantages 22

4.2 Disadvantages 23

4.3 Applications 23
Chapter 5 Results and Discussion 25

5.1 Introduction 25

5.2 Working 25

5.3 Results 26

5.4 Conclusion 28

Chapter 6 Conclusion and Future scope 29

6.1 Conclusion 29

6.2 Future Scope 29

References 30
 List of Figures

Figure Title Page Number

1.1 OFDM Transmission Process 4

2.1 MATLAB Desktop 11
2.2 MATLAB Editor 13

3.1 MIMO-OFDM 16
3.2 Block Diagram of MIMO-OFDM 20
5.1 Triangular wave 26
5.2 Probability Spectral Density with 26
respect to SNR
5.3 RMSE with respect to SNR 27
5.4 BPSK with AWGN 27
5.5 Probability Spectral Density with 28
respect to SNR

i
 Abstract
Multiple-input multiple-output orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (MIMO-OFDM) is
considered to be one of the most promising technologies for future generation mobile
communication systems like 3GPP LTE in recent years. At the same time, as a smart spectrum
sharing technology, Cognitive Radio (CR) is also proposed to enhance the utilization of the
spectrum. Thus, the combination of MIMO-OFDM and Cognitive Radio, MIMO-OFDM based
Cognitive Radio technology is treated as a prospect scheme for future dynamic spectrum access
network or spectrum sharing system. Since only a finite number of subcarriers are occupied bythe
primary users (PUs) in CR networks, the secondary users (SUs) can detect the spectrum holes
(the unoccupied subcarriers) and opportunistically access those unoccupied spectrum subcarriers.

Thus, spectrum sensing or detection is an important component for the implementation of CR.
However, in traditional MIMO OFDM system, the signals received in each antenna are sampled
by an individual analog-to-digital converter (ADC), which will lead to a significantlyincrease of
front-end cost of the system since multiple ADCs need to be adopted by corresponding to the
multiple receiving antennas. Thus, the problem is how to design efficientreceiving scheme for
reducing the power consumption and hardware cost in MIMO system. Sparsity refers to the
condition where transmitted signal has limited number of non zero components. Considering the
sparsity property of the received signals, we propose a novel spectrum sensing scheme for the
MIMO-OFDM based CR network by exploiting compressivesensing technology. Different to
traditional MIMO-OFDM system, by exploiting the sparsitymodel, the signals received in our
receivers are mixed together from multiple antennas and then sampled by a single ADC. Thus,
the hardware cost and energy consumption can be significantly reduced in our scheme. Besides,
our proposed scheme can detect the spectrum usage without the prior information of sparsity,
which is also suitable for the real wireless application environment. Simulation results also show
the effectiveness of our proposed scheme.

ii
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OFDM Based Cognitive Radio Networks

Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Introduction

High-speed wireless communication refers to the transmission of data at fast rates over
wireless networks. The speed of wireless communication depends on various factors,
including the technology used, frequency bands, signal strength, and network congestion.
Here are some technologies and standards that enable high-speed wireless communication.

Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax): Wi-Fi 6 is the latest generation of Wi-Fi technology, designed to provide
higher data transfer rates, improved capacity, and reduced latency compared to previous
standards. It operates in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands and incorporates advanced
features like orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) and multi-user
multiple input, multiple output (MU-MIMO) for better efficiency in handling multiple
devices simultaneously.

5G: Fifth-generation (5G) wireless technology offers significantly higher data rates compared
to previous cellular standards. It utilizes millimeter wave (mm-Wave) frequencies in the
range of 24 GHz to 100 GHz, as well as sub-6 GHz frequencies. 5G networks leverage
advanced techniques like beam forming, massive MIMO (Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output),
and network slicing to achieve faster speeds, lower latency, and increased capacity.

LTE-Advanced and LTE-Advanced Pro: Long-Term Evolution (LTE) is a 4G wireless

technology that provides high-speed data transmission. LTE-Advanced (LTE-A) and LTE-
Advanced Pro are subsequent enhancements to LTE, offering increased peak data rates, better
spectral efficiency, and improved network performance through features like carrier
aggregation, higher-order MIMO, and improved modulation schemes.

Point-to-Point Wireless Links: Point-to-point wireless links utilize directional antennas and
high-frequency bands (such as microwave and millimeter waves) to establish dedicated
connections between two locations. These links can achieve extremely high data rates, often
in the gigabit-per-second (Gbps) range, making them suitable for applications requiring
high-
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speed and long-range wireless connectivity. Wi-Fi is a hybrid network architecture that
combines fiber optic and wireless technologies. By utilizing fiber optic connections for the
backbone and wireless links for last-mile connectivity, Wi-Fi networks can offer high-speed
wireless communication while benefiting from the high capacity and low latency of fiber
optic infrastructure.

MIMO, which stands for Multiple Input Multiple Output, is a technology used in wireless
communication systems. It involves using multiple antennas at both the transmitter and
receiver to improve the performance of the system. By transmitting and receiving multiple
streams of data simultaneously, MIMO can increase the capacity and reliability of wireless
communication. It allows for better signal quality, increased data rates, and improved
coverage. MIMO is widely used in modern wireless standards like Wi-Fi and 4G/5G cellular
networks to enhance the overall user experience and meet the growing demand for high-speed
and reliable wireless connectivity.

OFDM modulation technique is used for data transmission in radio over fiber (RoF)
networks. The theoretical performance for OFDM is analyzed using different digital
modulation techniques such as phase shift keying (PSK), binary phase shift keying (BPSK),
quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).The
study showed that QAM provides improved spectral competence and lesser probability of
error detection. OFDM signal for RoF transmission is analyzed and the fiber dispersion
impact on the link performance of OFDM based IEEE 802.11.g, WLAN signal is evaluated
for variable transmission distances. RoF link with signal transmission through OFDM is
evaluated with no RF amplification. Transmission quality of OFDM signal is improved over
the optically amplified link by optimizing the impedance matching of photo detector (PD) and
mach- zehnder modulator (MZM) bias.

It's important to note that the actual data transfer speeds experienced in wireless
communication can vary due to factors like signal strength, interference, distance from the
access point, and network congestion. Additionally, the capabilities of the devices being used,
such as the Wi-Fi or cellular modem, can also impact the achievable speeds. They have
become an essential part of modern networking, enabling mobility and connectivity in a wide
range of environments. Millimeter waves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths
ranging from 1 millimeter to

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OFDM Based Cognitive Radio Networks

10 millimeters and Frequencies between 30 gigahertz (GHz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz).
Wideband millimeter wave refers to the use of a broad frequency range within the millimeter
wave spectrum for various communication and sensing applications. Wideband millimeter
wave technology offers several advantages in terms of high-speed data transfer, increased
capacity, and improved spectral efficiency. By utilizing a wide range of frequencies, it
enables the transmission of large amounts of data over short distances, typically within a few
hundred meters. This makes it suitable for applications such as high-speed wireless
communication, wireless local area networks (WLANs), and short-range wireless links.
Millimeter wave frequencies provide substantial bandwidth for data transmission, allowing
for faster download and upload speeds. These frequencies are particularly useful in urban
areas with high user densities, where the traditional microwave and cellular bands are
congested.

OFDM stands for Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. It is a modulation technique

used in wireless communication systems to transmit data over multiple subcarriers
simultaneously. OFDM is widely used in various standards, including Wi-Fi, 4G LTE, and
digital broadcasting systems. In OFDM, the available frequency spectrum is divided into
multiple orthogonal subcarriers, each with a narrower bandwidth. These subcarriers are
closely spaced, and their frequencies are carefully chosen to be orthogonal to each other.
Orthogonally means that the subcarriers do not interfere with each other, allowing
simultaneous transmission and reception without mutual interference. The data to be
transmitted is divided into parallel streams, with each stream modulating a separate
subcarrier. This parallel transmission enables efficient use of the available spectrum and
mitigates the effects of multipath fading and frequency-selective channel impairments.

Advantages of OFDM:

Robustness to multipath fading: OFDM is particularly well-suited for wireless

communication in environments with multipath propagation, where signals can take multiple
paths and arrive at the receiver with different delays. By using a large number of subcarriers
with narrow bandwidth, OFDM can mitigate the effects of multipath fading and improve the
system's robustness.

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High spectral efficiency: By dividing the available spectrum into orthogonal subcarriers,
OFDM allows for efficient use of the frequency spectrum. The subcarriers can be allocated to
different users or applications, enabling simultaneous transmission and maximizing the
overall data throughput.

Easy implementation: OFDM can be implemented using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
and Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) algorithms, making it computationally efficient
and well-suited for digital signal processing.

Support for adaptive modulation and coding: OFDM allows for adaptive modulation and
coding schemes, where different subcarriers can be assigned different modulation types and
coding rates based on the channel conditions. This adaptive nature improves the overall
system performance and capacity.

Figure 1.1: OFDM transmission process

Overall, OFDM is a versatile modulation technique used in wireless communication systems

to achieve high data rates, robustness to channel impairments, and efficient spectrum
utilization. It has been widely adopted in various wireless standards due to its many
advantages and ability to address the challenges posed by wireless channels waves are large
Bandwidth, small components sizes, greater resolution, low interference and increased
security.

Both MIMO and OFDM techniques have received wide attention in past few years. For
OFDM, it can effectively avoid frequency selective fading. Besides, inter channel
interference (ICI) and inter symbol interference (ISI) can also be avoided by adding cyclic
prefix (CP) into the data frame of OFDM symbols. For MIMO, it can increase the
transmission capacity by exploiting spatial diversity technology. Based on these reasons, the

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OFDM Based Cognitive Radio Networks
combination of MIMO and OFDM techniques can significantly improve the transmission
performance of wireless system.

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OFDM Based Cognitive Radio Networks

Thus, MIMO-OFDM have also been adopted as the standards of many wireless systems, such
as WIMAX, 3GPP LTE.

Cognitive Radio is also considered as a promising technology to promote the efficiency of

spectrum usage in recently. It intelligently detects which channel is used and which is not
used. So, that it can occupy the unused channel. In CR system, the SUs detect the spectrum
holes which are the spectrum bands that are not occupied by the PUs currently and then
access those unoccupied spectrum bands for their own communication.

Thus, spectrum sensing technology is the fundamental task for the implementation of the
whole CR system. By combining MIMO-OFDM technology with the CR model, the MIMO-
OFDM- based CR technology can have great potential in the application of future dynamic
spectrum access network and spectrum-sharing systems. In the MIMO-OFDM based CR
system, usually, only a limited number of subcarriers are used by the PUs. Thus, by receiving
and decoding the signals from the multiple channels, the SUs can detect the inactive
subcarriers. However, in traditional MIMO-OFDM system, the signals received in each
antenna are sampled by individual ADC, which is considered to be power consuming since
there are multiple antennas in system, which are corresponding to multiple ADCs.

Thus, to solve the above problem, we proposed a novel scheme for spectrum sensing in
MIMO- OFDM based CR system. Compared to traditional MIMO-OFDM system, there are
only one ADC in receiver to sample the mixed signals from all channels in our scheme. Since
only a part of subcarriers are used by the PUs, the whole subcarriers are sparse in frequency
domain. Compressive Spectrum Sensing is atechnique for efficient acquring the da a
reconstruction of data . In MIMO-OFDM concept; at the time of communication If there any
is free space available utilizing the free space for compression sensing Thus, the transmission
signals can be recovered by exploiting the compressive sensing (CS) technology. By
estimating the transmission signals, the usage of subcarriers can also be detected at the same
time.

1.2 Aim of the Project

The combination of MIMO and OFDM in cognitive radio networks addresses challenges
related to spectral efficiency, interference management, channel diversity, and reliability. By
exploiting spatial and frequency diversities, MIMO-OFDM systems can provide a solid
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OFDM Based Cognitive Radio Networks

foundation for efficient and robust communication in dynamic and heterogeneous wireless
environments.

1.3 Motivation

The motivation for using MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) and OFDM (Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing) in cognitive radio networks is driven by the need to
enhance the overall system performance, increase spectral efficiency, improve reliability, and
manage the dynamic nature of wireless communication environments.

1.4 Objectives

1. To detect the presence or absence of primary users in the frequency bands allocated
to the cognitive radio network.
2. To estimate the signal strength of primary users in order to determine the available
3. Spectrum resources for the cognitive radio network.
4. To optimize the spectrum sensing time and energy consumption by reducing
the number of samples required for reliable detection.
5. To accurately detect the presence of primary users in the presence of
noise, interference, and fading effects.
6. To improve the detection performance by exploiting the spatial diversity provided by
multiple antennas in the MIMO-OFDM system.
7. To mitigate the effects of channel variations and fading by using channel estimation
techniques in the spectrum sensing process.

1.5 Organization of the Report

Chapter 1 consists of an introduction to Compressive spectrum sensing for MIMO-OFDM-

based cognitive radio network. Chapter 2 consists of Literature survey. Chapter 3 consists of
description of software requirements. Chapter 4 existing work, proposed work and results.
Chapter 5 consists of advantages, disadvantages, and applications. Chapter 6 consists of
future scope and conclusion of this project.

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1.6 Literature Survey

Broadband Wireless: The New Era in Communications, “A white paper published by Intel
in Communications, mentioned that there is no doubt about the world is going wireless, faster
and more broadly than anyone might have expected. Intel demonstrates this new reality and
predicts that billions of people will gain high speed Internet access wirelessly within the next
decade. Thepremise for this vision is clear; all high-speed wireless technologies (3G,
Wireless Fidelity, WiMAX and Ultra-Wideband) will coexist, working in tandem to meet
service provider and customer needs for truly mobile computing and communications across
the globe. From Intel Centrino mobile technology to WiMAX technology to Intel PXA
processors, you’ll find Intel at the forefront of the broadband wireless revolution.

Daniel J. Bem et al. in the paper, “Smart antennas for mobile communications systems,”
presented an outline of most important problems related to the development of advanced base
station antennas which are referred to as smart antennas. They are needed by new generations
of mobile communications systems. Smart antennas involve not only RF components, but
also a broad segment of digital beam forming and DSP units.

Rameshwar Kawitkar focused on the issues about the smart antenna in mobile radio network
in the paper, “Issues in deploying smart antenna in mobile radio networks”. Khurram Sheikh
et al. have given an overview of SA applications in fixed broadband 6 wireless access (BWA)
networks. Different SA techniques are described including recent advances such as “spatial
multiplexing” that can dramatically increase the performance of BWA networks. The impact
of SA techniques on capacity and throughput of BWA networks is discussed in the paper,
Smart Antennas for Broadband Wireless Access Networks.

Gouging Li et al. have discussed the application of directional antennas in adhoc/mesh

networks and have identified the potential it presents to mesh networks as well as the
implications and challenges posed to physical, medium access control and routing protocols
including a survey of the state of the art protocols in this field, in the paper, “Opportunities
and Challenges for Mesh Networks Using Directional Antennas,” JOHN A et al. have
reviewed the issues in exploitingsmart antennas in mesh networks and identified conditions
necessary for their exploitation, described the legacy contention MAC (Media Access

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OFDM Based Cognitive Radio Networks

Control) protocols, and reviewed their potential to exploit directional and smart antennas .
Tom Van Leeuwen et al. has suggested some methods to tackle the pitfalls like bandwidth
shortage, frequent handovers, etc., for mobile terminals moving at vehicular speeds, the so-
called ‘virtual office’ or ‘virtual home’, in the paperBroadband Wireless Communication in
Vehicles.

Kazuhiro UEHARA reviewed the current trends in broadband wireless communication

systems, including cellular, wireless LAN, and fixed wireless access (FWA) systems, and
described the recent activities in the development of software-defined radios (SDRs) that are
essential for realizing the systems beyond 3G of, with a particular focus on processor and
security issues in thepaper, “Trends in Broadband Wireless Communication Systems and
Software Defined Radios”.

Rappaport, T. S., Sun, S., Rangan, S., & Mayzus, R. (2013). Millimeter wave mobile
communications for 5G cellular: It will work! IEEE Access, 1, 335-349. This paper discusses
thepotential of millimeter wave frequencies for 5G cellular communication. It explores the
advantages and challenges of using millimeter waves and emphasizes the feasibility of
millimeterwave OFDM for high-speed wireless communication. Akdeniz, M. R., Liu, Y.,
Samimi, M. K., Sun, S., Rangan, S., & Rappaport, T. S. (2014). Millimeter wave channel
modeling and cellular capacity evaluation. IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in
Communications, 32(6), 1164-1179. Thisstudy focuses on millimeter wave channel modeling
for cellular communication systems. It examines the characteristics of millimeter wave
propagation, including path loss, shadowing, andsmall-scale fading, and provides insights into
the capacity evaluation of millimeter wave cellular networks using OFDM.

Pi, Z., Khan, F., & Krishnamurthy, P. (2011). An introduction to millimeter-wave mobile
broadband systems. IEEE Communications Magazine, 49(6), 101-107. This article provides
an introduction to millimeter-wave mobile broadband systems, highlighting the potential
applicationsand challenges in utilizing millimeter wave frequencies for high-speed wireless
communication. It discusses the role of OFDM in millimeter wave systems and its
effectiveness in achieving highdata rates.

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OFDM Based Cognitive Radio Networks

Roh, W., Seol, J. Y., Park, J., Lee, B., Kim, J., Cheun, K., .. & Cho, J. (2014). Millimeter-
wave beamforming as an enabling technology for 5G cellular communications: Theoretical
feasibility and prototype results. IEEE Communications Magazine, 52(2), 106-113. This
paper explores the use of millimeter wave beam forming techniques for 5G cellular
communication systems. It discusses the theoretical feasibility and practical implementation
of millimeter wave beam forming, highlighting the advantages it offers in improving system
performance and achieving high data rates in millimeter wave OFDM systems.

Giordani, M., Polese, M., Mezzavilla, M., Rangan, S., & Zorzi, M. (2018). A survey on 3GPP
heterogeneous networks towards the 5th generation of cellular systems. IEEE
Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 20(1), 674-707. This survey paper provides an
overview of heterogeneous networks, including millimeter wave communications, in the
context of 5G cellular systems. It discusses the integration of millimeter wave OFDM in
heterogeneous network architectures and examines various aspects such as channel modeling,
resource allocation, and interference management.

Singh, M., Jindal, M., & Gupta, A. (2017). OFDM-based millimeter-wave communication for
future wireless systems. International Journal of Wireless Communications and Networking,
9(1),15-21.

This paper focuses on the use of OFDM for millimeter wave communication in future
wireless systems. It discusses the advantages of OFDM in handling frequency-selective
channels, mitigating multipath fading, and achieving high spectral efficiency in millimeter
wave OFDM systems. These references cover a range of topics related to millimeter wave
OFDM, including channel modeling, system performance analysis, beam forming, and the
feasibility of millimeter wave communication for future wireless systems. They can serve as a
starting point.

1.7 Conclusion

In conclusion, Compressive spectrum sensing for MIMO-OFDM based cognitive radio

network. This holds great potential for improving spectrum utilization, reducing interference
risks, and enhancing overall network efficiency.

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Chapter 2
Software Requirements

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter we will discuss and software requirements for Compressive spectrum sensing
for MIMO-OFDM-based cognitive radio networks.

2.2 Software Requirements

What is MATLAB? Programming assignments in this course will almost exclusively be

performed in MATLAB, a widely used environment for technical computing with a focus on
matrix operations. The name MATLAB stands for “Matrix Laboratory” and was originally
designed as a tool for doing numerical computations with matrices and vectors. It has since
grown into a high-performance language for technical computing. MATLAB integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment, and allows easy
matrix manipulation, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of
user interfaces, and interfacing with programs in other languages. Typical areas of use
include:
 Math and Computation
 Modeling and Simulation
 Data Analysis and Visualization
 Application Development
 Graphical User Interface Development 1.2 Getting Started Window Layout The first
time you start MATLAB, the desktop appears with the default layout, as shown in
Figure 1. The MATLAB desktop consists of the following parts:
 Command Window: Run MATLAB statements.
 Current Directory: To view, open, search for, and make changes to MATLAB related
directories and files.
 Command History: Displays a log of the functions you have entered in the Command
Window. You can copy them, execute them, and more.
 Workspace: Shows the name of each variable, its value, and the Min and Max entry if
the variable is a matrix. In case that the desktop does not appear with the default layout,

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you can change it from the menu Desktop → Desktop Layout → Default. 1.3 Editor the

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MATLAB editor (Figure 2) can be used to create and edit M–files, in which you can write and
save MATLAB programs. A file can take the form of a script file or a function. A script file
contains a sequence of MATLAB statements; the statements contained in a script file can be
run in the specified order, in the MATLAB command window simply by typing the name of
the file at the command prompt. M–files are very useful when you use a sequence of
commands over and over again, in many different MATLAB sessions and you do not want to
manually type these commands at the command prompt every time you want to use them.

Figure 2.1: MATLAB Desktop (default layout)

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The desktop includes these panels:

Current Folder — Access your files.
Command Window — Enter commands at the command line, indicated by the prompt (>>).
Workspace — Explore data that you create or import from files.
As you work in MATLAB, you issue commands that create variables and call functions. For
If you end a statement with a semicolon, MATLAB performs the computation, but suppresses
the display of output in the Command Window.
e = a*b;
You can recall previous commands by pressing the up- and down-arrow keys, ↑ and ↓. Press
the arrow keys either at an empty command line or after you type the first few characters of a
command. For example, to recall the command b = 2, type b, and then press the up-arrow key.
You can run a script, or a function that does not require an input argument, directly from the
Editor/Debugger either by pressing F5 or selecting Save File and Run from the Debug menu.
If you only want to run a part of a script, you can use the mouse to highlight the
corresponding lines in the m-file and press F9. The results are shown in Command Window.

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Figure 2.2: MATLAB Editor

MATLAB Help MATLAB has an extensive built-in help system, which contains detailed
documentation for all of the commands and functions of MATLAB. There are different ways
to ask for help when using MATLAB: Command Line • HELP: HELP FUN displays a
description of and syntax for the function FUN in the Command Window (e.g., help plot). •
DOC: DOC FUN displays the help browser for the MATLAB function FUN (e.g. doc help).

You can invoke the MATLAB help browser by typing ”helpbrowser” at the MATLAB
command prompt, clicking on the help button, or by selecting Start → MAT LAB → Help
from the MATLAB desktop.

2.3 Conclusion

This chapter concludes about software requirements for Compressive spectrum sensing for
MMIMO-OFDM-based cognitive radio network.

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OFDM Based Cognitive Radio Networks

Chapter 3
MIMO-OFDM Based Cognitive Radio Network
3.1 Introduction

In this chapter we will discuss about Existing/Proposed System, block diagram and
methodology for Compressive spectrum sensing for MIMO-OFDM based cognitive radio
network.

3.2 Existing System

The growing demand of multimedia services and the growth of Internet related contents lead
to increasing interest to high speed communications. The requirement for wide bandwidth and
flexibility imposes the use of efficient transmission methods that would fit to the
characteristics of wideband channels especially in wireless environment where the channel is
very challenging. In wireless environment the signal is propagating from the transmitter to the
receiver along number of different paths, collectively referred as multipath. While propagating
the signal power drops of due to three effects: path loss, macroscopic fading and microscopic
fading. Fading of the signal can be mitigated by different diversity techniques. To obtain
diversity, the signal is transmitted through multiple (ideally) independent fading paths e.g. in
time, frequency or space and combined constructively at the receiver. Multiple input-multiple-
output (MIMO) exploits spatial diversity by having several transmit and receive antennas.
OFDM is modulation method known for its capability to mitigate multipath. In OFDM the
high speed data stream is divided into Nc narrowband data streams, Nc corresponding to the
subcarriers or sub channels
i.e. one OFDM symbol consists of N symbols modulated for example by QAM or PSK. As a
result the symbol duration is N times longer than in a single carrier system with the same
symbol rate. The symbol duration is made even longer by adding a cyclic prefix to each
symbol. As long as the cyclic prefix is longer than the channel delay spread OFDM offers
inter-symbol interference (ISI) free transmission. Another key advantage of OFDM is that it
dramatically reduces equalization complexity by enabling equalization in the frequency
domain. OFDM, implemented with IFFT at the transmitter and FFT at the receiver, converts
the wideband signal, affected by frequency selective fading, into N narrowband flat fading
signals thus the equalization can be performed in the frequency domain by a scalar division
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carrier-wise with

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the subcarrier related channel coefficients. The channel should be known or learned at the
receiver. The combination MIMO-OFDM is very natural and beneficial since OFDM enables
support of more antennas and larger bandwidths since it simplifies equalization dramatically
in MIMO systems. This provides a general overview of this promising transmission technique.
The major challenges in future wireless communications system design are increased spectral
efficiency and improved link reliability. The wireless channel constitutes a hostile propagation
medium, which suffers from fading (caused by destructive addition of multipath components)
and interference from other users. Diversity provides the receiver with several (ideally
independent) replicas of the transmitted signal and is therefore a powerful means to combat
fading and interference and thereby improve link reliability. Common forms of diversity are
time diversity (due to Doppler spread) and frequency diversity (due to delay spread). In recent
years the use of spatial (or antenna) diversity has become very popular, which is mostly due to
the fact that it can be provided without loss in spectral efficiency. Receive diversity, that is,
the use of multiple antennas on the receive side of a wireless link, is a well-studied subject.
The use of multiple antennas at both ends of a wireless link (multiple-input multiple-output
(MIMO) technology) has recently been demonstrated to have the potential of achieving
extraordinary data rates. The corresponding technology is known as spatial multiplexing or
BLAST and yields an impressive increase in spectral efficiency. Most of the previous work in
the area of MIMO wireless has been restricted to narrowband systems. Besides spatial
diversity broadband MIMO channels, however, offer higher capacity and frequency diversity
due to delay spread. Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) significantly
reduces receiver complexity in wireless broadband systems. The use of MIMO technology in
combination with OFDM, i.e., MIMO-OFDM therefore seems to be an attractive solution for
future broadband wireless systems. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a survey of the
basic principles of MIMO- OFDM. To obtain more high performance in broad band wireless
communication system MIMO-OFDM is used. During the last years MIMO-OFDM system
has gained an increased interest in that topic. In MIMO-OFDM technology, Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is used to improve spectral efficiency and Multiple
Input Multiple output (MIMO) is used to improve spatial diversity. MIMO is a system which
has multiple inputs and multiple outputs. It is used to send and receive the multiple signals at
the same time by using the multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver side. The use of
multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver side will create the problem caused by
multipath fading. To send the signal the system also needs the modulation techniques.
Modulation technique is just a
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OFDM Based Cognitive Radio Networks

technique where the change in characteristics of carrier signal occurs with respect to the
instantaneous properties like message/voice signal. Let us talk about the generation of
multiple signals at the same time then we see that it drops us towards the signal interference,
so whenever MIMO comes in forefront, it is comes with Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM). Both of these peculiar techniques MIMO and OFDM stand as
promising choices for prospect high data rates. These techniques can be used to transmit the
signal and to receive the signal with a minimum error rates at the receiver side. It shows
robustness for multipath fading and interference.

It is a modern wireless broadband technology which has a great capability of high data rate
transmission and its robustness against multi-path fading and other channel impairments. A
simple block diagram of MIMO-OFDM system is shown below. In this system multiple
numbers of transmitters at one point and multiple numbers of receivers at other end and are
effectively combined to improve the channel capacity of wireless system. It also highly
improves the spectrum efficiency, reliability of system and coverage area.

Figure 3.1: MIMO-OFDM

It uses multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver ends of a wireless communication link
just to transmit multiple data streams concurrently within the same frequency band. It does not
need the additional power of spectrum this transmission creates a parallel channel over the
same time and frequency. Thus MIMO transmission technique exploits the multipath fading
mechanism to increase data rate and system capacity. Using the multiple antenna
configurations these parallel low-rate subcarriers can then be transmitted and received. OFDM
(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) is a multicarrier modulation technique that
creates these
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parallel sub-channels that are narrow band and low rate in nature. Between these sub-channels
by inserting cyclic prefixes orthogonally is maintained and inter-symbol interference is totally
eliminated. Hence a combination of OFDM and MIMO, i.e. MIMO-OFDM not only improves
channel capacity and data rates, it also combats frequency-selective fading thereby improving
link reliability.

3.3 Proposed System

We consider a MIMO-OFDM-based CR network by exploiting sparse signal modeling. First,

we consider an OFDM primary user in a MIMO system with NP transmitting antennas. We
also assume there are Nf subcarriers the transmitted signal is sparse for only a finite number of
subcarriers are used. We set the number of active subcarriers as Nf. Then we consider an
OFDM secondary user in a MIMO system with NS receiving antennas. In order to make use
of the spectrum holes to transmit its signals, the SU need to sense the spectrum usage of the
PU as the first task. By reconstructing or estimating the signals transmitted from the PU in the
receiver, the SU can figure out the frequencies of active subcarriers, which also stands for the
information of spectrum usage. Different with traditional MIMO-OFDM receiver, the signal
received in each antenna of our receiving scheme is modulated by a set of random sequence at
first. Then all received and modulated signals are mixed together and sampled by a single
ADC. The sampled (converted) signals are sent to a DSP (digital signal process) block, in
where the sampled signals can be reconstructed by running recovery algorithm. Furthermore,
the converted signals in our scheme can be recovered by compressive sensing algorithm on
the frequency domain directly, without be transformed to time domain by the FFT units,
which is different with the method in conventional DSP block. The details of the signal
conversion at the receiver can be find in. In the next, we will give a brief introduction to each
processing unit at the receiver.

Transmission and Channel Model

A transmission channel can be described by giving the set of input signals that may be used at
the entrance of the channel, the set of output signals, and for each input signal the conditional
probability that it will be received as a specific output signal (and this for each possible output
signal).

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The simplest transmission channel is the one for which the input and output alphabets are
finite and for which the output at a certain moment in time depends statistically only on the
corresponding moment in time at the input. This is the case of the discrete memory less
channel. Another case is the one in which the input and output signals are discrete in time, but
have continuous amplitudes. In other words, the input and output alphabet are infinite (analog
signals at discrete moments in time).

This transmission channel is also memory less if the statistic of the output symbols at a certain
moment in time depends only on the input signal at the corresponding moment in time, and
not on the preceding input signals.Finally one has to consider the case in which the input and
output signals are continuous both in time and in amplitude (analog signals in continuous
time).

The most complex case is to deal with are those in which the transmission channels do have
memory. Transmission channels that present Inter Symbol Interference (ISI: as a consequence
of limitations in bandwidth or of multipath propagation) or phenomena of signal extinction
(fading) are examples of channels that do have memory.

Sparse Signal Reconstruction: In our scheme, the compressively sampled signals are
separated and reconstructed in the DSP block by exploiting the sparsity model. Thus, the
reconstruction of the sampled signals is equivalent to the compressive sensing problem, also
called as sparse signal recovery problem. This problem has been widely studied and a variety
of algorithms have been proposed to solve the sparse signal recovery problem, like. However,
considering in the MIMO-OFDM-based CR network, usually, it’s hard for the SU to obtain
the prior spectrum usage information like the occupancies of the frequency points or their
locations, which can be presented by the sparsity and elements’ locations in the transmission
signals. Thus, we need sparsity adaptive algorithms to solve the spectrum sensing problem.
Besides, considering the application in dynamic spectrum access system, the adopted
reconstruction algorithm also need to perform with low computation complexity.

Spectrum Sensing Scheme

In our problem, the target of spectrum sensing is to find out the occupied subcarriers, which
now is same to the compressive sensing problem. The conventional mathematical model for
compressive sensing is expressed as
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OFDM Based Cognitive Radio Networks

But we prefer to use the diversity measure instead of the diversity measure for the better
performance that diversity measure will lead to. The p diversity measure is defined as:

Where p is a real-valued number with p ∈ [0, 2]. Thus, the target problem can be formed as:

Where considering the prior information of occupied subcarriers

like sparsity are not easily obtained by the CR receiver, the sensing algorithm should run
without the prior information of the activity of subcarriers. Thus, we need the algorithm which
has the feature of adaptive sparsity. Besides, consider the application in the dynamic and
complex wireless environment, the reconstruction algorithm needs faster speed with lower
computation complexity.

For the Algorithm 1 given in the above , k denotes the iterative step index. From the
algorithm, we can find the outputs are estimated signals b∗ and the estimated support Ωb.
Since the support stands for the indices of nonzero entries, which also stands for the location
of the occupied frequency points, usually we can detect the activity of subcarriers by only
analyzing the support of the sparse signals. Besides, from the table, we also can find this
algorithm is suitable for application in spectrum detection when the prior information of

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OFDM Based Cognitive Radio Networks
subcarriers is unknown. Besides, the value of θ can be varied according to different situations.
In our experiments, we

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choose θ as 0.005. In the next section, we will discuss the choice of parameters which are
involved in our algorithm.

3.4 Block Diagram

Figure 3.2: Block Diagram of MIMO-OFDM

Block Diagram Steps:

 The signals are fed into the OFDM modulators.

 The OFDM modulators convert the symbols into the Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM) format for transmission.
 The transmitted signal passes through the channel, which includes multipath
fading and interference.
 The OFDM demodulators receive the signal and perform demodulation to extract the
signals.
 The extracted signals are then used for channel estimation and detection to mitigate
the effects of fading and interference.
This diagram shows multiple sets of modulators and demodulators (1 to M) to handle different
channels or scenarios

3.5 Methodology

1. Training Signal Transmission: The primary users periodically transmit training signals to
provide information about their channels. These training signals are known and can be used
by the secondary users to estimate the channel state information.

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2. Channel Estimation: The secondary users receive the training signals from the primary
users' antennas. They then estimate the channel state information (CSI) using various
channel estimation techniques.

3. Sparse Representation: The received signals at the secondary users' antennas are
considered as sparse signals, meaning that they can be represented using fewer non-zero
coefficients. The received signals are represented in a compressed form using techniques
like compressive sensing (CS) or sparse Bayesian learning (SBL).

4. Random Projections: Random projections are applied to the received signals to reduce
their dimensionality while retaining the useful information. This is done to simplify the
signal processing and reduce the complexity of spectrum sensing algorithms.

5. Reconstruction: The compressed signals are reconstructed using algorithms such as

orthogonal matching pursuit (OMP) or basis pursuit (BP). The reconstructed signals
contain information about the occupied and unoccupied frequency bands in the spectrum.

6. Spectrum Sensing: Spectrum sensing is performed by analyzing the reconstructed signals

to detect the presence or absence of primary user signals in the spectrum.

7. Decision Making: The final step involves making decisions based on the spectrum sensing
results. Secondary users determine the available spectrum bands for opportunistic
transmission, avoiding interference with the primary users.

3.6 Conclusion
In conclusion, this chapter has provided an in-depth analysis of Compressive spectrum
sensing for MIMO-OFDM based cognitive radio network. The existing, proposed system and
block diagram has been discussed. The methodology has been discussed, outlining the
necessary steps for implementing the system.

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Chapter 4
Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications
4.1 Advantages

1. Spatial Diversity and Multiplexing: MIMO OFDM exploits multiple antennas at both the
transmitter and receiver to achieve spatial diversity and multiplexing. This enables the
transmission of multiple data streams simultaneously, increasing the overall data rate and
improving system capacity.
2. Enhanced Coverage and Reliability: MIMO OFDM systems can mitigate the effects of
fading and interference, resulting in improved coverage and reliability in wireless
communication. The use of multiple antennas helps to combat signal degradation caused by
multipath propagation.
3. Improved Spectral Efficiency: OFDM inherently offers high spectral efficiency by
dividing the available frequency spectrum into multiple subcarriers. When combined with
MIMO techniques, the overall spectral efficiency of the system is further improved,
allowing more data to be transmitted within the same bandwidth.
4. Mitigation of Interference: MIMO OFDM can help mitigate interference by employing
spatial processing techniques such as beam forming and null steering. This is particularly
beneficial in environments with high interference levels.
5. Better Resistance to Fading: MIMO OFDM's ability to exploit multipath propagation
helps combat fading caused by reflections and signal attenuation. By combining signals
from different paths, the receiver can achieve better signal quality and reduced error rates.
6. Flexibility and Adaptability: MIMO OFDM systems are adaptable to various channel
conditions and environments. Techniques like adaptive modulation and coding can be used
to adjust the system's parameters based on the channel conditions in real-time.
7. Improved Data Rates and Throughput: The combination of MIMO and OFDM allows
for higher data rates and throughput compared to traditional single-input single-output
(SISO) systems. This is particularly valuable for applications requiring high-speed data
transmission.
8. Scalability: MIMO OFDM can be scaled to support different levels of complexity and
performance. It can be applied in a range of communication systems, from short-range
indoor networks to long-range outdoor deployments.
9. Diversity Gains: The multiple antennas in MIMO OFDM provide diversity gains, allowing
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the system to maintain reliable communication even in challenging environments where

signal quality is compromised.
10. Suitable for Multiple Environments: MIMO OFDM is suitable for various
environments, including indoor, urban, suburban, and rural areas, making it a versatile
technology for wireless communication.

5.2 Disadvantages

1. Complexity and Processing Overhead: MIMO-OFDM systems involve complex signal

processing techniques such as channel estimation, equalization, and beam forming. The
additional processing overhead can increase the computational requirements of both the
transmitter and receiver, impacting system complexity and power consumption.
2. Channel Estimation Challenges: Accurate channel estimation is crucial in MIMO-OFDM
systems to mitigate the effects of multipath propagation and fading. Estimating channels
with a high number of antennas and subcarriers can be challenging, especially in dynamic
environments.
3. Interference and Crosstalk: In scenarios with multiple MIMO-OFDM systems operating
in close proximity, cross-interference or crosstalk between different systems can occur.
This can degrade the performance of each system due to interference.

5.3 Applications

1. Wireless Broadband Communication: Comprehensive Sensing MIMO-OFDM is

extensively used in wireless broadband communication systems, such as 4G LTE and 5G
networks, to achieve higher data rates, increased coverage, and improved spectral
efficiency.
2. Massive MIMO Systems: In massive MIMO systems, a large number of antennas are
employed at both the transmitter and receiver. Comprehensive Sensing MIMO-OFDM is
vital in enabling massive connectivity for IoT devices and increasing system capacity.
3. Smart Grid Communication: MIMO-OFDM can be used in smart grid communication to
achieve reliable and high-throughput communication between various components of the
smart grid infrastructure, such as smart meters, sensors, and control centers.
4. Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs): Comprehensive Sensing MIMO-OFDM is
utilized in WLANs to provide high-speed and reliable wireless connectivity in
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environments like homes, offices, airports, and public spaces.

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5. Wireless Backhaul and Fronthaul: MIMO-OFDM is employed in wireless backhaul and

fronthaul networks to provide high-capacity links for connecting base stations in cellular
networks, small cells, and other network elements.
6. Indoor and Outdoor Connectivity: The technology supports seamless connectivity in
both indoor and outdoor environments, making it suitable for scenarios like indoor
hotspots, outdoor urban environments, and rural coverage areas.
1) Vehicular Communication: Comprehensive Sensing MIMO-OFDM enhances
vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication in
connected and autonomous vehicle networks, improving road safety and traffic
management.
2) Aerospace and Satellite Communication: The technology is used in satellite
communication systems to improve throughput and reliability for satellite links
connecting ground stations, aircraft, and spacecraft.
3) Wireless Multimedia Streaming: MIMO-OFDM is utilized for multimedia streaming
applications, ensuring high-quality and reliable transmission of video, audio, and other
data.
4) IoT Connectivity: The technology can support connectivity for a large number of IoT
devices with different communication requirements, contributing to the growth of the
Internet of Things.
5) Point-to-Point Communication: Comprehensive Sensing MIMO-OFDM is employed
for point-to-point communication links, such as point-to-point wireless links between
buildings, campuses, or remote sites.
6) Cognitive Radio Networks: MIMO-OFDM techniques are also applied in cognitive
radio networks to enhance spectrum efficiency by enabling dynamic spectrum access
and efficient utilization of available frequency bands.

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Chapter 5
Results and Discussion
5.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we will discuss about the results of the Compressive spectrum sensing for
MIMO-OFDM based cognitive radio network.

5.2 Working

Compressive Spectrum Sensing (CSS) is a technique used in Cognitive Radio Networks

(CRNs) to detect the presence or absence of Primary Users (PUs) in a given frequency band.
MIMO-OFDM (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing) is a transmission scheme that combines multiple antennas and OFDM
modulation to improve bandwidth efficiency and system capacity.

In MIMO-OFDM based CRNs, CSS operates by exploiting the sparsity of PU signals in the
frequency domain. The basic idea is to use a smaller number of samples than the Nyquist rate
to reconstruct the spectrum and detect the presence or absence of PUs.

Before performing CSS, the receiving node needs to estimate the channel response between
the transmitting and receiving antennas. This is done by transmitting known pilot signals from
the transmitting antennas and estimating the channel response at the receiving antennas.

The PU signals are modulated using OFDM, which divides the frequency band into multiple
subcarriers. Each subcarrier carries a part of the PU signal.

The sampled signal is then used for spectrum reconstruction or signal detection using
compressive sensing techniques. Compressive sensing exploits the sparsity of PU signals in
the frequency domain to reconstruct the entire spectrum.Based on the reconstructed spectrum,
a decision is made about the presence or absence of PUs in the frequency band under
consideration. This decision is used for dynamic spectrum access by CRNs, allowing them to
utilize the unused spectrum band.

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5.3Results

Figure 5.1: Triangular Wave

A triangular wave, It is a type of periodic waveform that alternates between rising and falling
linear segments.

Figure 5.2: Probability Spectral Density with respect to SNR

The term "Probability Spectral Density" (PSD) might be a bit ambiguous, as spectral density
is often used to describe the distribution of power across different frequency components of a
signal.In the context of communication systems and signal processing, the Signal-to-Noise
Ratio (SNR) is often used to characterize the quality of a signal relative to the level of noise

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present in the system. It's defined as the ratio of the power of the signal to the power of the
noise.

Figure 5.3: RMSE with respect to SNR

Relative Mean Square Error (RMSE) is a common metric used to quantify the average
difference between predicted or simulated values and actual observed values. However, using
RMSE in the context of SNR might be a bit unconventional. RMSE is typically used to
compare sets of values, which is not plotted against SNR.

Figure 5.4: BPSK with AWGN

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"BPSK with AWGN" refers to a specific communication system configuration that involves
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) modulation in the presence of Additive White Gaussian
Noise (AWGN).BPSK is a digital modulation scheme used in communication systems. In
BPSK, binary data is modulated onto a carrier signal by shifting the phase of the carrier by
180 degrees (π radians) for one binary value (e.g., 0) and leaving it unchanged for the other
binary value (e.g., 1). BPSK is simple and robust, making it suitable for many applications.
AWGN is a type of noise that is commonly encountered in communication systems. It is
characterized by being Gaussian (normally distributed) and having a flat power spectral
density across all frequencies. AWGN models various sources of noise, such as thermal noise,
interference, and electronic noise.
Combining BPSK modulation with AWGN means that binary data is transmitted using the
BPSK scheme, and the transmitted signal is corrupted by the addition of AWGN. This is a
common model for analyzing the performance of digital communication systems under noisy
conditions.

Figure 5.5: Probability Spectral Density with respect to SNR

If SNR increases the probability also tends to increase, which indicates if the quality of signal,
improves then probability of outcomes оccuring also increases

5.4 Conclusion

In conclusion, this chapter explored the operation, and results of the project.

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based Cognitive Radio Networks

Chapter 6
Conclusion and Future Scope

6.1 Conclusion

We proposed a novel scheme for spectrum sensing in MIMO-OFDM based Cognitive Radio
system in this paper. Compared with traditional MIMO-OFDM system, where the signals
received in each antenna are sampled by an individual analog-to-digital converter (ADC), our
scheme can mix the received signals from multiple receiving antennas together and sample the
mixed signal through a single ADC by exploiting the sparsity model of the subcarriers
allocated in transmission signals, which can lead to a significant reduction of hardware cost.
Since usually there are finite number of subcarriers are occupied in the CR network, the
transmission signals can be reconstructed through the compressive sensing algorithms in our
model. Furthermore, the spectrum sensing algorithm used here can efficiently estimate the
spectrum usage but without the prior information of sparsity, which makes it suitable for the
application in the real wireless environment. Finally, the simulation result also shows the
effectiveness of our proposed scheme.

6.2 Future scope

MIMO OFDM is a foundational technology for 5G networks, offering higher data rates,
increased capacity, and improved spectral efficiency. As 5G networks continue to evolve,
MIMO OFDM will play a crucial role in providing enhanced connectivity, massive IoT
support, and support for emerging applications such as augmented reality and virtual reality.

The future of wireless communication is likely to involve massive MIMO systems with a
large number of antennas at both the transmitter and receiver. Comprehensive sensing and
advanced signal processing techniques will be essential to effectively manage the increased
complexity of these systems and fully realize their potential benefits.

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