lOMoARcPS D|16695307

lOM oARcPSD|16695307

Unit-3 Basic Structural Analysis

Forces in Space

In case of space problems, it is necessary to consider three mutually perpendicular axes,

viz; OX, OY and OZ as shown in figure (a) below. In the figure a point ‘A’ is shown in
the space whose co-ordinates are x,y and z. Let the OA be the vector which represents a
force of magnitude F. This vector makes angles »x, »y, and »z with OX, OY and Oz
respectively as shown in the figure. The components of this force (F) along the three
directions (i.e. OX, OY and OZ) are given below.

(1) Fx = F cos »x
(2) Fy = F cos »y
(3) Fz = F cos »z
Force F is in space
Y

A (x, y,z)
»y

»x
O
X
»z

Z
The magnitude of ‘F’ is calculated by using the equation: F= : F2 x + F2 y + F2z

Equilibrium of a body :

When a body is in equilibrium, it will be in a stationary condition or it will not have any
translatory or rotatary motion in any direction. Thus, the necessary conditions of
equilibrium of a body required to be satisfied are –

£Fx = 0, £Fy = 0, and £M = 0, i.e. the algebraic sum of components of all forces acting
along horizontal direction (X- axis) should be zero. Similarly, the algebraic sum of
components of all forces acting along vertical direction (Y-axis) should be zero and also
the algebraic sum of moments of all the component forces about any point should be
zero.

Beam:
A beam is defined as a structural member which has one dimension (length) considerably
larger than the other two dimensions, (breadth and depth) and is supported at some
points. Beams are generally subjected to transverse loading. The beams are flexural
members.
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W1 W2 W3 Transverse loading

Wall Supports
R1 R2
Reactions at the supports

The beams are divided into two categories:

(i) Statically determinate beams
(ii) Statically indeterminate beams

(i) Statically determinate beams:

If the beams can be analyzed with equations of static equilibrium only (i.e. £Fx=0,
£Fy=0, and £M = 0), then they are called as statically determinate beams.

(ii) Statically indeterminate beams:

If the beams cannot be analyzed with the equations of static equilibrium only, they are known as
statically indeterminate beams. Note that we are interested in analyzing the beams which are
statically determinate.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion:

“To every action there is always equal and opposite reaction”.

Support Reactions:
Consider a smooth body P resting on a smooth surface Q. From Newton’s 3 rd law of
motion if the body P exerts a pressure or force, called the action, because of its weight W,
on the body Q, then the body Q will exert on body P a force equal and opposite to that of
W and is called the reaction.
R (Reaction of Q surface on body P)

P
Surface - Q

In practice whenever one body rests or is supported on another body, then this second
body exerts on the first body a force which is called the support reaction or simply
reaction. Following is one more example given to indicate the reactions developed.

Table

W - Weight of table passing through leg of table

R - Reaction offered by ground /floor to the leg of table

In the above figure the upward reaction given by the floor to the leg of table is called as
support reaction.
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Types of supports:
There are three types of supports:
1. Simple support
2. Roller support
3. Hinged support
4. Fixed support

1. Simple support:
It is that support in which the end of a beam is simply supported over the support. In such
a case, the reaction is always vertical as shown in figure.

R Free Body Diagram

If a beam end is supported on simple support then the bean is free to move in the
direction of its axis and also it is free to rotate about the support. That is, the support will
not offer any resistance or reaction to the rotation and also to the movement of the beam
in horizontal direction. Thus in a simple support only reaction is developed or there will
be only one unknown (i.e. R).

2. Roller support:
It is that support in which the end of a beam is supported on rollers, and the reaction on
such an end is always perpendicular or normal to the support or perpendicular to the
surface on which rollers move, as shown in figure.
y

R x

(Normal Reaction)
R Free Body Diagram
R

(Reaction is Normal to the surface on which rollers roll)

In this type of support the rollers are treated as frictionless. At roller support beam is free
to move along the support. It can rotate about the support also. Thus, in a roller support
also, only one reaction gets developed and that is always normal to the surface on which
rollers roll or move.

3. Hinged support :
Hinged support is that support in which the end of the beam is hinged to the support as
shown in figure below. In this type of support a beam cannot move in any direction.
However, it can rotate about the support. The reaction on such an end may be either
vertical or inclined, depending upon the type of loading on the beam.
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Hinge
Rx Rx OR
» »
Ry

Ry
R R
Free Body diagrams

Thus, in a hinged support, there will be two reactions or two unknowns. The unknowns
may be one horizontal reaction and one vertical reaction or one inclined reaction and

other is the angle made by the reaction with horizontal or vertical as shown in above
figures.

4. Fixed support:
Fixed support is that support in which the end of the beam is firmly fixed or built in the
wall or similar such element. Therefore, in a fixed support the beam end is not free to
translate or rotate. In such a support there will be three reactions developed. One
horizontal reaction, one vertical reaction and the third is reacting moment about the
support as shown in figure below.

Fixed Support Beam Rx M

Ry

Types of Beams :

Depending upon the type of support provided to the beam ends, beams are classified as
given below.

1) Simply supported beams:

A beam in which both ends are supported over simple supports is called as simply
supported beam. In such types of beams loading is transverse or normal to the axis of the

RA RB
beam.

2) Beam with one end Hinged and other end Roller supported:
In this type of beam one end is supported over a hinged support and the other end is
supported over a roller support. Such types of beams can be subjected to loads acting in
any direction.

RHA A B

RVA RVB
W1 W2
RHA = Horizontal reaction at A and
RVA = Vertical reaction at A
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3) Cantilever beams:
A beam whose one end is fixed and other end is free is called the cantilever beam.

M Beam
RHA
A
RVA
1) Overhanging beam:
If a beam is extended in the form of a projection beyond the support, it is called an
overhanging beam. The overhang may be only on one side or may be on both sides of

W1 W2 W3

A B

beam.

2) Compound beams :
Two beams which are compounded by means of a roller support are called compound
beams.

w/ W
m M w/m

Types of loading :
(1) Concentrated or point load

Load acting at a point on a beam is known as a concentrated load or a point load.

W = Point load

a
L

(2) Uniformly distributed load

A load which is spread over a beam, in such a way that each unit length is loaded to the
same extent (intensity), is known as uniformly distributed load. It is briefly written as
u.d.l. The total uniformly distributed load is assumed to act at the c.g. of the loaded
portion.

Representation of u.d.l.
udl w/m run
W
L

OR
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W =Tot load acting at c.g

u.d.l. w/m
.

L/2
L

(3) Uniformly varying load

A load which is spread over a beam, in such a way that its extent varies uniformly on
each unit length is known as uniformly varying load. Such a load is also called as
triangular load. The total uniformly varying load or triangular load is assumed to act at
the
c.g. of the loading diagram.

W = Tot load acting at c.g.

(L/3) [(2xw1+w2) /
(w1+w2)] W2 N/m

W 1N/m

W 2N/m W1 N/m
W1N / m
= +
0 N/m (W 2 - W1 ) N/m

W = Tot load acting at c.g

0 N/m (W 2 - W1 ) N/m

(2/3)L (1/3) L
L
Total load = area of the loading diagram
W= ½ ( L) x (H) = ½ (L) x ((W2 - w1 )
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SOLVED NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

1) A simply supported beam AB of span 4 m is carrying point loads of 5KN, 2KN and 3KN at
1m, 2m and 3m respectively from the support A. Calculate the reactions at the supports A
and B.

Solution: 5KN 2KN 3KN

A C D E B

1m
RA 2m RB
3m

4m

(I) Sign Conventions:

(a) + ve ( leftward forces)

(b) - ve (rightward forces)
(c) + ve ( upward forces)
(d) - ve (downward forces)
(e) +ve (clockwise moments)
(f) - ve (anticlockwise moment)

(II) Assumptions and designations for the reactions at the support.

Let RA and RB be the reactions at the simple supports A and B respectively of the beam loaded as
shown in figure. The beam is statically determinate as number of reactions (unknowns) at the
support are 2 and equations of equilibrium are 3, thus we can analyze the beam.

(III) Applying the three equations of equilibrium……..

£H =0 (Since the beam is simply supported, it doesn’t offer any reaction in
horizontal direction and hence this equation cannot be applicable)

£V =0 (As beam is subjected to vertical forces we can apply second equation of

equilibrium, thus taking algebraic sum of all vertical forces…)

RA -5 – 2 -3 + RB = 0 (Always go in a sequential order as there is least possibility

of omitting any force)

RA+ RB -5 – 2 -3 = 0 (Rearrangement of the eqn )

RA+ RB -10 = 0 --------------------- ( i )

£M =0 (using third equation of equilibrium) Taking moments of all forces @ point A

considering the sign conventions.
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Note that selection of any point for taking moments is done in such a way that
maximum number of forces passes through that point, which results in the
reduction of calculations.

£M @ A =0
+RA x 0 + 5 x 1 + 2 x2 +3 x 3 – RB x 4 = 0

(As RA passes through point A, its moment @ point A is zero because distance
between RA and point A is zero. Also the moments or rotational effects of all other
forces are clockwise, and hence are positive.)

Simplifying above equation we can

write…… 0 + 5 +4 + 9 – 4 x RB = 0

+18 – 4 x R B = 0

- 4 x RB = 18

RB = (-18) / (- 4)

RB = + 4.5 KN Ans.
Now substituting this value of RB in equation (i) we

get… R A+ R B -10 = 0 ---------- ( i )

RA+ (4.5) – 10 = 0

RA - 5.5 = 0

RA = + 5.5 KN Ans.
Thus the reactions at support A and B are ……..

Answers
RA = 5.5 KN
RB = 4.5 KN

2) Find the reactions at the support A and B.

10KN

2m 3m
A B

30o

Solution:
(I) Sign conventions used (for forces and moments):-
(As used in previous example)

(II) Assumptions for direction or sense of reactions

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At hinged support two reactions get developed where as at roller support only one
reaction is developed. Thus for the given beam there are in all 3 reactions or unknowns
while from static equilibrium we have 3 equations, thus the beam can be analyzed, i.e.
the beam is statically determinate. The assumed direction or sense of reactions
developed at each support is shown in the figure.

As the load on beam is acting vertically downward we can assume that reaction at the hinged
support is vertical, however, as other end of the beam is supported over roller support, the
reaction at the roller end is normal to the surface on which rollers roll as shown in figure. But
the rolling surface is inclined and hence there will be a horizontal component of this reaction
acting towards left, therefore we can assume that at hinged support a horizontal reaction will
have direction towards right.

10KN
2m 3m
RAH A B RBV cos 60o

30o
RAV
RBV
RBV sin 60o

RBV cos 60o

O
60 (since opposite)
RBV sin
60o
30o
R
60o
Above figure shows the components of reaction of roller support along horizontal
and vertical direction.

(III) Applying the three equations of equilibrium……..

£H =0
+ RAH - RBV cos 60o = 0
+ RAH - RBV (0.50) = 0

+ RAH - (0.50) RBV = 0

+ RAH = + (0.50) RBV ---------------------------- (i)

£V =0
+ RAV - 10 + RBV sin 60o = 0

+ RAV + RBV sin 60o - 10 = 0

+ RAV + RBV (0.866) = 10

+ RAV + (0.866) RBV = 10 (ii)

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£M =0 (Taking moments of all forces about point B)

£M @ B =0
+ RAH x 0+ RAV x 5 – 10 x 3 = 0

+RAV x 5 – 30 = 0

+RAV x 5 = 30

+RAV = 30 / 5

+RAV = + 6 KN (iii)
(Since we get positive sign assumed direction of R AV is correct)

Substituting the value of R AV in equation (ii), we get

+ 6 + (0.866) RBV = 10

(0.866) RBV = 10 - 6 = 4KN

RBV = 4 / (0.866) = +

4.62KN

RBV = + 4.62 KN ---------------- (iv) (Since we get ‘+’ sign the assumed direction is correct)

Now, using eq. no. (i), and putting the value of RBV we get

+ RAH = + (0.50) RBV ---------------------------- (i)

+ RAH = + (0.50) 4.62 = 2.31

+ RAH = + 2.31KN (Since positive sign, assumed direction of RAH is correct)

Answers
RAH = 2.31KN
RAV = 6.00 KN
RBV = 4.62KN

3) Find the reactions at the support of a compound beam loaded

and supported as shown in figure. The beam has an internal hinge
at point B. Hinge 10KN/m

10KNm 15KNm
A B C
1m 1m 1m 1m 3m D
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In the given problem an internal hinge at point B is provided. We know that at a hinged end
two reactions get developed, one horizontal and one vertical. The beam can be separated at
the hinge. Thus the division of the beam can be done into two parts viz; AB and BCD. The
free body diagrams of the beam are shown below.

PART AB of BEAM

Consider the equilibrium of the part AB.

10KNm
A B R’B (R’B =0)
10KN/m
1m 1m RB RB 15KNm
RA B C
( R’B =0) 1m 1m 3m D

As the beam is not subjected to any horizontal or inclined loading there will be no any
horizontal reaction at the hinged end B. Therefore R’B =0.

However, the beam is subjected to an anticlockwise moment of 10KNm and if the beam
has to be in equilibrium condition, the vertical reaction at B (hinged end) must be
downward causing a clockwise moment on the beam. Hence R B is assumed to be
downward.
10 KNm Hinge at B
A B
RB
RA 1m 1m

Now applying the equations of equilibrium…..

(Note that £H =0, is not required, as there is no any inclined or horizontal force acting onpart AB
of the compound beam)

£V =0
+RA - RB = 0 ----------------- (i)

£M =0 (Taking moments about point A)

£M @ A= 0
+ RB x 2 – 10 = 0

+ RB x 2 = + 10

+ RB = + (10 / 2)

RB = + 5KN (³) (+Ve sign indicates assumed direction for RB is correct)

PART BCD of BEAM

Consider the equilibrium of the part BCD.

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Total load due triangular loading = W

W = ½ x base x height = ½ x 3m x 10KN/m = 15 KN

W = 15KN. This load acts at C.G. of loading diagram and the CG of the triangular
shaped loading diagram is at 1/3 distance from the base or 2/3 distance from apex as
shown in figure below.

2/3H CG
H

1/3H

OR
CG

C D
(2/3) L (1/3) L

Span of loaded diagram = 3m.

Thus CG from point C = 2/3 x 3m = 2m
or CG from point D = 1/3 x 3m =
1m

W = 15KN
2m 1m

Hinge at B RB 15KNm
10KN/
mC D
B
1m 1m 3m
RC RD
Since the hinge ‘B’ must be in equilibrium, the sum total of the forces (reactions) at the
hinge should be zero. Hence the vertical reaction at hinge B is shown upward on the part
BCD of the beam (opposite to the direction of RB as shown in part AB.

Now applying equations of equilibrium…

£H =0 [This equation is not applicable as there is no any horizontal /
inclined force acting on the beam (part BCD)]

£V =0
+ RB + RC + RD – 15 = 0

+ 5 + RC +R D – 15 = 0
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RC + RD = 10 ------------ (i)
£M =0 (Taking moments about point C)

The point C is selected for taking moments as we can reduce one unknown R C as itpasses
through point C and we will be with only one unknown.

£M @ C =0
+ 5 x 2 - 15 + 15 x2 – RD x 3 = 0
+ 10 – 15 + 30 – RD x 3 = 0
+25 – RD x 3 = 0
+25 - RD x 5 = 0
- RD x 5 = - 25
+ RD = + (25 / 3)

RD = 8.33 KN Ans.
Using equation (i)

RC + RD = 10KN---------------------- (i)

RC + 8.33 = 10

RC = 10 - 8.33

RC = 1.67 KN Ans
Answers
RB = 5.00KN
RC = 1.67 KN
RD = 8.33 KN

4) Find the support reactions for the beam shown in figure. [Q.P. May 2004, 10Marks]

40KN 10KN/m 5KN

45o
A B
2m 2m 3m 1.5m 1.5m

Solution:
(I) Sign conventions used (for forces and moments):-
(As usual)

(II) Assumptions for direction of reactions:

The assumed directions of reactions are shown in figure.
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30KN 5KN sin 45 o

40KN 10KN/m 1.5m
5KN
RHA 45o
B
A 2m 2m 3m 1.5m 1.5m
RVA RVB

(III) Applying the three equations of equilibrium……..

£H =0

+RHA – 5cos 45o= 0

+RHA – 5 (0.707) = 0

RHA = 3.54KN (i)

£V =0

RVA – 40 -30 – 5 sin 45o + RVB =0

RVA – 40 -30 – 3.54 + RVB =0

RVA + RVB = 73.54KN ---------------- (ii)

£M =0 (Taking moments @ point A)

£M @A =0
+40 x 2 + 30 x 5.5 + 5 sin 45o x 8.5 - RVB x 10 = 0

80 + 165 + 30.10 - RVB x 10 = 0

- RVB x 10 = - 275.09

RVB = + 27.50 KN----------------------- (iii)

Using eq (ii) and substituting the value of RVB we

get, RVA + RVB = 73.54KN ----------- (ii)

RVA + 27.50 = 73.54KN

RVA = 46.04KN Answers

RHA = 03.54KN
RVA = 46.04KN
RVB = 27.50 KN
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Analysis of Truss

Introduction to Engineering structures: - These may be defined as any

system of connected members built to support or transfer forces acting on them
and to safely with stand these forces.

Structure

Trusses frames Structures

Space truss plane truss

1) Tripod stand 1) roof truss

2) Transmission tower 2) bridge truss

Truss: - It is a system of uniform bars or members (circular c/s, channel section etc.)
joined together at their ends by riveting or welding and contracted to support loads.
The members of a truss are straight members and the loads are applied only at the
joints. Every members of a trussis a two force member.

Frame: - It is a structure consisting of several bars or members pinned together and in

which oneor more than one of its members is subjected to more than two forces. They
are designed to support loads and stationary structures.

Machine: - Machines are structure designed to transmit and modify forces and
contains some moving members. Here we will discuss only the plane structure that is
the structures whose member lies in one plane.
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(a) (force applied at joint only) (b) (force applied anywhere on the member)

fig6.1

Rigid or Perfect truss

The term rigid, with reference to the truss, is used in the sense that, truss is the non collapsible
when external supports are removed

m=5
j=4

m+3 = 2 j

m =4

j=4
m+3 < 2j

For a truss t the rigid or perfect, the relationship between its members of joint

m+3 = 2j
m= number of member in the truss.
j= no of joints in the truss.
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If m+3 > 2j; It means that the truss contains more members than required to be just rigid and is
over rigid or statically indeterminate.
If m+3 < 2j; It means that the truss contains less members than required to be just rigid and is
collapsible or under rigid.

Statically Determinate: A truss is statically determinate if the equations of static equilibrium

alone are sufficient to determine the axial forces in the members without the need of considering
their deformations.
Basic Assumption for the perfect truss of a truss.
1. The joints of simple truss are assumed to be pin connection and fiction less. The joints
therefore cannot resist moments.
2. The loads on the truss are applied at the joint only.
3. The members of trusses are straight two force members with forces acting co-linear with
the centre line of the members.
4. The weights of the members are negligible.
5. The truss is statically determinate.

6.2. Determination of axial forces in the members of a truss.

i. Method of joints.
ii. Method of sections.

6.2.1. Method of joints:

(a) (b)

(c) fig6.2
(Representation of compression in the members EB. Arrows point towards the joint E & B.)
(Representation of tension in the member AC. Arrows point away above from the joint A and C)
(pull at the joint)
(1) Steps for analysis:
1. Draw the free body diagram of the entire truss showing only external forces acting on it.
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2. Find the reactions at the supports (Roller and hinge). By considering the equilibrium of
the whole truss as a rigid body, take moments of the external forces or loads applied on
the truss and use the method of moment.
Note: incase of cantilever truss (fixed to the wall) where no roller support exists, it is not
necessary to determine. Support reaction as above.
3. Assume and mark the directions of the axial forces in the members on the diagram.
4. 1st select a joint where only two unknowns are there, so that only two unknown can be
determine.
5. Write the equations of equilibrium by using ∑ Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0 and solve them to
determine the unknown forces. On evaluation, if on axial force turns out to be positive,
the assumed direction is correct, if the axial force turnout to be negative, the assumed
direction is incorrect. Then the direction of axial forces should be reversed.
6. Then proceed towards a joint in such a manner where two unknowns are there.
7. Finally write down all the axial forces as determined above in a tabular form with their
magnitude as well as nature (Tension & compression).

(2) Special Condition:

1. When two members meeting at a joint are not collinear and there is no external force
acting at the joint, then the forces in both the members is zero, as shown in fig. 6.3.

fig6.3
2. When there are three members meeting at a joint, of which two are collinear and the
third be at an angle and if there is no load at the joint the force in the 3 rd member is
zero, as shown in fig. 6.4.

fig6.4
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(3) Zero force members:

In a truss, there may be one or more members which do not carry any load. These members are
called zero force members. These are used to increase the stability of the truss during
construction and to provide support if the applied loading
is changed. The above special conditions are the examples
of zero force members.
Q: Determine the forces in all the members of the truss shown
in fig. 6.5 and indicate the magnitude and nature of forces on
the diagram of the truss. All inclined members are at 60° to
horizontal and length of each member is 2 m.

Ans: We cannot find a joint with only two unknown forces

without finding reactions.
Consider the equilibrium of the entire from. fig. 6.5
∑ MA = 0
=> RD 4 – 40 1 – 60 2 – 50 3 0
=> RD = 77.5 KN.
∑ FX = 0
Relation at A is vertical only.
∑ Fy = 0
RA + 77.5 = 40+50+60
= >RA = 72.5 KN.

Joint A
∑ Vy = 0
FAB sin 60° = RA = 72.5
FAB = 83.7158 KN (Comp)
∑ Fx = 0
F+B cos 60° = FAE
=> FAE = 83.7158 cos 60° = 41.8579 KN ()

Joint D
∑ Fy = 0
FDC sin 60° = RD = 77.5
FDC= 89.4893
∑ Fx =0
FDE – 87.4839 cos60° = 0
FDE = 44.7446 KN

Joint B
∑ Fy = 0
FBE sin60° + 40 =0
FBE =
= 37.5278 (Tension)
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∑ Fx = 0
FBC FAB cos60° FBE cos60° = 0
FBC = (83.7158+37.5274) 0.5
FBC = 60.6218 (comp.)

Joint C
∑ Fy = 0
FCE sin60° + 50 FDC sin60° = 0
FCE = = 31.75 (Tension)
Now all the forces in all members are known.
Force Analysis Table

Member Magnitude(kN) Nature

AB 83.71 Compressive
AE 41.85 Tensile
CD 89.48 Compressive
ED 44.74 Tensile
BE 37.52 Tensile
BC 60.62 Compressive
31.75 Tensile

Q: Determine the axial forces in all the bars of the plane truss loaded as shown in fig.6.6.

Ans. This is a cantilever type turns whose one end is fixed to the wall at point D and E and other
end A is free. It is convenient to the free end A for the analysis.

From geometry Δ ABC tan θ = = =

sinθ = , cosθ = .

fig. 6.6
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Joint A
∑ Fy = 0
S2 sinθ p = 0
S2 = = = P
=> 2.236P = 2.236P (compression)
Fx = 0
-S1-S2 cosθ =0
S1 = ( 2.236P) = 2P. (Tension)

Joint B
∑ Fy = 0
S2 sinθ + S3 = 0
S3 = S2 sinθ = ( ) P ( ) = P (Tension).

∑ Fx =0
S2 cosθ – S4 =0
S4 = S2 Cosθ = ( )P = 2P = 2P (Compression)
Joint C

∑ Fy = 0
S6 sinθ – S3 – S5 sinθ =0
=> = S3

=> = P _________(1)
S6 S5 = P

∑ Fx = 0
S1 S6 cosθ – S5 cosθ = 0
=> S5 +S6 = = 2P = P--------------(2)

Subtracting equation (1) from (2)

S5 +S6 S6 +S5 = P- P
=> S5 = 0
From equation (2) S6 = P (Tension)
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Force Analysis Table

Member Magnitude Nature

1 2P Tensile
2 2.236P compressive
3 P Tensile
4 2P Compressive
5 0 --
6 P tensile

Summary

 Truss is a system of uniform bars or members (circular c/s, channel section etc.) joined
together at their ends by riveting or welding and contracted to support loads. The
members of a truss are straight members and the loads are applied only at the joints.
Every members of a truss is a two force member.
 In a truss, there may be one or more members which do not carry any load. These
members are called zero force members.
 Determination of axial forces in the members
i. Method of joints.
ii. Method of sections
Important formulae
 The equations of equilibrium for general cases of forces acting in one plane are
=0

6.2.2 Method of Section

In this method, the equilibrium of a portion of the truss is considered which is obtained by
cutting the truss by some imaginary section.
Consider a truss as shown in fig. Cut the truss into two separate portions by passing an imaginary
section through those members in which force are to be determined. The section mn cuts the
members EF, BF and BC and the internal force in these members becomes external forces acting
on the two portions of the truss.
 The equilibrium of the truss would also be in equilibrium.
 Therefore, three equations of equilibrium.
= 0, = 0 and =0
can be written for any one portion of the truss and can be solved to determine the three
unknowns.

Following points should be noted while using the method of section.

1. The section should be passed through the members and not through the joints.
2. The section should divide the truss into two clearly separate and unconnected
portions.
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3. A section should cut only three members since only three unknowns can be
determined from the three equation of equilibrium. However, in special cases more
than three members may be cut by a section.
4. When using the moment equation, the moment can be taken about any convenient
point which may or may not lie on the section under consideration.
Solved example
1. Using the method of sections, find the axial force in each of the
bars1, 2, 3 of the plane truss as shown in fig. 6.7

Ans. Since it is a cantilever plane truss, there is no need to find the

support reactions at B and C.

fig.6.7

Taking moment about D

ΣMD= 0,
S3 DE + P AE=0
P  AE  Pa
 S3      3P  3P (compn )
DE atan30

ΣMB= 0,
S1 sin30 x BA –P x BA- P x BE=0

S1
 2a  P  2a  P  a
2
 S1  3P (Tension)
Taking the vertical forces on RHS
ΣFy = 0,
S1 sin30 – S2 sin30 –P - P=0
S S
 1  2  2P
2 2
S 3P
 S 2  1  2P   2P  0.5P
2 2
 S 2   P  P Comp n 
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2. Using the method of sections, find the axial forces in each of

bars 1, 2, 3 of the plane truss as shown in fig 6.8.

Ans.
Section mn is taken cutting the members 1, 2 and AE.
Taking moment about E

ΣME= 0 fig.6.8
S 2  ED  5  AE  0
 5  AE  5  3
 S2 
ED

1.5
 10KN  10KN Comp n

Taking all vertical forces acting on the section

ΣFv = 0,
S1 5 =0
S1 = 5KN (Tension)

The second section is line pq intersecting the bars 2, 3, CE

Taking moment about C,
ΣFc=0

S 2  3  S3 cosθ  3  5  6  0
 10  3  S3 cosθ  3  30  0
 S3 cosθ  0
 S3  0

3. Using the method of sections, find the axial forces in each of bars 1,
2, 3 of the plane cantilever truss as shown in fig6.9

Ans. Considering the equilibrium of section 1, 2, 4 fig.6.9

The R.H.S
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AB DE

BC EC
3.6
 DE   7.2  2.7m.
9.6
Considering equilibrium of R.H.S

ΣMD=0
S1 2.7 + P 2.4 + P 4.8 + P 7.2 =0
S1 = 5.33P= 5.33P (Compn )

Taking moment about C ΣMC= 0

S2 2.7 P 7.2 P 4.8 P 2.4 =0
S2 =2P (Tension)

AB
FG   GC
AC
3.6
  1.8
9.6

ΔEFG, tanθ   1.8

2.4
 θ  36.56

Taking moment about C, ΣMC=0

S3 cos36.86 1.8 +S3 sin 36.86 4.8+ P 4.8 +

P 2.4= 0

 4.32 S3 = 7.2P
 S3 = 1.67P = 1.67 (compn )
Summary
 Method of section is suitable to determine the force in some chosen bar without going
through successive considerations of the conditions of equilibrium of all hinges of truss.
Objective questions:
1. In the method of sections for analysis of a plane truss, the maximum number of unknown
member forces that can be found with a given section is
(i) 1 (ii) 2 (iii) 3 (iv) 4
2. In the method of sections for the analysis of plane truss,
(i) The section can be cut through any set of members.
(ii) The section should cut three bars, since only three unknowns can be determined
from thee equations of equilibrium
(iii)The section should cut two bars, since only three unknowns can be determined
from two equations of equilibrium
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(iv) None of these.

Assignment question

1. referring to fig6.10, find the axial force in the bar x, using

(a) Method of joints

(b) Method of sections

Fig. 6.10

2. referring to fig6.11, find the axial force in the bar x, using

(a) Method of joints

(b) Method of sections. Where ABC is quadrilateral triangle

Fig. 6.11

8. Determine the forces in the bars 1, 2, and 3 of the plane truss loaded and supported as shown
in fig6.12.

Fig. 6.12
 UNIT – IV

Shear Force and Bending Moment

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

List the types of beams. List the types of loading. Explain the terms shear force and bending
moment .Compute shear force and bending moment at any section of beam. Draw the diagrams
of S.F. & B.M for cantilever, simple supported and overhanging beams (for overhanging beams
combination of point loads and udl not included)

Definition: Beam
• A bar working under bending is generally termed as beam.
• A beam is laterally (Transverse) loaded member, whose cross-sectional
dimensions are small as compared to its length.
• A beam may be defined as a structural member subjected to external loads at right
angles to its longitudinal axis. If the external force acts along the longitudinal
axis, it is called column. Material – Wood, Metal, Plastic, Concrete

Types of beams: According to their support

1. Simply Supported beam: if their supports creates only the translational
constraints.Sometime translational movement may be allowed in one direction
with the help of rollers.

2. Overhanging beam: A beam which is simply supported at point A and B and

projects beyond point B. The segment BC is similar to cantilever beam but also the
beam axis may rotate at point B.
 3. Cantilever beam: fixed at one end and free at other end. At fix support the
beam can neither translate nor rotate, whereas at the free end it may do both.
Therefore force & movement reactions may exist at the fixed support.

4. Fixed beam: When both end is fixed.

5. Continuous beam: More than two supports are there.

Types of loading
a. Concentrated or point load: When external load acting on the beam is
concentrated at a single point on the beam.
b. Uniformly distributed load (UDL): When external load acting on the beam is
distributed over a length of beam, the following load is said to be a UDL.
Ex- self-weight of beam, water pressure at bottom of water tank.
It is represented as magnitude of load per unit length. For solving numerical
problem, the total UDL is converted into point load, acting at the centre of UDL.
c. Uniformly varying load (UVL): Load spread over a beam in such a manner that
rate of loading varies uniformly from point to point. Also known as triangular
load.

Shear Force (SF)

When the beam is loaded in some arbitrarily manner, the internal forces and moments are
developed and the term shear force and bending moment come into pictures.
The algebraic sum of vertical forces at any section of beam to the right or left of section is
known as Shear Force.

Bending Moment (BM)

Algebraic sum of moments of all the forces acting to the right or left of the section is known
as bending moment.
 Sign Convention for Shear Force: Shear Force at section will be considered as

Positive Negative (-
(+) )
When resultant of forces to the left to When the left hand portion tend to
the section is upwards or right of the slide downwards or right hand portion
section is downwards. tend to slide upwards

Sign Convention for Bending Moment:

Positive Negative (-
(+) )
We take bending moment as a section as We take bending moment as a section as
positive, if it tend to bend the beam at that negative, if it tend to bend the beam at that
point to a curvature having concavity at top point to a curvature having convexity at top
or convexity at the bottom. or concavity at the bottom.

Called Sagging Bending Moment Called Hogging Bending Moment

When it is acting in clockwise direction to When it is acting in anti-clockwise direction

the left or anti-clockwise direction to the to the left or clockwise direction to the right.
right.

Shear Force Diagrams and Bending Moment Diagrams

Before taking up the design of any structural element the structure is to be analysed and
magnitude of bending moments and shear force should be determined. The structural element is
designed for maximum bending moment and for maximum shear force. The BMD help to a great
extent in identifying the tensile zones in reinforced concrete structure for providing steel
reinforcement at appropriate place.
Important points for drawing SFD & BMD:
1. Consider a left or right portion of section.
2. Add forces (including reactions) normal to the beam on one of the portion. If right
portion of the section is chosen, a force on right portion acting downwards is
positive, while force acting upwards is negative.

If left portion of the section is chosen, a force on left portion acting upwards is positive, while force
acting downwards is negative.
3. The positive value of SF and BM are plotted above the base line and negative value
below the base line.

4. The SFD will increase or decrease

suddenly i.e. by a vertical straight line at
a section where there is a vertical point
load but BM remains the same.
5. SF between any two vertical loads will be
constant and hence SFD between two
vertical loads will be horizontal. .

If there is no load between two points, then the SF does not change (SF is horizontal) but BM
changes linearly (inclined straight line).
6. If there is UDL between two points, then the SF changes linearly (SF is inclined by
straight line) but BM changes according to parabolic law (BM will be parabola
curve).
7. If there is UVL between two points, then the SF changes parabolic law (SF will be a
parabola curve) but BM changes according to cubic law.
8. The BM at the two supports of a simply supported beam and the free end of
cantilever will be zero.

9. Bending moment variation is 1 order a head than shear force variation.

Shear Force Bending Moment
Rectangle or Constant Linear or Triangle
Linear or Triangle Parabola
Parabola Cubic
Cantilever beam with a point load at its free end

Consider a cantilever beam AB of length l, fixed at A and free at B, and carrying a point load
W at the free end B.

Calculation for SFD:

Take a section X-X at a distance of x from free end B.

Consider a right portion of the section.

 The shear force at this section is equal
to resultant force acting on the right portion at
given section.
 But the resultant force acting on the
right portion at the section X-X is W and acting
in downward direction.
 Force on right portion acting downward
is considered positive.
 Hence shear force at section X-X is
positive. SF at section X-X = +W
 There is no other load between A & B. So
that Shear Force will be constant at all sections of
cantilever beam.
Calculation for BMD:

Bending moment at section X-X = Mx = −W.x …………………………… (i)

• Bending moment will be negative as for the right portion of the section, the
moment of W at X-X is clockwise.
• Bending of cantilever will take place in such a manner that convexity will be at
the top of the beam.
• From equation (i) it is clear that BM of a cantilever beam at any section is
proportional to the distance of the section from the free end
BM at point A(x=0) = 0

BM at Point B(x=l) = −W.l

• Hence bending moment follows straight line for such cases.

Q. A cantilever beam of length 2m carries the point loads as shown in figure. Draw shear force
and bending moment diagram for cantilever beam.
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• The BM at a point considering R.H.S will be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
considering L.H.S as the Beam is a system of Non-Concurrent Forces in equilibrium.
• Sign Convention is
as shown below
B.Mxx is Positive
B.Myy is Negative

• BM sign convention is not to be confused with the sign convention adopted for
Moments (Where Clockwise are positive and Anti-Clockwise are negative)
Bending Moment Diagram of BMD: A Diagram which plots the B.M. Values along the Y Axis and
the length of the beam along the horizontal X Axis Is called the Bending Moment Diagram or BMD
• The BMD shows variation in Bending Moment along the length of the beam
• The BMD helps us to find the points of Bending Moment Maximum and Zero Bending Moment
on the Beam so that the stresses arising out of this BM can be taken care of in the Design of the
Beam.
Before we begin to draw SFD and BMD let us understand the following
1. Y = C i.e. Y = X0C is a line Parallel to X axis and at a distance of C ( Y ordinate is C)(Index of x is 0)
2. Y = mx1 is a an inclined line whose slope is m. (Index of x is 1)
3. Y = ax2 ……. Is a curve (Index of x is 1)
6.3. Different Cases:
Case 1: Simple Supported Beam with a Central Point Load
Explanation of S.F.D
• S.F at point A (considering lhs) = 0kN
• S.F a little right to the point A(lhs) = +W/2
(lhs up means positive S.F)
• S.Fxx = W/2
(This is like the equation Y = x0C hence a line parallel
to x axis)
• S.F at C = W/2
• S.F a little to right of C = +W/2-W = -W/2
• (lhs down force means negative S.F)
• S.F at B = -W/2
• S.F a little to the right of B = -W/2+W/2 = 0

Explanation of B.M.D
B.M at A = 0 from lhs as there is no force to the lhs
of A. B.M at B = 0 considering rhs
B.Mxx = W.x/2
This is like the equation Y=mx , Hence it is an
inclined line whose value will increase as x increases
B.M at C = W/2 X L/2 = + WI/4. This is a Sagging
moment (lhs moment anticlockwise) so Positive
Hence the line slopes upward from both A and C
towards C.

Unit 6 S..D and B.M.D for Simple Supported and Cantilever Beams Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho

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6.4. Note: Relationship Between SFD And BMD

1. When the load is only a point load the S.F.D is a parallel line and B.M.D is an inclined line
2. The fallout of the above statement would be that if the load is a u.d.l the S.F.D would be an
inclined line and the B.M.D would be a curve.
3. At every point load there is a drop in the S.F.D equal to the value of the Point Load. E.g. At C
the total distance between top most point of the S.F.D and the bottom most point is equal
to W/2 + W/2 = W. The same rule holds true at the supports as the reactions are point loads.
4. At point C the S.F.D changes its sign from positive to negative. Some engineers refer this to
the Point of Contra Shear and some refer it as Point of Zero Shear
5. At the point of Zero Shear or Contra Shear, The B.M is Maximum.
6. The B.M is Zero at the Supports where the S.F is maximum
7. The following is a mathematical feature of the relationship between the S.F.D and B.M.D
• The S.F value at a point is the first order differential of the B.M value at that point. E.G. If
we differential B.Mmax = Wx/2, we will get the S.F value =W/2
• The above statement makes it evident as to the reason why when the Shear Force is
Zero the B.M is maximum. ( The derivative of a function at a point is the slope of the
tangent to the function at that point, Hence when the function maximizes the derivative
is Zero or a Line parallel to X axis)
• The B.M value at a point is the area of the S.F.D considering any one side (lhs or rhs).
E.G. The B.M at point C is the area of S.F.D considering one side = W/2 x l/2 = Wl/4.

Case 2: Simple Supported Beam with a Eccentric Point Load

S.F
Point Just Left Just Right
A 0 +Wb/l
C +Wb/l Wb/l-W = -Wa/l
B -Wa/l -Wa/l +Wa/l = 0
At every point load we calculate the S.F is
calculated considering a point, just to the left of
the point load and then just right to the point
load (value of point load is added or subtracted
to the earlier value)

1. The S.F.D is a parallel line

2. The S.F.D drops at a point load. The distance
of drop = W = Wa/l + Wb/l = W = Point Load

B.M
B.M at A = B.M at B = 0
B.M at C = +(Wb/l) x a = Wab/l = B.Mmax

3. The B.M.D is An inclined line

4. The B.M is maximum at the point of Contra
Shear
5. The Area of S.F.D (lhs) = (Wb/l) x a = Wab/l
6. Calculate B.M from lhs and rhs and check whether it’s same.

Unit 6 S..D and B.M.D for Simple Supported and Cantilever Beams Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho

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Case 3: Simple Supported Beam with a full U.D.L

S.F
Point Just Left Just Right
A 0 +wl/2
B wl/2 - wxl = -wl/2 -wl/2 + wl/2 = 0
Why is the S.F.D an inclined line?
• The S.F value at Sectionxx = wl/2 – wx
(wl/2 is the reaction upward and wx is load
downward)
• The equation is a first degree equation in x and
hence a straight line. Is the line ascending or
descending? From a constant of wl/2 an
increasing value is being deducted, hence
descending.
• S.F at centre (Substitute x = l/2) = 0
B.M
B.M at A = B.M at B = 0
B.Mxx =( wl/2) x x – wx x (x/2) = wlx/2 -wx²/2
This is a secondary degree equation and hence is
represented by a curve
B.Mmax at centre =+ wl/2 x l/2 – w x( l/2)²/2
= + wl²/8
B.M (Area of S.F.D) from lhs or rhs) = ½ x (wl/2) x l/2 = + wl²/8
Case 4: Cantilever Beam with an End Point Load
S.F.
Point Just Left Just Right
A 0 +W
B W +W-W = 0

B.M.
B.M at A = -Wl (Moment Reaction)
The negative sign indicates that the Moment is a
hogging one producing Tension at Top and
Compression at Bottom
B.M at A = -Wl + W (Vertical Reaction) x l = 0
As it’s a point load the B.M.D is an inclined line.

B.M at A (Area of S.F.D) = W x l

Unit 6 S..D and B.M.D for Simple Supported and Cantilever Beams Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho

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Case 5: Cantilever Beam with a full U.D.L

S.F.
Point Just Left Just Right
A 0 +wl
B wl – wl = 0

B.M.
B.M at A = -Wl²/2 (Moment Reaction)
The negative sign indicates that the Moment is a
hogging one producing Tension at Top and
Compression at Bottom

B.M at B = 0
As the load Is an U.D.L the equation is a second
degree one and represented by a curve.

B.M at A from Area of S.F.D = ½ x wl x l = Wl²/2

Problem 1 Find Reactions for the following Beam and Draw S.F.D and B.M.D showing important values.

1. Find Reactions
a. VA + VB = 12 x 6 + 20 = 72 + 20 = 92kN…………..ΣFv = 0
Take Moment @ A for ΣM = 0
b. 12 x 6 x 3 + 20 x 2 – VB x 6 = 0
(The moment of an udl is udl x distance x distance of centre of udl from the point, Moment of 20kN
and 12kN/m is clockwise and hence positive and Moment of VB is anti-clockwise hence negative)
216 + 40 = 6 x VB
Hence VB = 42.66kN
VA = 92 – 42.66 = 49.34kN.Notice the reaction is more at the Support towards which the load is
more

Unit 6 S..D and B.M.D for Simple Supported and Cantilever Beams Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho

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2. S.F.
Point Just Left Just Right
A 0 +49.34
C +49.34 - (12x2)= +25.34 +25.34 – 20 = 5.34
B +5.34 - (12 x 4)= -42.66 -42.66+42.66 = 0

The point where Shear Force is Zero or where S.F.D

cuts the base line is called Point of Zero Shear.
Let p = Distance of point of Zero Shear from B
At p, Shear Force = 0
Algebraic Sum of All Forces to rhs is Zero
+42.66 – 12 x p = 0, Hence p = 3.55m

3. B.M.
B.M at Supports A and B = 0
B.M (C) lhs= 49.34 x 2 – 12 x 2 x 1 = 25.34kNm
B.M (C) by Area lhs= (49.34 + 25.34)*2/2 =25.34kNm

B.Mmax (rhs) = 42.66 x 3.555 – 12 x 3.555 x 3.555/2

= 75.82kNm
B.Mmax by Area rhs = ½ x 3.555 x 42.66= 75.82kNm

(Area of a Trapezoid = ½ sum of parallel sides x height)

Note: When calculating, consider rhs or lhs as per least number of forces to reduce calculations.

Problem 2 Find Reactions for the following Beam and Draw S.F.D and B.M.D showing important values.

1. Find Reactions
a. VA + VB = 18 x 9 + 24 = 186kN…………..ΣFv = 0
Take Moment @ A for ΣM = 0
b. 18 x 9 x 4.5 + 24 x 6 – VB x 9 = 0
VB = 97kN and VA = 89kN (reaction is more at the Support towards which the load is more)

Unit 6 S..D and B.M.D for Simple Supported and Cantilever Beams Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho

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2. S.F
Point Just Left Just Right
A 0 +89
C +89 - (18x6)= -19 -19 -24 = -43
B -43 – (18x3)= -97 -97 +97 = 0
Let p = Distance of point of Zero Shear from A
At p, Shear Force = 0
Algebraic Sum of All Forces to lhs is Zero
(Notice I am using the lhs in this problem)
+89 – 18 x p = 0. Hence p = 4.944m

3. B.M
B.M at Supports A and B = 0
B.M(C) rhs = 97 x 3 – 18 x 3 x 1.5 = 210kNm
B.M(C) by area of SFD rhs = ½ (97 +43) x 3
= 210kNm
B.Mmax = 89 x 4.944 – 18 x 4.944 x 4.944/2
= 220kNm
B.Mmax by area of SFD lhs = ½ x 4.944 x 89
= 220kN

Another Check is the Area of positive S.F.D should be equal to Area of negative S.F.D
½ x 89 x 4.944 = 220 …… Positive S.F.D
½ x 19 x (6-4.944) + ½ (97 +43) x 3 = 10 + 210 = 220

Problem 3 Find Reactions for the following Beam and Draw S.F.D and B.M.D showing important values.

1. Find Reactions
VA = 8 x 3 + 6 = 30kN
MA = 8 x 3 x 1.5 + 6 x 2 = 36 + 12 = 48kNm

Unit 6 S..D and B.M.D for Simple Supported and Cantilever Beams Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho

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2. S.F
Point Just Left Just Right
A 0 +30
C +30 - (8x2)= +14 +14 -6 = +8
B +8 – (8x1)= 0

3. B.M
B.M at A = -48KNm (Considering lhs)
B.M at A by Area of SFD = (30+14) x 2 /2 + ½ x 1 x 8
= 44 + 4 = 48kNm (rhs)
B.M at C = 8 x 1 x 0.5 = 4kNm (Considering rhs)
B.M at C = -48 + 30 x 2 – 8 x 2 x 1 = 4kNm (Considering lhs)
B.M at C BY Area of S.F.D = ½ x 8 x 1 = 4kNm (rhs)

6.5. Applications of S.F.D and B.M.D

Shear and Bending Moment diagrams are analytical tools used in conjunction with structural
analysis to help perform structural design by determining the value of shear force and bending
moment at a given point of an element.
Another application of SFD and BMD is that the Deflection (Vertical Displacement of a point on
the Beam) can be easily determined.
Suggested Theory Questions: Unit 5
1. Define S.F at a point on a Beam and Define S.F.D
2. Define B.M at a point on a Beam and Define B.M.D
3. Show by sketches Positive and Negative Bending Moment or Sagging and Hogging.
4. Define Point of Zero Shear. What point on the B.M.D corresponds to this point
5. Draw a Simple Supported Beam of span l and full u.d.l w and draw its S.F.D and B.M.D
showing important values
6. Draw a Simple Supported Beam of span l and a Central Point Load W and draw its S.F.D
and B.M.D showing important values
7. Draw a Simple Supported Beam of span l and an eccentric Point Load W and draw its
S.F.D and B.M.D showing important values
8. Draw a Cantilever Beam of span l and an End Point Load W and draw its S.F.D and
B.M.D showing important values
9. Draw a Cantilever Beam of span l and full u.d.l w and draw its S.F.D and B.M.D showing
important values.

Unit 6 S..D and B.M.D for Simple Supported and Cantilever Beams Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho

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Problem 4 Solved Problem for your practice.

Note: The
B.Mmax is at
the point of
Contra Shear
which is at
the point of a
Point Load

Can you relate the Shape of the Bridge and the Bending Moment Diagram?

Unit 6 S..D and B.M.D for Simple Supported and Cantilever Beams Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho

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