Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 4nd Edition

Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala McGraw-Hill, 2018

Chapter 14
TURBOMACHINERY

Lecturer: Prof. James R. Vera-Rozo, PhD

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Pamplona University
The jet engines on
modern
commercial
airplanes are
highly complex
turbomachines that
include both pump
(compressor) and
turbine sections.
2
 Objectives
• Identfy various types of pumps and turbunes, and
undertand how they work
• Apply dimensional analysis to design new pumps or
turbines that are geometrically similar to existing pumps or
turbines
• Perform basic vector analysis of the flow into and out of
pumps and turbines
• Use specific speed for preliminary design and selection
of pumps and turbines
3
 14–1 CLASSIFICATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY
Pumps: Energy absorbing devices since
energy is supplied to them, and they
transfer most of that energy to the
fluid, usually via a rotating shaft. The
increase in fluid energy is usually felt
as an increase in the pressure of the
fluid.
Turbines: Energy producing devices they
extract energy from the fluid and
transfer most of that energy to some
form of mechanical energy output,
typically in the form of a rotating shaft.
The fluid at the outlet of a turbine
(a) A pump supplies energy to a fluid, while
suffers an energy loss, typically in the
(b) a turbine extracts energy from a fluid.
form of a loss of pressure.
4
The purpose of a pump is to add
energy to a fluid, resulting in an
increase in fluid pressure, not
necessarily an increase of fluid
speed across the pump.
The purpose of a turbine is to
extract energy from a fluid,
For the case of steady flow, conservation of
resulting in a decrease of fluid mass requires that the mass flow rate out
pressure, not necessarily a of a pump must equal the mass flow rate
decrease of fluid speed across into the pump; for incompressible flow with
the turbine. equal inlet and outlet cross-sectional areas
(Dout = Din), we conclude that Vout = Vin, but
Pout > Pin.
5
Pump: Fluid machines that move liquids.
Fan: A gas pump with relatively low pressure
rise and high flow rate.
Examples include ceiling fans, house fans, and
propellers.
Blower: A gas pump with relatively moderate to
high pressure rise and moderate to high flow
rate. Examples include centrifugal blowers and
squirrel cage blowers in automobile ventilation
systems, furnaces, and leaf blowers. When used with gases, pumps are
Compressor: A gas pump designed to deliver a called fans, blowers, or compressors,
depending on the relative values of
very high pressure rise, typically at low to pressure rise and volume flow rate.
moderate flow rates. Examples include air
compressors that run pneumatic tools and inflate
tires at automobile service stations, and
refrigerant compressors used in heat pumps,
refrigerators, and air conditioners. 6
Turbomachines: Pumps and
turbines in which energy is
supplied or extracted by a
rotating shaft.
The words turbomachine and
turbomachinery are often used
in the literature to refer to all
types of pumps and turbines
regardless of whether they Not all pumps have a rotating shaft;
utilize a rotating shaft or not. (a) energy is supplied to this manual
tire pump by the up and down motion of a person’s arm to pump air;
(b) a similar mechanism is used to pump water with an old-fashioned
well pump.

7
Fluid machines may also be broadly classified as either positive-displacement
machines or dynamic machines, based on the manner in which energy transfer
occurs.
In positive-displacement machines: Fluid is directed into a closed volume.
Energy transfer to the fluid is accomplished by movement of the boundary of the
closed volume, causing the volume to expand or contract, thereby sucking fluid in
or squeezing fluid out, respectively.

(a) The human heart is an example of a

positive- displacement pump; blood is
pumped by expansion and contraction of
heart chambers called ventricles.

(b) The common water meter in your

house is an example of a positive-
displacement turbine; water fills and exits
a chamber of known volume for each
revolution of the output shaft.
8
Dynamic machines: There is no closed volume;
instead, rotating blades supply or extract energy to or
from the fluid.
For pumps, these rotating blades are called impeller
blades, while for turbines, the rotating blades are
called runner blades or buckets.
Examples of dynamic pumps include enclosed pumps
and ducted pumps and open pumps.
Examples of dynamic turbines include enclosed
turbines, such as the hydroturbine that extracts
energy from water in a hydroelectric dam, and open
turbines such as the wind turbine that extracts energy
from the wind.
A wind turbine is a good example of a dynamic
machine of the open type; air turns the blades, and
the output shaft drives an electric generator 9
 14–2 PUMPS
The mass flow rate of fluid through the pump is an obvious primary pump
performance parameter. For incompressible flow, it is more common to use
volume flow rate rather than mass flow rate. In the turbomachinery industry,
volume flow rate is called capacity and is simply mass flow rate divided by
fluid density,

The performance of a pump is characterized additionally by its net head

H, defined as the change in Bernoulli head between the inlet and outlet
of the pump:

10
For the case in which a liquid is being pumped, the
Bernoulli head at the inlet is equivalent to the
energy grade line at the inlet

The net head of a pump, H, is defined as the change in Bernoulli head from
inlet to outlet; for a liquid, this is equivalent to the change in the energy
grade line, H = EGLout - EGLin, relative to some arbitrary datum plane; bhp
is the brake horsepower, the external power supplied to the pump.
 Pump Performance Curves and Matching a Pump to a
Piping System
Free delivery: The maximum volume flow rate through a pump occurs when its net head is
zero, H = 0; this flow rate is called the pump’s free delivery.
Shutoff head: The net head that occurs when the volume flow rate is zero, and is achieved
when the outlet port of the pump is blocked off. Under these conditions, H is large but V is
zero; the pump’s efficiency is again zero, because the pump is doing no useful work.
Best Efficiency Point (BEP): The pump’s efficiency reaches its maximum value
somewhere between the shutoff condition and the free delivery condition. It is notated by an
asterisk (H*, bhp*, etc.).
Pump Performance Curves: Curves of H, pump, and bhp as functions of volume flow rate
are called pump performance curves (or characteristic curves).
Operating point or duty point of the system: In a typical application, Hrequired and Havailable
match at one unique value of flow rate—this is the operating point or duty point of the
system. For steady conditions, a pump can operate only along its performance curve.

12
13
 The useful pump
head delivered to the
fluid does four things

Equation 14–6 emphasizes the role

of a pump in a piping system;
namely, it increases (or decreases)
the static pressure, dynamic
pressure, and elevation of the fluid, 14
and it overcomes irreversible losses.
It is common practice in the pump
industry to offer several choices of
impeller diameter for a single pump
casing. There are several reasons for
this:
(1)to save manufacturing costs
(2)to enable capacity increase by
simple impeller replacement
(3)to standardize installation
mountings
(4)to enable reuse of equipment for a
different application

15
Example of a manufacturer’s performance plot for a family of centrifugal
pumps. Each pump has the same casing, but a different impeller diameter.
 EJEMPLO 1
Una bomba de agua se usa para llevar agua desde un gran deposito a otro
que esta a mayor altura. Las superficies libres de ambos depósitos están
expuestas a la presión atmosférica, como se ilustra en la figura. Las
dimensiones y coeficientes de perdidas menores aparecen en la figura. El
rendimiento de la bomba se aproxima por medio de la expresión
𝐻𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝐻0 − 𝑎 𝑉 2ሶ , donde la carga al cierre es H0=125 pies de
columna de agua, el coeficiente es a = 2.50 pies/gpm2, la carga disponible
de la bomba Hdisponible esta en unidades de pies de columna de agua y la
capacidad V. esta en unidades de galones por minuto (gpm). Estime la
capacidad de descarga de la bomba. Respuesta: 6.34 gpm
EJEMPLO 2
 Pump Cavitation and Net Positive Suction
When pumping liquids, it is possible
Head
for the local pressure inside the
pump to fall below the vapor
pressure of the liquid, Pv.
When P < Pv, vapor-filled bubbles
called cavitation bubbles appear.
The liquid boils locally, typically on
the suction side of the rotating
impeller blades where the pressure
is lowest.

Net positive suction head (NPSH): Cavitation bubbles forming and

The difference between the pump’s collapsing on the suction side of an
inlet stagnation pressure head and impeller blade.
the vapor pressure head.

19
Required net positive suction head (NPSHrequired): The minimum
NPSH necessary to avoid cavitation in the pump.

The volume flow rate at which the actual

Typical pump performance curve in NPSH and the required NPSH intersect
which net head and required net represents the maximum flow rate that
positive suction head are plotted can be delivered by the pump without
versus volume flow rate. the occurrence of cavitation.
20
EJEMPLO 3

.
 EJEMPLO 4
Se emplea una bomba centrífuga para bombear agua a 77ºF desde
un depósito cuya superficie está 20 ft arriba de la línea central de
la entrada de la bomba. El sistema de tubería consiste en 67.5 ft
de tubo de PVC con un DI de 1.2 in y altura de rugosidad interna
promedio despreciable. La longitud de la tubería desde el fondo
del depósito inferior hasta la entrada de la bomba es 12 ft. Hay
varias pérdidas menores en la tubería: una entrada de borde agudo
(KL =0.5), dos codos normales de 90º lisos embridados (KL = 0.3
cada uno), dos válvulas de globo embridadas totalmente abiertas
(KL = 6.0 cada una) y una pérdida de salida hacia el depósito
superior (KL =1.05). El fabricante provee la carga de aspiración
neta positiva requerida de la bomba como un ajuste de curva:
ft ሶ ,donde el caudal
2
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑎 = 1.0 ft + 0.0054 2 𝑉
gpm
está en gpm. Estime el caudal máximo (en unidades de gpm) que
puede bombearse sin cavitación.
Pumps in Series and Parallel

When faced with the need to

increase volume flow rate or
pressure rise by a small amount,
you might consider adding an
additional smaller pump in series
or in parallel with the original
pump.
Arranging two very
dissimilar pumps in (a)
series or (b) parallel
can sometimes lead
to problems.
23
24
25
Several identical pumps
are often run in a parallel
configuration so that a
large volume flow rate
can be achieved when
necessary. Three parallel
pumps are shown.
26
EJEMPLO 5
 EJEMPLO 6

Las dos mismas bombas de agua del ejemplo anterior se

conectan en paralelo. Calcule la carga hidrostática al cierre y
la descarga libre de las dos bombas que funcionan juntas en
paralelo. ¿A qué carga neta combinada debe desconectarse la
bomba 1 y hacer que el flujo no pase por la ramificación que
le corresponde?
Explíquelo.
 Positive-
Displacement
Pumps
Fluid is sucked into an expanding
volume and then pushed along as
that volume contracts, but the
mechanism that causes this
change in volume differs greatly
among the various designs.
Positive-displacement pumps are
ideal for high-pressure applications
like pumping viscous liquids or
thick slurries, and for applications
where precise amounts of liquid Examples of positive-displacement pumps:
are to be dispensed or metered, as (a) flexible-tube peristaltic pump, (b) three- lobe rotary pump, (c) gear
pump, and (d) double screw pump.
in medical applications.
29
Four phases (one-eighth of a turn apart) in the operation
of a two-lobe rotary pump, a type of positive-
displacement pump. The light blue region represents a
chunk of fluid pushed through the top rotor, while the dark
blue region represents a chunk of fluid pushed through
the bottom rotor, which rotates in the opposite direction.
Flow is from left to right.
Positive-displacement pumps have
many advantages over dynamic
pumps.
For example, a positive- displacement
pump is better able to handle shear
sensitive liquids since the induced
shear is much less than that of a
dynamic pump operating at similar
pressure and flow rate.
Blood is a shear sensitive liquid, and
A pump that can lift a liquid even when
this is one reason why positive- the pump itself is “empty” is called a self-
displacement pumps are used for priming pump.
artificial hearts.

31
EJEMPLO 7

La bomba rotatoria de doble

lóbulo que se ilustra en la figura
mueve 0.145 gal de una lechada
de carbón en cada volumen de
lóbulo 𝑉ሶ𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑜 . Calcule caudal
de la lechada (en gpm) para el
caso donde 𝑛ሶ = 220 rpm .
Respuesta: 128 gpm
 EJEMPLO 8 (Tarea)
Se muestra un sistema de bombeo con dos levantamientos estáticos diferentes. Cada
depósito es alimentado por una línea que consta de 1000 ft de 6 in de tubería de hierro
fundido. Evalúe y grafique la altura del sistema frente a la curva de flujo. Explique qué
sucede cuando la cabeza de la bomba es menor que la altura del depósito superior.
Calcule la tasa de flujo entregada a una cabeza de bomba de 85 ft.
 Dynamic Pumps

There are three main types of dynamic The impeller

(rotating portion) of
pumps that involve rotating blades the three main
called impeller blades or rotor blades, categories of
which impart momentum to the fluid. dynamic pumps: (a)
centrifugal flow, (b)
They are sometimes called mixed flow, and (c)
rotodynamic pumps or simply rotary axial flow.
pumps.
Rotary pumps are classified by the
manner in which flow exits the pump:
centrifugal flow, axial flow, and mixed
flow

37
Centrifugal-flow Pump: Fluid enters axially (in the same
direction as the axis of the rotating shaft) in the center of
the pump, but is discharged radially (or tangentially) along
the outer radius of the pump casing.
For this reason centrifugal pumps are also called radial-flow
pumps.
Axial-flow Pump: Fluid enters and leaves axially, typically
along the outer portion of the pump because of blockage by
the shaft, motor, hub, etc.
Mixed-flow Pump: Intermediate between centrifugal and
axial, with the flow entering axially, not necessarily in the
center, but leaving at some angle between radially and
axially.
 Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps and blowers can be easily
identified by their snail-shaped casing, called the
scroll.
They are found all around your home; in
dishwashers, hot tubs, clothes washers and
dryers, hairdryers, vacuum cleaners, kitchen
exhaust hoods, bathroom exhaust fans, leaf
blowers, furnaces, etc.
They are used in cars; the water pump in the
engine, the air blower in the heater/air conditioner
unit, etc.
Centrifugal pumps are ubiquitous in industry as
well; they are used in building ventilation
systems, washing operations, cooling ponds and A typical centrifugal blower with its
cooling towers. characteristic snail-shaped scroll.
Impeller or Rotor: In pump terminology, the rotating assembly that consists
of the shaft, the hub, the impeller blades, and the impeller shroud.
A shroud often surrounds the impeller blades to increase blade stiffness.

Side view and frontal view of a typical

centrifugal pump. Fluid enters axially
in the middle of the pump (the eye),
is flung around to the outside by the
rotating blade assembly (impeller), is
diffused in the expanding diffuser
(scroll), and is discharged out the
side of the pump. We define r1 and r2
as the radial locations of the impeller
blade inlet and outlet, respectively; b1
and b2 are the axial blade widths at
the impeller blade inlet and outlet,
respectively.
There are three types of centrifugal pump based on impeller
blade geometry: Backward-inclined blades, radial blades, and
forward-inclined blades.
Centrifugal pumps with backward-inclined blades are the
most common. These yield the highest efficiency of the three
because fluid flows into and out of the blade passages with the
least amount of turning.
Centrifugal pumps with radial blades (also called straight
blades) have the simplest geometry and produce the largest
pressure rise of the three.
Centrifugal pumps with forward-inclined blades produce a
pressure rise that is nearly constant.

The three main types of

centrifugal pumps are those with
(a) backward-inclined blades, (b)
radial blades, and (c) forward-
inclined blades; (d) comparison of
net head and brake horsepower
performance curves for the three
types of
centrifugal pumps.
 Volume flow rate:

Close-up frontal view of the simplified centrifugal

flow pump used for elementary analysis of the
velocity vectors. Absolute velocity vectors of the
fluid are shown as bold arrows. It is assumed that
Close-up side view of the simplified centrifugal flow pump used for the flow is everywhere tangent to the blade surface
elementary analysis of the velocity vectors; V1, n and V2, n are when viewed from a reference frame rotating with
defined as the average normal (radial) components of velocity at the blade, as indicated by the relative velocity
radii r1 and r2, respectively. vectors.
 Shaft torque is equal to the change in moment of momentum from
inlet to outlet, as given by the Euler turbomachine equation
(also called Euler’s turbine formula)

Euler turbomachine equation:

Alternative form, Euler turbomachine equation:

Net head:
Control volume (shaded) used for angular momentum
analysis of a centrifugal pump; absolute tangential velocity
components V1, t and V2, t are labeled.
41
42
Bernoulli equation in a
rotating reference frame:

The law of cosines is

utilized in the analysis of
a centrifugal pump.

43
For the approximation of flow
through an impeller with no
irreversible losses, it is often more
convenient to work with a relative
frame of reference rotating with the
impeller; in that case, the Bernoulli
equation gets an additional term,
as indicated in Eq. 14–22.
Close-up frontal view of the
velocity vectors at the impeller
blade inlet. The absolute velocity
vector is shown as a bold arrow. 47
45
46
47
(a)A centrifugal pump impeller with too few blades leads to excessive circulatory
flow loss—the tangential velocity at outer radius r2 is smaller in the gaps between
blades than at the trailing edges of the blades (absolute tangential velocity vectors
are shown).
(b)On the other hand, since real impeller blades have finite thickness, an impeller
with too many blades leads to passage losses due to excessive flow blockage and
large skin friction drag (velocity vectors in a frame of reference rotating with the
impeller are shown exiting one blade row). The bottom line is that pump engineers
must optimize both blade shape and number of blades.
While the predicted performance is close to
the actual performance at design
conditions, the two curves deviate
substantially away from design conditions.
At all volume flow rates, the actual net
head is lower than the predicted net head.
This is due to irreversible effects such as;
-friction along blade surfaces,
-leakage of fluid between the blades and
the casing,
-prerotation (swirl) of fluid in the region of
the eye,
-flow separation on the leading edges of
the blades (shock losses) or in the
expanding portions of the flow passages, Net head as a function of volume
circulatory flow loss, flow rate for the pump of Example
- passage loss, 14-6. The difference between
predicted and actual performance is
-irreversible dissipation of swirling eddies
due to unaccounted irreversibilities in
in the volute, among other things.
the prediction.
53
 Axial Pumps
Axial pumps do not utilize so-called
centrifugal forces. Instead, the impeller
blades behave more like the wing of an
airplane, producing lift by changing the
momentum of the fluid as they rotate.
The lift force on the blade is caused by The blades of an axial-flow pump behave like the wing of an
pressure differences between the top and airplane. The air is turned downward by the wing as it
bottom surfaces of the blade, and the generates lift force FL.

change in flow direction leads to

downwash (a column of descending air)
through the rotor plane.
From a time-averaged perspective, there
is a pressure jump across the rotor plane
that induces a downward airflow.
Downwash and pressure rise across the rotor plane of a helicopter,
which is a type of axial-flow pump.
Imagine turning the rotor plane vertically; we now have a propeller.
Both the helicopter rotor and the airplane propeller are examples of open axial-
flow fans, since there is no duct or casing around the tips of the blades.
The casing around the house fan also acts as a short duct, which helps to direct
the flow and eliminate some losses at the blade tips.
The small cooling fan inside your computer is typically an axial-flow fan; it looks
like a miniature window fan and is an example of a ducted axial-flow fan.

Axial-flow fans may be open or ducted:

(a) a propeller is an open fan, and
(b) a computer cooling fan is a ducted
fan.
A well-designed rotor blade or propeller blade has twist, as shown by
the blue cross- sectional slices through one of the three blades;
blade pitch angle u is higher at the root than at the tip because the
tangential speed of the blade increases with radius.
Equation 14–27 is not exact for several reasons:
First, the rotating motion of the rotor introduces some swirl to
the airflow. This reduces the effective tangential speed of the
blade relative to the incoming air.
Second, since the hub of the rotor is of finite size, the air
accelerates around it, causing the air speed to increase
locally at cross sections of the blade close to the root.

Third, the axis of the rotor or propeller may not be aligned exactly
parallel to the incoming air.
Finally, the air speed itself is not easily determined because it turns
out that the air accelerates as it approaches the whirling rotor.

The rotating blades of a rotor or

SEE EXAMPLE 14.7 propeller induce swirl in the
surrounding fluid.
 Unlike centrifugal fans, brake horsepower
tends to decrease with flow rate.
The efficiency curve leans more to the right
compared to that of centrifugal fans.
The result is that efficiency drops off rapidly
for volume flow rates higher than that at
the best efficiency point.
The net head curve also decreases
continuously with flow rate (although there
are some wiggles), and its shape is much
Typical fan performance curves different than that of a centrifugal flow fan.
for a propeller (axial-flow) fan.
If the head requirements are not severe, propeller fans can be operated beyond
the point of maximum efficiency to achieve higher volume flow rates.
Since bhp decreases at high values of flow rate, there is not a power penalty
when the fan is run at high flow rates. For this reason it is tempting to install a
slightly undersized fan and push it beyond its best efficiency point.
At the other extreme, if operated below its maximum efficiency point, the flow may
be noisy and unstable, which indicates that the fan may be oversized.
It is usually best to run a propeller fan at, or slightly above, its maximum efficiency
point.
 When used to move flow in a duct, a single-
impeller axial-flow fan is called a tube-axial
fan.
A second rotor that rotates in the opposite
direction can be added in series with the
existing rotor to form a pair of counter-rotating
rotor blades; such a fan is called a counter-
rotating axial-flow fan. Alternatively, a set of
stator blades can be added either upstream
or downstream of the rotating impeller.
As implied by their name, stator blades are
stationary (nonrotating) guide vanes that
simply redirect the fluid.
An axial-flow fan with a set of rotor blades (the
impeller or the rotor) and a set of stator
blades called vanes (the stator) is called a
vane-axial fan.
A tube-axial fan (a) imparts swirl to
the exiting fluid, while (b) a
counterrotating axial-flow fan and
(c) a vaneaxial fan are designed to
61
remove the swirl.
 Analysis of a vane-axial
flow fan at radius r using
the two-dimensional
blade row
approximation; (a)
overall view, (b)
absolute reference
frame, and (c) reference
Axial-flow fans: (a) a belt-driven tube-axial fan without frame relative to the
stator blades, and (b) a direct-drive vane-axial fan with rotating rotor blades
stator blades to reduce swirl and improve efficiency. (impeller).
Typical fan
performance curves
for a vane-axial flow
fan.

A multistage axial-
flow pump consists
of two or more
63
rotor–stator pairs.
Pratt & Whitney PW4000 turbofan engine; an
example of a multistage axial-flow turbomachine.

58
59
60
61
 14–3 PUMP SCALING LAWS
Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis of a pump.

 When plotted in terms of dimensionless pump parameters, the
Dimensional analysis is useful for scaling two performance curves of all pumps in a family of geometrically
geometrically similar pumps. If all the dimensionless similar pumps collapse onto one set of nondimensional pump
pump parameters of pump A are equivalent to those of performance curves. Values at the best efficiency point are
pump B, the two pumps are dynamically similar. indicated by asterisks.
When a small-scale model is
tested to predict the performance
of a fullscale prototype pump, the
measured efficiency of the model
is typically somewhat lower than
that of the prototype. Empirical
correction equations such as Eq.
14–34 have been developed to
account for the improvement of
pump efficiency with pump size.
 Pump Specific Speed

Pump specific speed is used to characterize the

Even though pump specific speed is a dimensionless operation of a pump at its optimum conditions
parameter, it is common practice to write it as a (best efficiency point) and is useful for
dimensional quantity using an inconsistent set of units. preliminary pump selection and/or design.
 Maximum efficiency as a function of pump specific speed
Conversions between the dimensionless, conventional U.S., for the three main types of dynamic pump. The horizontal
and conventional European definitions of pump specific scales show nondimensional pump specific speed (NSp),
speed. Numerical values are given to four significant digits. pump specific speed in customary U.S. Units (NSp, US), and
The conversions for NSp,US assume standard earth gravity. pump specific speed in customary European units (NSp, Eur).
 14–4 TURBINES
Turbines have been used for centuries to convert freely
available mechanical energy from rivers and wind into
useful mechanical work, usually through a rotating shaft.
The rotating part of a hydroturbine is called the runner.
When the working fluid is water, the turbomachines are
called hydraulic turbines or hydroturbines.
When the working fluid is air, and energy is extracted from
the wind, the machine is called a wind turbine.
Most people use the word windmill to describe any wind
turbine, whether used to grind grain, pump water, or
generate electricity.
The turbomachines that convert energy from the steam
into mechanical energy of a rotating shaft are called steam
turbines.
Turbines that employ a compressible gas as the working 80

fluid is gas turbine.

In general, energy-producing turbines have somewhat higher overall
efficiencies than do energy-absorbing pumps.
Large hydroturbines achieve overall efficiencies above 95 percent, while the best
efficiency of large pumps is a little more than 90 percent.
There are several reasons for this:
First, pumps normally operate at higher rotational speeds than do turbines; therefore, shear
stresses and frictional losses are higher.
Second, conversion of kinetic energy into flow energy (pumps) has inherently higher
losses than does the reverse (turbines).
Third, turbines (especially hydroturbines) are often much larger than pumps, and viscous losses
become less important as size increases.
Finally, while pumps often operate over a wide range of flow rates, most electricity-generating
turbines run within a narrower operating range and at a controlled constant speed; they can
therefore be designed to operate most efficiently at those conditions.
As with pumps, we classify turbines into two broad categories, positive displacement
and dynamic.
Positive-displacement turbines are small devices used for volume flow rate measurement, while
dynamic turbines range from tiny to huge and are used for both flow measurement and power
production.
 Positive-Displacement Turbines

A positive-displacement turbine may be thought of as a positive-

displacement pump running backward—as fluid pushes into a closed
volume, it turns a shaft or displaces a reciprocating rod. The closed
volume of fluid is then pushed out as more fluid enters the device.
There is a net head loss through the positive- displacement
turbine; energy is extracted from the flowing fluid and is turned into
mechanical energy.
However, positive-displacement turbines are generally not used for
power production, but rather for flow rate or flow volume
measurement.

The nutating disc fluid flowmeter is a type of positive-

displacement turbine used to measure volume flow rate: (a)
cutaway view and (b) diagram showing motion of the nutating
disc. This type of flowmeter is commonly used as a water meter
in homes.
 Dynamic Turbines

Dynamic turbines are used both as flow measuring devices and as power generators.
Hydroturbines utilize the large elevation change across a dam to generate electricity, and wind turbines
generate electricity from blades rotated by the wind. There are two basic types of dynamic turbine—impulse
and reaction.
Impulse turbines require a higher head, but can operate with a smaller volume flow rate. Reaction turbines can
operate with much less head, but require a higher volume flow rate.

Examples of dynamic turbines: (a) a typical three-cup anemometer used to measure wind speed, and (b) a Piper PA28
research airplane with turbines designed to extract energy from the wing tip vortices.
 Impulse Turbines
In an impulse turbine, the fluid is sent through
a nozzle so that most of its available
mechanical energy is converted into kinetic
energy.
The high-speed jet then impinges on bucket-
shaped vanes that transfer energy to the
turbine shaft.
The modern and most efficient type of impulse
turbine is Pelton turbine and the rotating wheel
is now called a Pelton wheel.
Schematic diagram of a Pelton-type impulse turbine; the
turbine shaft is turned when high- speed fluid from one or
more jets impinges on buckets mounted to the turbine shaft.
(a) Side view, absolute reference frame, and (b) bottom view
of a cross section of bucket n,
rotating reference frame.
A close-up view of a Pelton wheel
showing the detailed design of the
buckets; the electrical generator is
on the right. This Pelton wheel is on
display at the Waddamana Power
Station Museum near Bothwell,
Tasmania.

A view from the bottom of an

operating Pelton wheel illustrating
the splitting and turning of the water
jet in the bucket. The water jet enters
from the left, and the Pelton wheel is
turning to the right.
 Reaction Turbines

The other main type of energy-producing

hydroturbine is the reaction turbine, which consists
of fixed guide vanes called stay vanes, adjustable
guide vanes called wicket gates, and rotating blades
called runner blades.
Flow enters tangentially at high pressure, is turned
toward the runner by the stay vanes as it moves
along the spiral casing or volute, and then passes
through the wicket gates with a large tangential
velocity component.
A reaction turbine differs significantly
from an impulse turbine; instead of
using water jets, a volute is filled with
swirling water that drives the runner.
For hydroturbine applications, the axis
is typically vertical. Top and side views
are shown, including the fixed stay
vanes and adjustable wicket gates.
There are two main types of reaction turbine—Francis and Kaplan.
The Francis turbine is somewhat similar in geometry to a centrifugal or mixed- flow pump, but with the
flow in the opposite direction.
The Kaplan turbine is somewhat like an axial-flow fan running backward.
We classify reaction turbines according to the angle that the flow enters the runner. If the flow enters the
runner radially, the turbine is called a Francis radial- flow turbine.
If the flow enters the runner at some angle between radial and axial, the turbine is called a Francis
mixed-flow turbine. The latter design is more common.
Some hydroturbine engineers use the term “Francis turbine” only when
there is a band on the runner. Francis turbines are most suited for heads that lie between the high
heads of Pelton wheel turbines and the low heads of Kaplan turbines.
A typical large Francis turbine may have 16 or more runner blades and can achieve a turbine
efficiency of 90 to 95 percent.
If the runner has no band, and flow enters the runner partially turned, it is called a propeller mixed-flow
turbine or simply a mixed-flow turbine. Finally, if the flow is turned completely axially before entering
the runner, the turbine is called an axial-flow turbine.
Kaplan turbines are called double regulated because the flow rate is controlled in two
ways—by turning the wicket gates and by adjusting the pitch on the runner blades.
Propeller turbines are nearly identical to Kaplan turbines except that the blades are
fixed (pitch is not adjustable), and the flow rate is regulated only by the wicket gates
(single regulated).
Compared to the Pelton and Francis turbines, Kaplan turbines and propeller turbines
are most suited for low head, high volume flow rate conditions.
Their efficiencies rival those of Francis turbines and may be as high as 94 percent.
77
Typical setup and terminology for a hydroelectric plant that utilizes a Francis turbine to generate electricity; drawing not to
scale. The Pitot probes are shown for illustrative purposes only.

The net head of a turbine is defined as the difference between the energy grade line just upstream of the turbine and the
energy grade line at the exit of the draft tube.
By definition, efficiency must
always be less than unity.
The efficiency of a turbine is
the reciprocal of the (a) An aerial view of Hoover Dam and (b) the top (visible) portion of several of the
efficiency of a pump. parallel electric generators driven by hydraulic turbines at Hoover Dam.
81
 Relative and absolute velocity vectors and geometry
for the inner radius of the runner of a Francis turbine.
Absolute velocity vectors are bold.

Relative and absolute velocity vectors and geometry

for the outer radius of the runner of a Francis
turbine. Absolute velocity vectors are bold.
In some Francis mixed-flow
turbines, high-power, high-
volume flow rate conditions
sometimes lead to reverse
swirl, in which the flow exiting
the runner swirls in the
direction opposite to that of the
runner itself, as sketched here.
84
85
86
87
Gas and Steam Turbines
In a coal or nuclear power plant,
high-pressure steam is
produced by a boiler and then
sent to a steam turbine to
produce electricity.
Because of reheat, regeneration,
and other efforts to increase
overall efficiency, these steam
turbines typically have two
stages (high pressure and low
pressure).
Most power plant steam turbines
are multistage axial-flow devices.
There are also stator vanes
(called nozzles) that direct the
flow between each set of turbine The turbine blades (called buckets) of a typical
blades (called buckets). two-stage steam turbine used in a coal or
nuclear power plant. The flow is from left to right,
with the high-pressure stage on the left and the
low-pressure stage on the right. 101
A gas turbine generator is similar to a jet engine except that instead of providing
thrust, the turbomachine is designed to transfer as much of the fuel’s energy as
possible into the rotating shaft, which is connected to an electric generator.
Gas turbines used for power generation are typically much larger than jet engines.
A significant gain in efficiency is realized as overall turbine size increases.

102
Wind Turbines
As global demand for energy increases, the supply of fossil fuels diminishes
and the price of energy continues to rise.
To keep up with global energy demand, renewable sources of energy such
as solar, wind, wave, tidal, hydroelectric, and geothermal must be tapped
more extensively.
In this section we concentrate on wind turbines used to generate electricity.
We note the distinction between the terms windmill used for mechanical
power generation (grinding grain, pumping water, etc.) and wind turbine
used for electrical power generation.
Although the wind is “free” and renewable, modern wind turbines are
expensive and suffer from one obvious disadvantage compared to most
other power generation devices – they produce power only when the wind is
blowing, and the power output of a wind turbine is thus inherently unsteady.
Wind turbines need to be located where the wind blows, which is often far
from traditional power grids, requiring construction of new high-voltage
power lines.

90
We generally categorize wind turbines by the orientation of their axis of rotation:
horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs)

vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs).

An alternative way to categorize them is by the mechanism that provides torque
to the rotating shaft: lift or drag.
So far, none of the VAWT designs or drag-type designs has achieved the
efficiency or success of the lift-type HAWT.
This is why the vast majority of wind turbines being built around the world are of
this type, often in clusters affectionately called wind farms.
For this reason, the lift-type HAWT is the only type of wind turbine discussed in
any detail in this section.

91
Various wind
turbine designs
and their
categorization.
05
1
Various wind turbine designs and their categorization.

106
Various wind turbine designs and their categorization.

94
Various wind turbine designs and their categorization.

95
(a) Wind farms, like this one on Altamont Pass in
California, are popping up all over the world to
help reduce the global demand for fossil fuels. (b)
Some wind turbines are even being installed on
buildings!

96
Cut-in speed: The minimum wind speed at which useful power can be
generated.
Rated speed: The wind speed that delivers the rated power, usually the
maximum power.
Cut-out speed: The maximum wind speed at which the wind turbine is
designed to produce power. At wind speeds greater than the cut-out speed,
the turbine blades are stopped by some type of braking mechanism to avoid
damage and for safety issues. The short section of dashed blue line indicates
the power that would be produced if cut-out were not implemented.

Typical qualitative wind-

turbine power
performance curve with
definitions of cut-in,
rated, and cut-out
speeds.

97
 Available wind
power

Disk area A: The circular area swept out

by the turbine blades as they rotate.

Wind power
density

100 W/m2, poor

400 W/m2, good
700 W/m2, great
Energy pattern
111
factor
Aerodynamic efficiency: The fraction of available wind power that is
extracted by the turbine blades. This efficiency is commonly called the
power coefficient, CP,

The large and small control volumes for

analysis of ideal wind turbine
performance bounded by an 112
axisymmetric diverging stream tube.
 Qualitative sketch of
average streamwise
velocity and pressure
profiles through a wind
turbine.

The average velocity of the air through an ideal

wind turbine is the arithmetic average of the far
upstream and far downstream velocities.

Betz limit
100
Performance (power coefficient) of various types of wind
turbines as a function of the ratio of turbine blade tip speed
to wind speed. So far, no design has achieved better
performance than the horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT).
101
102
14–5 TURBINE SCALING LAWS

The main variables used for

dimensional analysis of a turbine.
The characteristic turbine diameter
D is typically either the runner
diameter Drunner or the discharge
diameter Ddischarge.

103
 In practice, hydroturbine engineers
generally find that the actual increase in
efficiency from model to prototype is only
about two-thirds of the increase given by
this equation.

Dimensional analysis is useful for

scaling two geometrically similar
turbines. If all the dimensionless
turbine parameters of turbine A are
equivalent to those of turbine B, the
two turbines are dynamically similar.

104
105
119
 Turbine Specific Speed

A pump–turbine is used by some power plants for energy storage:

(a) water is pumped by the pump–turbine during periods of low
demand for power, and (b) electricity is generated by the pump–
turbine during periods of high demand for power.
The runner of a pump–turbine used at the Yards Creek pumped storage station in Blairstown,
NJ. There are seven runner blades of outer diameter 5.27 m. The turbine rotates at 240 rpm
and produces 112 MW of power at a volume flow rate of 56.6 m3/s from a net head of 221 m.
Conversions between the dimensionless and the
conventional U.S. definitions of turbine specific
speed. Numerical values are given to four
significant digits. The conversions assume earth
gravity and water as the working fluid.

Capacity specific speed

1
Maximum efficiency as a function of turbine specific speed for the three main types of dynamic turbine. Horizontal scales show
nondimensional turbine specific speed (NSt) and turbine specific speed in customary U.S. units (NSt, US). Sketches of the
blade types are also provided on the plot for reference.
124
EJEMPLO 9
 EJEMPLO 9

Aplicación general de todo el

contenido

Turbina – bomba- tanques

Sistemas de control
Valvulas
 Summary
• CLASSIFICATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY
• PUMPS
✓ Pump Performance Curves and Matching a Pump to a
Piping System
✓ Pump Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head
✓ Pumps in Series and Parallel
✓ Positive-Displacement Pumps
✓ Dynamic Pumps • PUMP SCALING LAWS
✓ Centrifugal Pumps ✓ Dimensional Analysis
✓ Axial Pumps ✓ Pump Specific Speed
✓ Affinity Laws
• TURBINES
✓ Positive-Displacement Turbines
✓ Dynamic Turbines
✓ Impulse Turbines
✓ Reaction Turbines
✓ Gas and Steam Turbines
✓ Wind Turbines
• TURBINE SCALING LAWS
✓ Dimensionless Turbine Parameters
✓ Turbine Specific Speed