Mechanism

of
Chip Formation

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 1

 Machining is a process of gradual removal of excess material from the preformed
blanks in the form of chips.

The form of the chips is an important index of machining because it

directly or indirectly indicates :

Nature and behavior of the work material under machining condition

Specific energy requirement (amount of energy required to remove unit
volume of work material) in machining work
Nature and degree of interaction at the chip-tool interfaces

HISTORY
Tresca in 1878 published visio-plasticity picture of metal cutting process.
Mallock (1881) presented the concept of shearing of metal in chip formation
process. He also presented the effect of friction in deformation process.

Tresca and Mallock introduced two main elements of metal cutting, namely
plasticity and the importance of friction interaction between chip and tool

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 2

The form of machined chips depend mainly upon:

Work material

Material and geometry of the cutting tool

Levels of cutting velocity and feed and also to some extent on depth of cut
Machining environment or cutting fluid that affects temperature and friction at
the chip-tool and work-tool interfaces

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 3

 Mechanism of chip formation in machining
ductile materials

Compression of work material (layer) ahead of the tool tip

During continuous machining the uncut layer of the work material

just ahead of the cutting tool (edge) is subjected to almost all sided
compression

The shearing mechanism can be easily explained by card analogy

(Piispannen method) Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 4
Piispanen model of card analogy to explain chip formation in
machining ductile materials

These serration are visible at their

upper surface. The lower surface
becomes smooth due to further
plastic deformation due to intensive
rubbing with the tool at high pressure
and temperature
Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 5
The pattern and extent of total deformation of the chips due to the primary
and the secondary shear deformations of the chips ahead and along the
tool face depend upon :

(a) Work material

(b) Tool: geometry and material
(c) Machining speed and feed
(d) Cutting fluid application

Primary and secondary deformation zones in the chip

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 6
 The overall deformation process causing chip formation is quite complex and
hence needs thorough experimental studies for clear understanding the
phenomena and its dependence on the affecting parameters.

The feasible and popular experimental methods for this purpose are:

Study of deformation of rectangular or circular grids marked on the side surface

Microscopic study of chips frozen by drop tool or quick stop apparatus

Study of running chips by high speed camera fitted with low magnification microscope

Note
The machining of ductile
material produces flat,
curved or coiled continuous
chips
Pattern of grid deformation during chip formation
Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 7
Chip frozen by drop tool or quick stop apparatus

Use of high speed camera to see the mechanism of chip formation

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 8

Basic mechanism involved in chip formation mechanism are:

➢Yielding – generally for ductile materials

➢Brittle fracture – generally for brittle materials

Mechanism of chip formation in machining of brittle materials

During machining, first a small crack
develops in the work piece at the tool tip
due to wedging action of the cutting edge.
At the sharp crack-tip stress concentration
takes place

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 9

In case of ductile materials immediately yielding takes place at the crack-
tip and reduces the effect of stress concentration and prevents its propagation as
crack.

In case of brittle materials the initiated crack quickly propagates, under

stressing action, and total separation takes place from the parent workpiece through
the minimum resistance path.

Machining of brittle material produces discontinuous chips and mostly of irregular

size and shape.

Schematic view of chip formation in machining brittle materials

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 10

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 11
 Geometry and characteristics of chip form

The chip thickness (a2)

usually becomes larger
than the uncut chip
thickness (a1).

compression of the chip ahead of the tool

This is because of frictional resistance to chip flow

lamellar sliding according to Piispannen

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 12

Geometrical parameters involved in chip formation:
t = depth of cut (mm) – perpendicular penetration of the cutting tool tip
in work surface
so = feed (mm/rev) – axial travel of the tool per revolution of the job
b1 = width (mm) of chip before cut
b2 = width (mm) of chip after cut
a1 = thickness (mm) of uncut layer (or chip before cut)
a2 = chip thickness (mm) – thickness of chip after cut
A1 = cross section (area, mm2) of chip before cut

The degree of thickening of the chip:

Larger value of ζ means more thickening i.e., more effort in terms of forces or
energy required to accomplish the machining work.

Therefore it is always desirable to reduce a2 or ζ without sacrificing productivity,

i.e. metal removal rate (MRR).
Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 13
 Chip thickening is the reciprocal of ζ

The value of chip reduction coefficient, ζ (and hence cutting ratio) depends upon:

This relation is simple but very significant expression clearly describes that
the value of ζ can be desirably reduced by,

Using the tool having larger positive rake

Reducing friction by using lubricant during machining

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 14

 Kronenberg’s model

This graph shows the role of rake angle and friction at the chip-tool interface on
chip reduction coefficient.

ζ can also be expressed or assessed by the ratio of

➢Total length of the chip before (L1) and after cut (L2)
➢Cutting velocity, VC and chip velocity, V f

Considering total volume of chip produced in a given time constant,

a1b1L1 = a2b2L2

The width of chip, b generally does not change significantly during machining unless
there is side flow for some adverse situation.
Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 15
 by assuming b1=b2

In USA, Inverse of ζ is denoted by ‘r’ , the cutting ratio

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 16

Shear angle, β0

The chip changes its direction from the

velocity of cutting and starts flowing on
the rake face of the tool

The plane along which the change in

velocity takes place is known as shear
plane
Shear plane also can be defined as
the plane of separation of work
material layer in the form of chip from
the parent body due to shear along
that plane

Shear angle, β0 Angle of inclination of the shear plane from the direction of
cutting velocity

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 17

 But we know that

r = a1/a2

With the increase in ζ, shear angle decreases and vice-versa

Shear angle increases both directly and indirectly with the increase in tool rake angle
Increase in shear angle indicates more favorable machining condition requiring lesser
specific energy
Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 18
 Cutting strain, ε
The magnitude of strain, that develops
along the shear plane due to machining
action, is called cutting strain (shear)

Due to presence of the tool as an obstruction

the layer P has been shifted to position M by Υ0
sliding along the shear plane. P o β0 – γ0
β0

Δs N Y

M
High-cutting strain refers to unfavorable machining
Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 19
 Chip classification
The classification is based on

The basic mechanism of formation The final shape of the chip

The fundamental deformation mechanism are:

(i) fracture (ii) yield (iii) Combined process of yield and fracture

Discontinuous chip
Type I classification: Continuous chip or ribbon type chip Ernst
classification
Continuous chip with built-up edge

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 20

Loladze classification Type II

Irregular shaped chip

Continuous chip with no built-up edge

Continuous chip with built-up edge

Element chip

Jointed chip or partially continuous chip

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 21

Built-up edge formation
In machining ductile metals like steels with long
chip-tool contact length, lot of stress and
temperature develops in the secondary deformation
zone at the chip-tool interface.
Under such high stress and temperature in
between two clean surfaces of metals, strong
bonding may locally take place due to
adhesion similar to welding.

Such bonding will be encouraged and Scheme of built-up-edge formation

accelerated if the chip tool materials have
mutual affinity or solubility.
The weldment starts forming as an embryo at the most favorable location and thus
gradually grows.

With the growth of the BUE, the force, F (shown in above Figure) also
gradually increases due to wedging action of the tool tip along with the BUE
formed on it. Whenever the force, F exceeds the bonding force of the BUE, the
BUE is broken or sheared off and taken away by the flowing chip. Then again
BUE starts forming and growing. This goes on repeatedly.
Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 22
In general,
Low cutting speed, high feed and small rake angle are conducive to the
formation of built-up-edge

The size of the BUE is also influenced by the speed in the critical range, where it
initially increases with speed and then decreases

Although the mechanism of formation of BUE is not clearly understood, it involves

the welding and rupture of the chip material.

Welding is affected by the temperature and normal pressure near the tool tip

Rupture is affected by strain hardening and thermal softening of the chip material

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 23

 Characteristics of BUE
Built-up-edges are characterized by its shape, size and bond strength, which
depend upon:

❑work tool materials

❑stress and temperature, i.e., cutting velocity and feed

❑cutting fluid application governing cooling and lubrication

Shapes of BUE

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 24

❖In machining of too soft and ductile metals by tools like high speed steel or
uncoated carbide, the BUE may grow larger and overflow towards the finished
surface through the flank. The overflow and overgrowing of the BUE cause the
surface roughness.
❖The major part of the detached
BUE goes away along the flowing
chip and a small part of the BUE may
remain stuck on the machined
surface and spoils the surface finish.

❖BUE formation needs certain level

of temperature at the interface
depending upon the mutual affinity of
the work-tool materials.

❖With the increase in Vc and so ,the

cutting temperature rises and favors
BUE formation. But if Vc is raised too
high beyond certain limit, BUE will be
squashed out by the flowing chip
before the BUE grows.
Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 25
Formation of BUE has several harmful effects, such as:

❖It adversely changes the rake angle at the tool tip causing increase in cutting
forces and power consumption

❖Repeated formation and dislodgement of the BUE causes fluctuation in cutting

forces and thus induces vibration which is harmful for the tool, job and the
machine tool.
❖Surface finish gets deteriorated

❖May reduce tool life by accelerating tool-wear at its rake surface by adhesion
and cracking or detaching

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 26

Types of chips and conditions for formation of those chips

During machining, the types of chip produced, shape, size and color of the chip
depends on:

❖Types of cut− continuous or intermittent

❖Work material − ductile or brittle

❖Cutting tool geometry

❖Cutting parameters − speed, feed and depth of cut

❖Use of lubrication

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 27

 Factors Types of chip
Continuous Continuous with Discontinuous
BUE
Material Ductile Ductile Brittle
Tool:
Rake angle Large Small Small
Cutting edge Sharp Dull ---------
Cutting
condition:
Speed High Low Low
Feed Low High High
Friction Low High ----------
Cutting fluid Efficient Poor ----------

Sometimes, machining ductile metals at high speed, the chips are deliberately
broken into small segments of regular size and shape by using chip breakers
mainly for convenience and reduction of chip-tool contact length.

Dr. Ratnakar Das, NIAMT 28

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Cutting Tool Materials

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 Development Of Cutting Tool Materials

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