1.

Robotics : definition , laws, short history

Robotics is a branch of engineering deals with the design, construction, use to controlrobots, sensory
feedback and information processing.
A robot is an autonomous system which exists in the physical world, can sense its environment, and can
act on it to achieve some goals.
• Ex: Pocket-lint -a robot that cleans your house

These three laws state that:

1. Robots will never harm human beings.
2. Robots will follow instructions given by humans withbreaking
law one.
3. Robots will protect themselves without breaking otherrules.

2. State A * search algorithm with its advantages and disadvantages.

● The A* search algorithm is an informed search algorithm that is widely used for pathfinding and graph
traversal. It is particularly useful in scenarios where the goal is to find the shortest path from a start node to a
goal node in a graph or grid. A* combines the strengths of both uniform cost search and greedy best-first
search by considering both the cost to reach a node from the start and an estimate of the cost from that node to
the goal.
● Algorithm Steps:
Initialize an open list with the starting node. Initialize an

empty closed list.

For each node in the open list, calculate:

f(n)=g(n)+h(n) where:
g(n) is the cost to reach the node from the start.
 h(n) is the heuristic estimate of the cost from the node to the goal.
Move the node with the lowest f(n) value from the open list to the closed list. Expand the

node's neighbours and update their g and h values.

Add the expanded neighbours to the open list unless they are already in the closed list or have a higher
f(n) value.
● Advantages of A Search *
a. Completeness: A* is complete, meaning it is guaranteed to find a solution if one exists as long as the search
space is finite.
b. Optimality: A* is optimal if the heuristic used is admissible, meaning it never overestimates the true cost to
reach the goal. If the heuristic is admissible, A* will find the shortest path.
c. Efficiency: A* is often more efficient than uninformed search algorithms, especially when a good heuristic
is available. The use of heuristics helps guide the search toward more promising paths, reducing the number
of nodes explored.
d. Flexibility: A* can be customized by using different heuristics depending on the problem domain, making
it versatile and applicable to a wide range of scenarios.
● Disadvantages of A Search:*
a. Heuristic Quality: The performance of A* heavily relies on the quality of the heuristic function. If the
heuristic is poorly designed or not admissible, the algorithm's efficiency and optimality may be
compromised.
b. Memory Requirements: A* may use a significant amount of memory, especially in scenarios with large
state spaces. This can be a limitation in resource-constrained environments.
c. Computational Complexity: The time complexity of A* can be high in some cases, particularly if the
heuristic evaluation is computationally expensive.
d. Implementation Complexity: Implementing A* can be more complex than some uninformed search
algorithms, requiring careful handling of data structures and heuristic functions.
3.Robot autonomy and its types
4. Close loop vs open loop control theory

PARAMETERS CLOSED-LOOP OPEN-LOOP

Feedback Utilizes feedback from the output Does not use feedback; the input is
to adjust the input. predetermined and not adjusted
based on
the output.
Adaptability Can adapt to changes and Lacks adaptability and may not
disturbances in the system. respond well to variations.
Precision Offers higher precision and Typically has lower precision as it
accuracy. does not correct for errors.
Cost And Often more complex and may have Generally simpler and more
Complexity a higher cost. cost-effective.
Stability Tends to be more stable due to May be less stable, especially in
feedback mechanisms. dynamic or uncertain
environments.

5. Forward and Backward chaining

6.Cybernetics vs Robotics
Parameters Cybernetics Robotics
Definition Cybernetics is the Robotics is a specialized field of
interdisciplinary study of engineering and computer science
communication and control in that involves the design,
living organisms and machines. construction, operation, and use of
robots.
Scope Cybernetics is a broader field that Robotics specifically deals with the
investigates the general principles creation and utilization of robots. It
of control and communication in includes the study of robot design,
both living organisms and control systems, sensors, actuators,
machines. and the integration of robots into
various applications and
environments.
Applications Cybernetics finds applications in Robotics finds applications in
various fields, including biology, manufacturing, healthcare, space
psychology,sociology, economics, exploration,entertainment,
and engineering. agriculture, and various other
fields.
Focus Cybernetics focuses on the study Robotics focuses on the creation
of systems, feedback loops, and and utilization of machines capable
the principles of self-regulation. of performing tasks in the physical
world.

7. Define sensors and applications of sensors in robots

● Sensors play a crucial role in robotics by providing information about the robot's environment, allowing it to
perceive, navigate, and interact with the surroundings. Various types of sensors are used in robotics, each
serving specific purposes. Here is a list of different types of sensors used in robotics, along with brief
descriptions of their functions.
● Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU): Measures acceleration and angular velocity, providing information about the
robot's orientation and movement.
● Camera (Vision Sensor): Captures visual information from the environment, enabling the robot to perceive
objects, recognize patterns, and navigate based on visual input.
● Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging): Emits laser beams and measures the time it takes for the beams to return,
creating a 3D map of the robot's surroundings. Used for obstacle detection, mapping, and navigation.
● Ultrasonic Sensors: Emit ultrasonic waves and measure their reflection to determine the distance to objects.
Commonly used for proximity sensing and obstacle avoidance.
● Infrared (IR) Sensors: Detects infrared radiation to sense the presence or absence of objects. Used in proximity
sensors and line-following applications.
● Force/Torque Sensors: Measures the force and torque applied to a robot's end-effector, providing feedback for
force-sensitive tasks such as grasping and manipulation.
● Gyroscopes: Measures the rate of rotation or angular velocity, aiding in the robot's ability to maintain balance
and stability.
● Tactile Sensors: Detects contact or pressure on the robot's surface, providing information about physical
interactions with objects or the environment.
● Temperature Sensors: Measures the temperature of the robot or its surroundings, ensuring that the robot
operates within safe temperature limits.
● Humidity Sensors: Measures the moisture content in the air, useful for environmental monitoring or
applications where humidity levels are critical.
● Encoder Sensors: Measures the position, speed, and direction of a rotating shaft, often used in motor control
and for determining the position of robot joints.
● Proximity Sensors: Detects the presence or absence of objects within a certain range. Infrared, ultrasonic, and
capacitive sensors can be used for proximity sensing.
● Magnetic Sensors: Measures the strength and direction of magnetic fields. Used in applications such as
compasses or for detecting magnetic tags in navigation.
● Gas Sensors: Detects the concentration of gases in the air. Commonly used for environmental monitoring or in
applications where gas levels are critical.
● Biometric Sensors: Measures physiological characteristics of humans, such as fingerprints, retina scans, or
facial recognition. Applied in robotics for human-robot interaction and identification.
● Acoustic Sensors (Microphones): Captures sound waves, enabling the robot to process auditory information.
Used in applications like speech recognition and sound localization.

8. Define actuators and examples

● An actuator is a type of component or device that converts input energy into physical motion or any other form
of output. Actuators are responsible for driving the movement or operation of mechanisms in a system.
● In the context of robotics, actuators play a crucial role in enabling the motion of robotic joints, limbs, or other
parts.
● Actuators can be classified into various types based on the energy they use or the principles of operation.
Common types of actuators include:
● Electric Actuators: Convert electrical energy into mechanical motion. Examples include electric motors and
solenoids.
● Pneumatic Actuators: Use compressed air to generate motion. Examples include pneumatic cylinders.
● Hydraulic Actuators: Use pressurized fluid (usually hydraulic oil) to generate motion. Examples include
hydraulic cylinders.
● Piezoelectric Actuators: Rely on the piezoelectric effect to produce small but precise movements.
● Shape Memory Alloy Actuators: Utilize materials that change shape in response to temperature changes.

9. Analog electronics for robotics

● Analog electronic circuits play a significant role in robot control systems, providing essential functionalities for
sensing, signal processing, actuation, and overall system control.
● Here are several key uses of analog electronic circuits in robot control systems
a. Sensor Interface: Analog circuits are often used to interface with sensors that provide continuous analog
signals, such as analog accelerometers, gyroscopes, force sensors, and temperature sensors. These circuits
condition, amplify, and filter sensor signals before further processing.
b. Signal Conditioning: Analog circuits are employed for signal conditioning tasks, which involve adjusting
the characteristics of signals to make them suitable for processing. This includes amplification, filtering,
and offset correction to enhance the quality and accuracy of sensor data.
c. Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps): Op-amps are versatile analog components used for various tasks in
robot control systems. They are commonly used in amplifiers, filters, and signal conditioning circuits.
Op-amps can also be part of feedback control loops for precise control.
d. Voltage Regulation: Analog voltage regulators ensure a stable and constant power supply to sensitive
components in the robot control system. Maintaining a consistent voltage is crucial for the reliable
operation of analog and digital circuits.
e. Motor Control: Analog electronic circuits are used in motor control systems to drive and control the speed
of motors. Analog components, such as operational amplifiers and transistors, are often part of motor driver
circuits that convert control signals into the required motor currents.
f. Feedback Control Systems: Analog circuits play a vital role in feedback control systems for regulating the
behavior of robotic systems. Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controllers, which are widely used in
feedback control, often incorporate analog components for precise control.
g. Voltage-to-Frequency Converters: Voltage-to-frequency converters are used in various applications,
including analog-to-digital conversion and feedback control systems. These circuits convert analog voltage
signals into frequency signals, facilitating further processing by digital systems.
h. Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC): Analog-to-digital converters are essential for interfacing analog
sensors with digital control systems. They convert continuous analog signals into discrete digital values that
can be processed by microcontrollers or digital signal processors.
i. Signal Multiplexing: Analog multiplexers are used to select and route multiple analog signals to a single
10. Control theory : importance, types, use of control theory, examples
11. State ultrasonic sensor and its uses.
● An ultrasonic sensor is a device that uses sound waves with frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of
human hearing (typically above 20 kHz) to detect and measure distances to objects. These sensors work on the
principle of echolocation, similar to how bats navigate and locate prey using ultrasonic waves.
Key Components of an Ultrasonic Sensor
a. Transmitter: Emits ultrasonic waves.
b. Receiver: Detects the reflected waves.
c. Control Circuit: Manages the timing and signal processing.
Applications of Ultrasonic Sensors
a. Distance Measurement: Ultrasonic sensors are commonly used for non-contact distance measurement.
They find applications in robotics, industrial automation, and automotive systems to measure the distance
between the sensor and an object.
b. Object Detection and Avoidance: In robotics and automation, ultrasonic sensors are used to detect the
presence of objects and obstacles. This information is crucial for robots and autonomous systems to
navigate and avoid collisions.
c. Parking Assistance in Vehicles: Ultrasonic sensors are integrated into parking assistance systems in
vehicles. They detect obstacles around the vehicle and provide feedback to the driver through audio or
visual signals to assist in parking.
d. Liquid Level Measurement: Ultrasonic sensors can be used to measure the level of liquids in tanks or
containers. They emit ultrasonic waves towards the liquid surface and measure the time taken for the echo
to return, providing an indication of the liquid level.
e. Flow Rate Measurement: In industrial processes, ultrasonic sensors are employed to measure the flow rate
of liquids. By analyzing the time it takes for ultrasonic waves to travel with and against the flow, the sensor
can calculate the flow rate.
f. Proximity Sensing: Ultrasonic sensors are utilized for proximity sensing in various applications. They can
detect the presence of nearby objects without physical contact, making them suitable for hands-free
interfaces, security systems, and more.
g. Animal Repellent Systems: Ultrasonic sensors are incorporated into devices designed to repel animals,
such as rodents or insects. The emitted ultrasonic waves are unpleasant for certain animals, encouraging
them to avoid the protected area.
h. Liquid Level Detection in Dishwashers: Dishwashers often use ultrasonic sensors to detect the water level
inside. This helps in optimizing water usage and ensuring efficient cleaning.
i. Weather Monitoring: Ultrasonic anemometers use ultrasonic sensors to measure wind speed and direction.
The sensors detect the time it takes for ultrasonic waves to travel between transmitters and receivers,
providing accurate wind-related data.

12.The Braitenberg’s vehicles (all types)

A Braitenberg vehicle is an agent that can autonomously move around based on its sensor inputs. It has
primitive sensors that measure some stimulus at a point, and wheels (each driven by its own motor) that
function as actuators or effectors.

Vehicle 1 - Getting Around

The first vehicle has one sensor (e.g. a temperature detector) that directly stimulates its single wheel in a
directly proportional way. The vehicle moves ideally in one dimension only and can stand still or move
forward at varying speeds depending on the sensed temperature. When forces like asymmetric friction
come into play, the vehicle could deviate from its straight line motion in unpredictable ways akin to
Brownian motion.

This behavior might be understood by a human observer as a creature that is 'alive' like an insect and
'restless', never stopping in its movement. The low velocity in regions of low temperature might be
[1]
interpreted as a preference for cold areas.

Vehicle 2a

A slightly more complex agent has two (left and right) symmetric sensors (e.g. light detectors) each
stimulating a wheel on the same side of the body. This vehicle represents a model of negative animal
tropotaxis. It obeys the following rule:

● More light right → right wheel turns faster → turns towards the left, away from the light.
This is more efficient as a behavior to escape from the light source, since the creature can move in
different directions, and tends to orient towards the direction from which least light comes.

In another variation, the connections are negative or inhibitory: more light → slower movement. In this
case, the agents move away from the dark and towards the light.

Vehicle 2b

The agent has the same two (left and right) symmetric sensors (e.g. light detectors), but each one
stimulates a wheel on the other side of the body. It obeys the following rule:

● More light left → right wheel turns faster → turns towards the left, closer to the light.
As a result, the robot follows the light; it moves to be closer to the light.

13.Robotics embodiments
14. . Robotic process block diagram and explanation.

A typical robotic process involves several key components:

1. Sensors: Collect data from the environment (e.g., cameras, LIDAR, temperature sensors).
2. Processing Unit (Controller): Processes the sensor data and makes decisions based on pre-programmed
algorithms or AI models.
3. Actuators: Convert electrical signals from the controller into physical movements (e.g., motors, servos).
4. End Effectors: Tools or devices attached to the robot's limbs or body to interact with the environment (e.g.,
grippers, welding torches).
5. Power Supply: Provides energy for the robot's operations.
6. Communication System: Allows the robot to interact with other robots or control systems, often wirelessly.

15. Advantages, disadvantages, applications, challenges of robot

Advantages of Robots:

1. Efficiency: Robots can perform repetitive tasks with high precision and speed, leading to increased
productivity.
2. Accuracy: Robots can work with exact specifications, reducing errors in tasks like manufacturing or surgery.
3. Safety: Robots can operate in hazardous environments, reducing the risk of injury to humans.
4. Consistency: Robots can work continuously without fatigue, ensuring consistent output.
5. Cost-effective: In the long term, robots can reduce labor costs and improve operational efficiency.

Disadvantages of Robots:

1. High Initial Cost: The upfront cost of robotic systems can be significant, including purchase, installation, and
training.
2. Job Displacement: The automation of tasks may lead to job losses in certain industries.
3. Limited Flexibility: Robots can struggle with tasks requiring human intuition, creativity, or complex
decision-making.
4. Maintenance and Downtime: Robots require regular maintenance, and any downtime can be costly.
5. Security Risks: Robots connected to networks may be vulnerable to hacking or other cyber threats.

Applications of Robots:

1. Manufacturing: Robots are widely used in assembly lines, welding, painting, and packaging.
2. Healthcare: Robots assist in surgeries, rehabilitation, and patient care.
3. Logistics: Autonomous robots are used for warehouse automation, picking, sorting, and transportation of
goods.
4. Exploration: Robots are deployed in space exploration, underwater exploration, and hazardous environments.
5. Military: Robots are used for surveillance, bomb disposal, and reconnaissance missions.
 6. Service Industry: Robots serve in hotels, restaurants, and customer service roles.

16. Applications of Autonomous Robots:

1. Self-driving Vehicles: Autonomous cars and drones for transportation and delivery services.
2. Agriculture: Autonomous tractors and drones for planting, monitoring crops, and harvesting.
3. Home Assistance: Robots like vacuum cleaners and lawnmowers that operate autonomously.
4. Healthcare: Autonomous robots for elder care, patient monitoring, and medication delivery.
5. Security: Autonomous patrol robots for surveillance and monitoring in security-sensitive areas.

17. Types of Robots:

1. Industrial Robots: Used in manufacturing and production environments (e.g., robotic arms).
2. Service Robots: Assist humans in non-industrial environments (e.g., cleaning robots, service bots).
3. Autonomous Robots: Operate without human intervention (e.g., self-driving cars).
4. Humanoid Robots: Robots that mimic human appearance and behavior (e.g., ASIMO by Honda).
5. Medical Robots: Assist in medical procedures (e.g., surgical robots like da Vinci).
6. Military Robots: Used for defense purposes (e.g., drones, bomb disposal robots).
7. Entertainment Robots: Designed for entertainment purposes (e.g., robotic toys, animatronics).

18 . Robot "Brains and Brawn":

● Brains (Control Systems): The "brains" of a robot refer to its control system, typically a computer or
microcontroller that processes inputs, makes decisions, and controls the robot's actions. This includes
programming, algorithms, AI, and sensors.
● Brawn (Mechanical Structure): The "brawn" refers to the physical components of a robot, including motors,
actuators, sensors, and the mechanical structure that allows it to move and perform tasks.

19. Grey Walter Tortoise:

Grey Walter Tortoise was one of the earliest autonomous robots, created by neurophysiologist W. Grey Walter in the
late 1940s and early 1950s. These simple robots, named "Elmer" and "Elsie," were capable of phototaxis, meaning
they could move towards or away from light sources. The tortoises used light sensors and simple analog circuits to
exhibit behaviors that mimicked certain aspects of biological organisms, such as seeking light (representing energy)
or avoiding obstacles. Walter's work laid the foundation for modern robotics and cybernetics, demonstrating how
complex behavior could arise from simple mechanisms.

20. Explain the Block diagram of Open loop, close loop, precision control loop theory
Open-loop control systems are simple control systems where the output is not fed back to the input. The system
operates on the given input to produce an output, but there is no mechanism to correct or adjust the output based on
the actual result. Here's how an open-loop control system works:

Block Diagram:

1. Input Signal (Set Point): The desired value or command is provided to the system.
2. Controller: Processes the input signal and generates a control signal. This is typically a predefined action or
set of instructions.
3. Actuator/Process: Converts the control signal into action (e.g., turning on a motor, heating an element).
4. Output: The final result or action produced by the system (e.g., movement, heat).

Block Diagram of Closed-Loop Control System:

Closed-loop control systems (or feedback control systems) include a feedback mechanism that continuously
monitors the output and adjusts the input to maintain the desired output. The system can correct deviations from the
set point, making it more accurate and stable.

Block Diagram:

1. Input Signal (Set Point): The desired value or reference for the system.
2. Controller: Generates a control signal based on the difference between the desired value and the feedback
signal.
3. Actuator/Process: Executes the control action (e.g., motor speed adjustment, temperature regulation).
4. Output: The actual result produced by the system.
5. Feedback Sensor: Measures the output and feeds it back to the input to compare with the desired value.
6. Comparator (Error Detector): Compares the feedback signal with the set point and produces an error signal
that is used by the controller to adjust the input.

Block Diagram of Precision Control Loop (PID Control Theory):

Precision control loop systems, often implemented using Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control, are
advanced forms of closed-loop systems. They are designed to maintain an output with high precision by using three
types of control actions: Proportional (P), Integral (I), and Derivative (D).

Block Diagram:
1. Input Signal (Set Point): The target value or desired output.
2. Error Detector (Comparator): Calculates the error by comparing the set point with the actual output.
3. PID Controller:
○ Proportional Control (P): Adjusts the output in proportion to the error.
○ Integral Control (I): Accounts for the accumulated error over time, helping to eliminate steady-state
error.
○ Derivative Control (D): Predicts future errors by considering the rate of change of the error, helping
to improve the stability and responsiveness of the system.
4. Actuator/Process: Executes the control action based on the combined PID control signals.
5. Output: The controlled variable that the system aims to maintain at the desired level.
6. Feedback Sensor: Continuously measures the output and provides feedback to the system.