Expt 1 - Vernier Callipers
Aim
To measure diameter of a small spherical body using Vernier Callipers.
Apparatus
Vernier callipers, a spherical body (pendulum bob) or and a magnifying lens.
Formula:
Diameter of the bob: 𝑑 = [𝑀𝑆𝑅 + 𝑉𝑆𝑅] ± 𝑍𝐶
Diagram
Procedure
1. Determine and record the vernier constant (V.C.) i.e. least count (L.C.) of the vernier calipers.
2. Determine the zero error and record it.
3. Open the jaws, place the sphere or cylinder between the two jaws and adjust the jaw, such that it gently
grips the body without any undue pressure on it.
4. Note main scale reading (M.S.R.).
5. Note the number (n) of the vernier scale division which coincides with some division of the main scale.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 after rotating the body by 90° for measuring the diameter in a perpendicular direction.
7. Repeat steps 3, 4, 5 and 6 for three different positions. Record the observations in each set in a tabular form.
8. Find total reading and apply zero correction.
9. Take mean of different values of diameter and show that in the result with proper unit.
Observations
1. Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the Vernier Callipers
1 M.S.D. = 1mm
10VS.D.=9M.S.D.
.-. 1 V.S.D. = 9/10 M.S.D. = 0.9 mm.
Vernier Constant, V.C. = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D. = (1 – 0.9) mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm.
2. Zero error (i)…0…. cm, (ii)…0… cm, (iii)…0…… cm.
Mean zero error (e) =…0…… cm.
Mean zero correction (c) = – e =…0………cm.
Table for the Diameter (D)
S.No Main Scale Vernier Scale VSR = VSC × LC Diameter 𝒅 = [𝑴𝑺𝑹 + 𝑽𝑺𝑹] ± 𝒁𝑪
Reading (MSR) Coincidence
(in cm) (VSC) (divisions) (in cm) (in cm)
1 1.8 2 0.02 1.82
2 1.8 1 0.01 1.81
3 1.8 3 0.03 1.83
Mean 𝒅 = 1.82 cm
Result
The diameter of the given sphere is =1.82 cm.
Precautions
1. Motion of vernier scale on main scale should be made smooth (by oiling if necessary).
2. Vernier constant and zero error should be carefully found and properly recorded.
3. The body should be gripped between the jaws firmly but gently (without undue pres-sure on it from the
jaws).
4. Observations should be taken at right angles at one place and taken at least as three different places.
Sources of Error
1. The vernier scale may be loose on main scale.
2. The jaws may not be at right angles to the main scale.
3. The graduations on scale may not be correct and clear.
4. Parallax may be there in taking observations.
Expt 2 - Screw Gauge
Aim
To measure diameter of a given wire using screw gauge.
Apparatus
Screw gauge, wire, half-metre scale and magnifying lens.
Formula
Diameter of a wire: 𝑑 = (𝐿𝑆𝑅 + 𝐶𝑆𝑅) ± 𝑍𝐶
where, LSR – Linear Scale Reading; CSR – Circular Scale Reading
ZC – Zero correction ;
Diagram
Procedure
1. Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D).
2. Determine and record the pitch and least count of the screw gauge.
3. Determine the zero error in the screw gauge,
4. Grip the wire between the studs A and B using ratchet R.
5. Linear scale reading (L.S.R) and Circular Scale Reading (C.S.R) are noted.
6. For the entire length of wire, repeat steps 4,5,6 and 7 for three different positions and record the observations.
7. Find the total reading and also zero correction.
8. Take the mean of different values of diameter.
Observations
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 1 𝑚𝑚
1. Least Count: 𝐿𝐶 = = = 0.01 𝑚𝑚 = 0.001𝑐𝑚
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 100
2. Zero error = - 0.05 mm.
Table for Diameter of wire:
S.No Linear Scale Circular Scale CSR = CSC × LC Diameter
Reading (LSR) Coincidence
(CSC) 𝒅 = [𝑳𝑺𝑹 + 𝑪𝑺𝑹] ± 𝒁𝑪
(in mm)
(divisions) (in mm) (in mm)
1 1 23 0.23 1.28
2 1 21 0.21 1.26
3 1 24 0.24 1.29
Mean d = 1.28 mm
Result
The diameter of the given wire = 1.28 mm.
Precautions
1. To avoid undue pressure; the screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by cap K.
2. The screw should move freely without friction.
3. The zero correction, with proper sign should be noted very carefully and added algebraically.
4. For same set of observations, the screw should be moved in the same direction to avoid back-lash error of
the screw.
5. At each place, the diameter of the wire should be measured in two perpendicular directions and then the
mean of the two be taken.
6. Readings should be taken at least for five different places equally spaced along the whole length of the wire.
7. Error due to parallax should be avoided.
Sources of error
1. The screw may have friction.
2. The screw gauge may have back-lash error.
3. Circular scale divisions may not be of equal size.
4. The wire may not be uniform.
Expt 3 – Simple Pendulum
Aim
Using a simple pendulum, plot L-T² graph. Hence find effective length of the second's
pendulum using appropriate graphs.
Apparatus Required
Metallic bob, vernier callipers, stopwatch thread, a clamp with stand, meter rod.
Theory
A simple pendulum consist of a bob (heavy mass) suspended from a rigid support using an
extensible and massless string The time period of a simple pendulum is given by
T² = (4π²L) /g
L = effective length of the pendulum. g = acceleration due to gravity.
The effective length of simple pendulum is the distance between the point of suspension and the
centre of of the bob.
It is given by
L = l+h + r,
l = length of the string
h = length of the hook and
r = radius of the bob.
A simple pendulum whose time period is two seconds is called second's pendulum.
Diagram
Tabular Column
S.No Length of Pendulum Time for 20 oscillations Time 𝑇2
Period T
L (cm) (s) (𝑠 2 )
(s)
l L= l +r t1 t2 Mean t
1 79.1 80 35 37 36 1.8 3.24
2 89.1 90 38 38 38 1.9 3.61
3 99.1 100 40 40 40 2.0 4.00
4 109.1 110 41 42 42 2.1 4.41
5 119.1 120 43 45 44 2.2 4.84
Procedure
1. Take a vernier calliper. Find its least count and record it. Also take a stop watch, record its
least count and zero error, if any.
2. Find the mean diameter of the bob using a vernier calliper. Calculate its radius r = d/2 .Find
the length h of the hook attached to the bob and record it.
3. Take cotton thread of about 2 meter length and tie one end with the hook. Put ink marks on it
at 70 cm, 80 cm, 90 cm, 100 cm .
4. Pass the thread through split cork with thread coming out of 70 mark. Tight cork pieces
between clamp.
5. Fix the clamp on a stand kept on table so that bob is just a few centimetres above the floor.
Mark a point just below the position of a bob, when it is at rest.
6. Release the bob above point B on the right of A and start the stop watch. Count 20 vibrations
and record the time taken.
7. Repeat step 6 two more times for the same length.
8. Loose the cork pieces and pull the thread out to increase its length by 10 cm. Now effective
length of pendulum become 80 cm.
9. Repeat step 6 and 7 to get another set of observations.
10. Repeat step 8 and then step 6 and 7 to take more sets of observations for lengths 90 cm, 100
cm, 110 cm ........ and record all observations.
Result
Effective length of second’s pendulum = 100 cm
Precautions
1. Use a good stop watch of small least count.
2. Thread should be in extensible and of neglibible mass.
3. Point of suspension should be attached to a rigid support.
4. The bob should not spin during vibration.
5. Amplitude of the oscillations should be small.
Sources of Error
1. Point of suspension may not be rigid.
2. The amplitude of oscillation is very large.
3. The bob spins during oscillation.
4. There may be delay in starting and stopping of stop watch.
5. The air currents may disturb vibration.
