Introduction & Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

Introduction:
The most of general sense of thermodynamics is the study of energy and its relationship to the
properties of matter. All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter.

More specifically, thermodynamics deals with energy conversion, energy exchange and the
direction of exchange.

The word thermodynamics is composed of two Greek words. Thermodynamics is made of

‘therme’ and ‘dynamics’. Therme means heat, while dynamics means motion.

We can define thermodynamics like this: ‘Thermodynamics is the branch of science which deals
with work and heat and their mutual transformation, and the properties of the substances which
are related to work and heat transfer’.

Applied thermodynamics basically deals with the mutual transformation of work and heat, the
effect produced by such transformation, and the properties which are relevant for this type of
transformation.

OR
Thermodynamics is a branch of science which deals with energy. Engineering thermodynamics is

modified name of this science when applied to design and analysis of various energy conversion

systems. Thermodynamics has basically a few fundamental laws and principles applied to a wide

range of problems. Thermodynamics is core to engineering and allows understanding of the

mechanism of energy conversion.

“Thermodynamics is the branch of physical science that deals with the various phenomena of

energy and related properties of matter, especially of the laws of transformations of heat into other

forms of energy and vice-versa.”

OR

Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships that exist between the properties of a gas or a
vapour and the transfer of heat and work energy to or from that gas or vapour.

OR

Thermodynamics is the Science of energy transfer and effect of this transfer on the substance
properties.
Examples:
Heat energy Mechanical energy Petrol Engine
Mechanical energy Electrical energy Generator
Electrical energy Mechanical energy Electric motor
Electrical energy Cooling effect Refrigerator
Heat energy Electrical energy Electrical power generator

Areas of Application of Thermodynamics:

All natural processes are governed by the principles of thermodynamics. However, the following
engineering devices are typically designed based on the principles of thermodynamics.

Automotive engines, Turbines, Compressors, Pumps, Thermal and Nuclear Power Plants,
Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Devices.
For the study of thermodynamics, we need to apply the laws of thermodynamics
on thermodynamic systems. So, first we should have a clear idea of the
thermodynamic system.
 Figure: Sketch of a universe composed of a system, its surroundings, and the
system boundary.

SYSTEM:
A definite quantity of matter (which is enclosed by a boundary that separates it from the rest of the
universe) on which we focus our attention for thermodynamic analysis is called a thermodynamic
system. The important characteristics of a system are:
1. A system contains a definite quantity of matter. This quantity does not undergo any change as
the system undergoes a process. Therefore. a system is sometimes called as Control mass.
2. The boundary enclosing the system may be real (for example the glass wall of a thermos acts as
a boundary for enclosing coffee (system) contained in the thermos) or imaginary (for example one
may focus his attention on air contained in Im x Im x Im space of a room).
3. The system boundary may be rigid or may change its shape as well as in size during a given
process. That is the volume of a system may undergo a change.
4. The system may exchange energy either in the form of work or heat or both, with its
surroundings or with other systems. If a system does not exchange energy, in the form of work as
well as heat with its surroundings it is called an isolated system.
5. A system may be very simple, like a certain quantity of coffee held in a thermos or it may be
complex like a huge petrochemical plant.
6. The choice of a system is not unique and it depends on the analyst.
.
OR

System:
A thermodynamic system is defined as a definite quantity of matter or a region in space upon
which attention is focussed in the analysis of a problem. We may want to study a quantity of matter
contained with in a closed rigid walled chambers, or we may want to consider something such as
gas pipeline through which the matter flows. A system may be arbitrarily defined. It becomes
important when exchange of energy between the system and the every thing else outside the system
is considered.

Surroundings:

Everything external to the system is surroundings. The system is distinguished from its
surroundings by a specified boundary which may be at rest or in motion. The interactions between
a system and its surroundings, which take place across the boundary, play an important role in
thermodynamics. A system and its surroundings together comprise a universe.

Types of systems:
Two types of systems can be distinguished. These are referred to, respectively, as closed systems
and open systems or control volumes. A closed system or a control mass refers to a fixed quantity
of matter, whereas a control volume is a region in space through which mass may flow. A special
type of closed system that does not interact with its surroundings is called an Isolated system.
Two types of exchange can occur between the system and its surroundings:

---- energy exchange (heat or work) and

---- exchange of matter (movement of molecules across the boundary of the system and
surroundings).

OR

Types of systems:
Isolated systems: no exchange of matter and energy

Closed systems: no exchange of matter but some exchange of energy

Open systems: exchange of both matter and energy

OR

• Thermodynamic system: a quantity of fixed mass under investigation,

• Surroundings: everything external to the system,
• System boundary: interface separating system and surroundings, and if the boundary does not
allow heat (energy) exchange to take place it is called adiabatic boundary.
• Universe: combination of system and surroundings.

• Isolated system: a system which is not influenced by its surroundings.

• Control Volume: fixed volume over which mass can pass in and out of its boundary.

• Control Surface: boundary of the control volume.

• System
otentially variable mass, open.
The working substance:

So that the desired energy transfer is achieved.

Examples:

O Steam in steam turbine

O Fuel in car engine
O Air in air compressor

Thermodynamic property:

A thermodynamic property is a characteristic which can be used to describe the state of a system.

The essential features of a property are:

I. A thermodynamic property should have a definite value when a system is in a particular state.

2. The change in the value of the property should not depend on the path followed by the system

in reaching the specified state.

OR

Thermodynamic property:
Any characteristic of a system. Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m. Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.

• Extensive Property: a property which depends on the mass of the system,

example extensive properties include mass, total volume, total energy.
• Intensive Property: a property which is independent of the mass of the system.
Example intensive properties include temperature and pressure.
 OR
Intensive and Extensive Properties:

Intensive property: Whose value is independent of the size or extent i.e. mass of the system.

e.g., pressure p and temperature T.

Extensive property: Whose value depends on the size or extent i.e. mass of the system (upper

case letters as the symbols). e.g., Volume, Mass (V, M). If mass is increased, the value of extensive

property also increases. e.g., volume V, internal energy U, enthalpy H, entropy S, etc.

Specific property: It is a special case of an intensive property. It is the value of an extensive

property per unit mass of system. (Lower case letters as symbols) e.g: specific volume, density

(v

• Equilibrium: state in which no spontaneous changes are observed with respect to time.
• Thermal equilibrium: characterized by equal temperature.

Thermodynamic equilibrium.
Equilibrium is that state of a system in which the state does not undergo any change in itself with
passage of time without the aid of any external agent. Equilibrium state of a system can be
examined by observing whether the change in state of the system occurs or not. If no change in
state of system occurs then the system can be said in equilibrium.
Let us consider a steel glass full of hot milk kept in open atmosphere. It is quite obvious that the
heat from the milk shall be continuously transferred to atmosphere till the temperature of milk,
glass and atmosphere are not alike. During the transfer of heat from milk, the temperature of milk
could be seen to decrease continually. Temperature attains some final value and does not change
any more. This is the equilibrium state at which the properties stop showing any change in
themselves.
Generally, ensuring the mechanical, thermal and chemical equilibriums of the system may ensure
thermodynamic equilibrium of a system.
1. Mechanical Equilibrium: When there is no unbalanced force within the system and nor at its
boundaries then the system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium.
For a system to be in mechanical equilibrium there should be no pressure gradient within the
system i.e., equality of pressure for the entire system.
2. Chemical Equilibrium: When there is no chemical reaction taking place in the system it is said
to be in chemical equilibrium.
3. Thermal equilibrium: When there is no temperature gradient within the system, the system is
said to be in thermal equilibrium.
When all the conditions of mechanical, chemical and thermal equilibrium are satisfied, the system
is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium.

State:

It is the condition of a system as defined by the values of all its properties. It gives a complete
description of the system. Any operation in which one or more properties of a system change is
called a change of state.

FIG: A system at two different states.

Process:
Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another.
The concept of process:
A process is defined as a change in the state or condition of a working substance. For example,
heating or cooling of working substance, compression or expansion of a gas, flow of a fluid from
one location to another. In thermodynamics there are two types of process; Flow process and Non
flow process.
Flow Process: The processes in open system permits the transfer of mass to and from the system.
Such process are called flow process. The mass enters the system and leaves after exchanging
energy. e.g. I.C. Engine, Boilers.
Non-Flow Process: The process occurring in a closed system where there is no transfer of mass
across the boundary are called non flow process. In such process the energy in the form of heat
and work cross the boundary of the system.
In steady flow fluid flow at a uniform rate and the flow parameter do not change with time, the
flow will be known as steady flow. But if these vary throughout the cycle with time, the flow will
be known as non steady flow process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as well as
the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.

Process diagrams plotted by employing thermodynamic properties as coordinates are very

useful in visualizing the processes.
Some common properties that are used as coordinates are temperature T, pressure P, and
volume V (or specific volume v).
--- As a matter of rule we allow one of the properties to remain a constant during a process.

Types of Processes:
Reversible process:
A process is said to be reversible if it can be performed in the reverse direction exactly in the same
manner as in the forward direction.
OR
Reversible process
A reversible process is one which can be stopped at any stage and reversed so that the system
and surroundings are exactly restored to their initial states.
In every part of the process, the amount of energy transferred in the form of heat or work is the
same in magnitude in either direction. At every stage of the process there is no loss of energy due
to friction. The heat losses to the surroundings by conduction, convection or radiation are also
zero.
This process has the following characteristics:
1. It must pass through the same states on the reversed path as were initially visited on the forward
path.
2. It must pass through a continuous series of equilibrium states.
3. No real process is truely reversible but some processes may approach reversibility, to close
approximation.
Examples. Some examples of nearly reversible processes are:
(i) Expansion and compression of spring.
(ii) Frictionless adiabatic expansion or compression of fluid.
Condition for reversible process:
(i) The process must be infinitely slow.
(ii) The system should remain in thermal equilibrium (i.e) system and surrounding should remain
at the same temperature.
Example:
Let a gas be compressed isothermally so that heat generated is conducted away to the surrounding.
When it is allowed to expand in the same small equal steps, the temperature falls but the
system takes up the heat from the surrounding and maintains its temperature.
Irreversible process:
A process is said to be irreversible if it cannot be performed in the reverse direction exactly in
the same manner as in the forward direction.
Steady-Flow Process:

---- The term steady implies no change with time. The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.

----- A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices, such as turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat exchangers or power plants or refrigeration systems.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.

• Cycle: series of processes which returns to the original state.

1–2 & 3–4 = Constant volume Process

2–3 &4–1 = Constant pressure Process
1–2, 2–3, 3–4 & 4–1 = Path
1–2–3–4–1 = Cycle
• Temperature T is a state variable that quantifies the “hotness” or “coldness” of a system. A
temperature difference is required in order for heat to be transferred between the system and the
environment. The units of T are degrees centigrade or Kelvin.

TEMPERATURE:

The temperature is a thermal state of a body which distinguishes a hot body from a cold body. The
temperature of a body is proportional to the stored molecular energy i.e., the average molecular
kinetic energy of the molecules in a system. (A particular molecule does not have a temperature,
it has energy. The gas as a system has temperature).
Instruments for measuring ordinary temperatures are known as thermometers.
It has been found that a gas will not occupy any volume at a certain temperature. This temperature
is known as absolute zero temperature. The temperatures measured with absolute zero as basis are
called absolute temperatures. Absolute temperature is stated in degrees centigrade. The point of
absolute temperature is found to occur at 273.15°C below the freezing point of water.
Then: Absolute temperature = Thermometer reading in °C + 273.15.
Absolute temperature in degree centigrade is known as degrees kelvin, denoted by K (SI unit).
Such that K = °C + 273.15.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics:
If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then they are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other.By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated as two
bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they are not in
contact.

Two bodies reaching thermal equilibrium after being brought into contact in an isolated enclosure

ENERGY:
The energy is defined as the capacity of doing work. According to the concept of thermodynamics,
we can divide all the energies in two forms - stored energy and energy in transit.

1. Stored energy: such as potential energy, internal energy, kinetic energy etc.
2. Transit energy: such as one is work and another is heat.

The stored energy is that which is contained within the system boundaries, but the transit energy
crosses the system boundary. The store energy is a thermodynamic property whereas the transit
energy is not a thermodynamic property as it depends upon the path.

Form of Energy:
Potential energy (PE)
The energy possessed by a body or system by virtue of its position above the datum (ground) level.
The work done is due to its falling on earth’s surface.
 Potential Energy, PE = Wh = mgh N.m
Where, W = weight of body, N ; m = mass of body, kg
h = distance of fall of body, m
g = acceleration due to gravity, = 9.81 m/s2
Kinetic Energy (KE)
The energy possessed by a system by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy. It means that a
system of mass m kg while moving with a velocity V1 m/s, does ½ mV12 joules of work before
coming to rest. So in this state of motion, the system is said to have a kinetic energy given as;
K.E. = ½ mV12 N.m
However, when the mass undergoes a change in its velocity from velocity V1 to V2, the change in
kinetic energy of the system is expressed as;
K.E. = ½ mV22 – ½ mV12
Internal Energy: “U” is the most common symbol used for internal energy.
Internal energy is defined as the energy associated with the random, disordered motion of
molecules.
OR

INTERNAL ENERGY:

It is the heat energy stored in a gas. If a certain amount of heat is supplied to a gas the result is that
temperature of gas may increase or volume of gas may increase thereby doing some external work
or both temperature and volume may increase; but it will be decided by the conditions under which
the gas is supplied heat. If during heating of the gas the temperature increases its internal energy
will also increase.
Joule’s law of internal energy states that internal energy of a perfect gas is a function of
temperature only. In other words, internal energy of a gas is dependent on the temperature change
only and is not affected by the change in pressure and volume.

Total Energy:

Total energy possessed by a system is the sum of all types of stored energy. Hence it will be given
by
Etotal = PE + KE + U = mgh + ½ mV2 + U
It is expressed in the unit of joule (1 J = 1 N m)