CHLOROPLASTS

AND
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Submitted by: Esperila, Stephanie Louise D.

Submitted to: Mr. Jether Sumpo
Chloroplast Definition
It is an organelle that are found in plants and algae, that contains the
photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll that captures sunlight and converts it
into useful energy, thereby, releasing oxygen from water.
This cell organelle is present in plant cells and not present in animal cells.
Chloroplast are one of the plastids and the most common kinds of plastids.
Chloroplast has its own extra-nuclear DNA and therefore are
semiautonomous, like mitochondria. They also produce proteins and lipids
required for the production of chloroplast membrane.

Distribution of Orientation
Chloroplasts are sometimes distributed homogenously within the cytoplasm,
but are frequently packed near the nucleus, or close to the cell wall. The
distribution and orientation of the chloroplasts within the cell may vary with
the amount of light energy. They have higher density than cytoplasm and
migrate to the centrifugal pole of the cell when submitted to the action of
centrifugal force.
Shape
Higher plant chloroplasts are generally bioconvex or planoconvex. However,
in different plants cells, chloroplast may have various shapes,viz.,
Filamentous, saucer-shaped, spheroid, ovoid or discoid shaped. They are
vesicular and have a colourless centre. Some chloroplasts are club shaped,
having a thin middle zone and bulging ends filled with chlorophyll. Algae
often possess a single huge chloroplast that appears as network, a spiral
bond, or a stellar plate.

Number
The number of chloroplasts is relatively constant in different plants. In
higher plants there are 20 to 40 chloroplasts per cell. It has been calculated
that the leaf of Ricinus communis contains about 400,000 chloroplasts per
square millimeter of surface area. When the number of chloroplasts is
insufficient, it is increased by division; when excessive, it is reduced by
degeneration.
 Plastids Definition
Are a double-membrane organelles, which is responsible for manufacturing
and storing of food.

Kinds of Plastids Occurrence Function Pigment

I. Chloroplasts.
A. Photosynthetically
active chromoplasts
1. Chloroplasts Higher plants and green Photosynthesis Chlorophyll-a and
algae Chlorophyll-b
2. Pheoplasts Brown algae, diatoms Light absorption Flucoxanthin
and dinoflagellates
3. Rhodoplasts Red algae Light absorption Pycoerythrin
(Rhodophyceae)
4. Blue-green Blue-green algae Photosynthesis Phycocyanin
Phycoerythrin
Chlorophyll-a and
Carotenoids
5. Chromoplasts of Purple and non-purple Absorption of Bacteriochlorophyll
photosynthetic bacteria sulfur bacteria infrared portion of
light
B. Chromoplasts devoid of
photosynthetic activity
6. Carotenoids Tomato, red pepper, Lycopene and
flower parts fungi, Capsanthin
ornamental bacteria and
fruits
II. Leucoplasts
7. Amyloplasts Storage tubers, Starch- storage None
cotyledons and
endosperm
8. Elaiplasts Epidermal cells of Oil-Storage None
Orchidacae and liliaceae
9. Aleuroneplasts Epidermal cells of Protein-storage None
Helleborus and seeds of
 Ricinus and Brazil nut
STRUCTURE OF CHLOROPLAST

1. Double Membrane Envelope

The chloroplast is enclosed by a double membrane envelope. The outer
membrane act as a barrier between the chloroplast and the cell. The inner
membrane regulates the passage of molecules in and out of the chloroplast.

2. Intermembrane Space
It is the space between the inner membrane and outer membrane.

3. Thylakoid
These are large number of flattened, sac-like structures. These contain
pigments, like chlorophyll, which capture sunlight energy during the light-
dependent reactions of photosynthesis. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks
referred to as grana and each granum consists of approximately 10-20
thylakoids.

4. Granum
Thylakoid membranes are structured into stacks called grana. It increased
the surface area for light absorption and have the component necessary for
the light-dependent reactions. The number of grana in a chloroplast can be
up to 40-60. The particles present in it are referred to as quantasome. Each
quantasome is made up of 200 green molecules. The width of the grana
lamellae found in the grana is less than that of the stroma lamellae.

5. Stroma
The stroma is an aqueous, protein-rich, colorless fluid that enclose the
thylakoids. It contains enzymes and substances necessary for the light-
independent reactions of photosynthesis. Stroma also consists of various
enzymes, DNA, ribosomes, and other substances.

6. Stroma lamellae
It connects thylakoids of two different grana. They increase the efficiency of
photosynthesis by keeping grana at a distance so that they do not clutter
together. They are also known as stroma thylakoids. They ensure that
maximum energy from sunlight is captured in photosynthesis.

CHLOROPLAST FUNCTIONS
Chloroplasts are the primary sites of photosynthesis in plant cells. They
capture light energy and use it to convert carbon dioxide and water into
glucose and oxygen.
During photosynthesis, chloroplasts synthesize glucose and other organic
compounds, which serve as an energy source for the plant and can be stored
as starch.
Oxygen is released as a byproduct of photosynthesis, which is vital for the
respiration of both plants and animals.
Produces NADPH and molecular oxygen (O2) by photolysis of water and
produces ATP – Adenosine triphosphate by the process of photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts are found in plant leaves surrounded by guard cells. These cells
open and close tiny pores allowing for the gas exchange needed for
photosynthesis.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
It is the process by which plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide
to create oxygen and energy in the form of sugar. It comes from two
words, “photos” meaning ''light'' and “synthesis” meaning “putting
together”. Photosynthesis occurs in many kinds of bacteria and algae, and
in the leaves and sometimes the stems of green plants.
 (Leaf Structure)

PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND THE LEAF

In plants, photosynthesis generally takes place in leaves which consist of
several layers of cells.

Cuticle Layer
-The external surface of leaves is protected by the cuticle layer. This is the
waxy layer of the leaf. In addition to prevent water loss from the leaf, the cuticle
layer is also responsible for controlling the entrance and exit, and of carbon
dioxide and oxygen from the surface of the leaf. It also adapts itself to different
climates, it is thicker in dry and thinner in moist, humid environments.

Upper Epidermis of leaf

 -Consists of thin layers of cells that enables sunlight to pass through and
initiate photosynthesis in the underlying cells. Helps to prevent excessive water
loss, a process known as transpiration.

Mesophyll
-It has the greatest number of chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll. The
process of photosynthesis occurs in a middle layer called the mesophyll.

Palisade Layer
-It is found below the upper epidermis layer. It consists of columnar cells.
These columnar cells are oriented vertically beside each other. The cells of these
are tightly packed together in order to absorb as much sunlight.

Spongy Layer
-It is found below the palisade layer. It is also known as the lower leaf cells. It
consists of irregularly shaped cells that are space apart from each other. Its
function is to facilitate the diffusion of nutrients and gases such as carbon dioxide,
oxygen and water through the stomata.

Vascular bundles
-These are a collection of tube-like tissues that flow through plants,
transporting critical substances to various parts of the plant. Phloem and xylem
serve as transporting vessels of manufactured food and water.

Lower Epidermis
-It represents the continuation of the epidermal cells deposited on the upper
surface of the leaf.

Guard Cell
-These are pairs of epidermal cells that control gas diffusion by regulating the
opening and closure of stomatal pores.
 Stomata
-Represent pores, or openings in the lower epidermis where gas exchange
occurs.

PHOTOSYNTHETIC EQUATION

The raw materials for photosynthesis are carbon dioxide, water and light.

PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS

Categories of Photosynthetic Pigments:

1) Chlorophyll- is a pigment present in all green plants and a few other
organisms. It is required for photosynthesis, which is the process by which
light energy is converted into chemical energy. It has a tadpole-like structure
with a head called porphyrin and a tail (made up of long chain alcohol
 called phytol). The head is made up of four pyrrole rings which are linked
by methine bridges(-CH=).

a) Chlorophyll-a
-It occurs in all the photosynthetic plants. It is bluish green in the pure
state. Its empirical formula is C 35 H 72 O5 N 4 Mg.

b) Chlorophyll-b
-It is olive green in pure state and its empirical formula is C 55 H 70 O5 N 4 Mg.
Both the chlorophylls are soluble in fat solvents such as ether, chloroform, carbon
tetrachloride, alcohols, etc. Chlorophyll a is more soluble in ether whereas
chlorophyll b in methyl alcohol.

2) Carotenoids- are a group of yellow, brownish is reddish pigments which are

associated with the chlorophyll inside the chloroplast.

Two types of Carotenoids

a) Carotenes- These are closely related to Vitamin A and are basically
long chain lipophilic molecules with a more active terminal group at
each end. The empirical formula is C 40 H 56.
 b) Xanthophylls- They are oxygen containing derivatives of carotenes.

The empirical formula is C 40 H 56 O.

3) Phycobilin- It is a light-capturing bile pigment found in the chloroplast of

red algae and cyanobacteria. They have chromatophores that are primarily
responsible for their colour. These are unique pigments as they are bonded to
water-soluble phycobiliproteins which pass sunlight to chlorophyll and thus
help in the process of photosynthesis.

4) Flavonoids- are another type of commonly-found pigment, which are

phenylpropanoid compounds. There are several classes of flavonoids out of
which only a few provide pigments to plants like the proanthocyanidins
(condensed tannins) and anthocyanins. Flavonoids occur in almost all
 tissues. Apart from providing floral pigmentation, they are also involved in
nitrogen fixation, physiological regulation, UV filtration, etc.

REFERENCES:
Audesirk, T., Audesirk, G., & Byers, B. (2005). Biology: Life on Earth. (7th ed.)
Pearson Education Inc.
Bhamrah, H., & Juneja, K. (2002). Molecular Cell Biology. (1st ed.) Anmol
Publications PVT. LTD.
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