HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

Power Supply Unit (PSU)- The Power Supply Unit (PSU) is one of the most critical
components in a computer system. It is responsible for converting electrical power from your
wall outlet into a form that can be used by the various components of your computer.

FUNCTION OF THE PSU:

 The PSU's primary function is to convert alternating current (AC) from your electrical
outlet into direct current (DC) suitable for your computer's internal components
 It provides power to the motherboard, CPU, RAM, storage drives, graphics card, and
other peripherals

VOLTAGE AND WATTAGE:

 PSUs come in various wattage ratings, which determine how much power they can
deliver to the components. Common wattages range from 300W to 1200W or more.
 The voltage outputs from a PSU include +3.3V, +5V, +12V, -12V, and sometimes
+5Vsb (standby voltage). Each voltage rail powers specific components.

EFFICIENCY RATING:
 PSUs are rated for efficiency, which indicates how effectively they convert AC power
into DC power.
 Higher efficiency PSUs waste less power as heat and can save you money on
electricity bills.

FORM FACTORS AND CONNECTORS:

PSUs come in different physical sizes and shapes, known as form
factors. They also have various connectors for supplying power to
components, including motherboard connectors (24-pin ATX), CPU
connectors (4 or 8-pin EPS), SATA power connectors, and PCIe
connectors for graphics cards

Modular vs. Non-Modular vs. Semi-Modular PSUs

 Modular PSUs allow you to attach only the cables you need, reducing cable clutter
inside your case.
 Non-modular PSUs have all cables permanently attached, which can lead to a
messier build.
 Semi-modular PSUs offer a compromise with essential cables pre-attached and
optional cables modular
 Overcurrent Protection (OCP) and Overvoltage Protection (OVP):
 A good PSU includes safety features like OCP and OVP to protect your components
from power surges or overloads.
 OCP shuts down the PSU if a component draws too much current, preventing
damage.
 OVP safeguards against voltage spikes that can harm your components.

Motherboard:
A motherboard is the main printed circuit board (PCB) in a computer.
The motherboard is a computer's central communications backbone
connectivity point, through which all components and external
peripherals connect. Motherboards can be found in virtually all
computers, especially desktop and laptop PCs

Functions of the Motherboard:

 The motherboard serves as the central hub where all major components of a
computer are connected.
 It provides power and data connections to the CPU, RAM, storage drives, expansion
cards, and other peripherals.
 The motherboard contains the BIOS/UEFI firmware, which initializes hardware during
startup and manages system settings.
Form Factors:
 Motherboards come in various form factors, which dictate their physical size and
layout. Common form factors include ATX, microATX, mini-ITX, and more.
 The form factor determines the motherboard's size, the number of expansion slots,
and the compatibility with different computer cases.

 Standard ATX motherboards are larger in size, and this enables them to have more
PCIe lanes. This trait means that standard ATX motherboards work best for multi-
GPU setups or computers that use multiple PCIe input devices.
 Micro-ATX motherboards are similar to standard ATX motherboards, but micro-ATXs
are a few inches shorter in length. The advantages of micro-ATXs is that these
motherboards fit smaller form-factor cases if necessary.
 Mini-ITXs are even smaller motherboards with a length and height shorter than both
micro-ATXs and standard-ATXs. The micro-ITXs usually have only one PCIe lane
and are compatible with far more small form-factor cases.

COMPONENTS ON THE MOTHERBOARD:

 CPU Socket: The CPU socket is where the central processing unit (CPU) is
installed. It provides electrical connections for the CPU and heatsink
mounting points.
 RAM Slots: These slots hold the system's memory modules (RAM). The
number of slots and supported RAM types vary by motherboard.
  Expansion Slots: PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) slots
are used for adding graphics cards, sound cards, Wi-Fi cards, and other
expansion cards.
 Storage Connectors: SATA ports and M.2 slots are used for connecting hard
drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), and other storage devices.
 Power Connectors: The motherboard has power connectors, including the
24-pin ATX and 4/8-pin EPS connectors, which provide power from the PSU.
 I/O Ports: The motherboard has rear I/O ports, including USB, audio jacks,
Ethernet, and video connectors.
 Headers: Headers are connectors for front panel buttons, LEDs, USB ports,
and other case-specific features.
 Chipsets: Chipsets are integrated circuits responsible for managing data flow
and communication between CPU, RAM, and other components.

BIOS/UEFI FIRMWARE
The motherboard contains the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) or Unified
Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) firmware, which initializes hardware during the
boot process.
Users can access the BIOS/UEFI to configure system settings, such as boot order
and overclocking options.
Compatibility and Upgradability
When choosing a motherboard, compatibility is crucial. Check that the motherboard
supports your CPU socket type, RAM type, and other components.
The motherboard's expansion slots, such as PCIe, determine the number and types
of add-on cards you can install.
Central Processing Unit
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is often referred to as the "brain" of a computer. It
performs the majority of data processing and execution of instructions. This lesson
will delve into the CPU, its components, and its role in a computer.

Functions of the CPU

 The CPU's primary function is to execute instructions and perform calculations,
making it the core processing unit in a computer.
 It manages data flow, controls input and output operations, and interacts with
memory and peripheral devices.

CPU Architecture
Control Unit (CU): Manages and coordinates the execution of instructions.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs mathematical and logical operations, such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and comparison.
Registers: Small, high-speed memory units within the CPU used to store data
temporarily during processing.
Cache: CPU cache is a small but high-speed memory that stores frequently
accessed data and instructions to speed up processing.Improves processing speed
by reducing the time needed to access data from the main memory (RAM).
Clock: The clock, measured in gigahertz (GHz), dictates the CPU's processing
speed by controlling how many instructions it can execute per second.
Cores: Modern CPUs have multiple cores, which are essentially individual
processing units within the CPU. A multi-core CPU can process multiple instructions
simultaneously, enhancing performance.
Threads: A thread is the smallest unit of processing that can be scheduled by an
operating system. CPUs with hyper-threading technology can handle multiple threads
per core, improving multitasking efficiency
Key Points about Cores
Single-core vs. Multi-core:
 Single-core: Can handle one task at a time. This was common in early CPUs.
Multi-core: Has two or more cores, each capable of processing instructions
independently. This allows the CPU to handle multiple tasks at the same time, greatly
improving performance, especially in multitasking environments.
Common Core Configurations:
Dual-core: 2 cores
Quad-core: 4 cores
Hexa-core: 6 cores
Octa-core: 8 cores
Deca-core: 10 cores and so on.
Advantages of Multi-core CPUs:
Parallel Processing: Multiple cores can work on different tasks or divide a complex
task into smaller parts to process simultaneously.
Multitasking: Multi-core CPUs handle multiple applications running at the same time
more efficiently.
Performance: Improved speed and responsiveness in applications that can utilize
multiple cores, such as video editing, 3D rendering, and gaming.

Key Points about Threads:

Simultaneous Multi-threading (SMT) or Hyper-Threading:
SMT is a technology used by some CPUs (like Intel's Hyper-Threading) that allows a
single core to execute multiple threads concurrently.
For example, a quad-core CPU with Hyper-Threading can handle 8 threads at once
(2 threads per core), effectively doubling the number of tasks the CPU can manage
simultaneously.
Threads vs. Cores:
 Cores represent physical hardware units within the CPU.
 Threads represent virtual units that allow the CPU to execute tasks more efficiently.
 A CPU with more threads than cores can perform better in certain multi-threaded
tasks, but having more cores typically provides better performance overall, especially
in heavy workloads.

How Cores and Threads Affect Performance:

Single-threaded Performance: This depends on how fast a single core can process
a single thread. It's crucial for applications that don't utilize multiple cores effectively.
Multi-threaded Performance: This is where having more cores and threads shines.
Applications like video editing software, 3D rendering, scientific simulations, and
modern games can benefit from multiple threads being processed simultaneously
Real-world Example:
Gaming: Many older games were designed for single-core processors and are more
dependent on high single-threaded performance. However, modern games are
designed to take advantage of multi-core CPUs, leading to smoother performance
and better frame rates.
Productivity Software: Applications like Adobe Photoshop, Premiere Pro, and other
creative software benefit significantly from multi-core and multi-threaded CPUs, as
they can distribute tasks across multiple cores, speeding up rendering and
processing times.

CPU INSTRUCTIONS AND EXECUTION

 The CPU processes instructions fetched from memory. These instructions are
encoded in machine language and tell the CPU what operations to perform.
 The CPU fetches, decodes, executes, and stores results during each instruction
cycle.
 Pipelining and superscalar architecture are techniques used to improve CPU
instruction throughput and performance.
 CPU COOLING AND THERMAL MANAGEMENT
 CPUs generate heat during operation, and effective cooling is essential to prevent
overheating.
 Cooling solutions include heat sinks, fans, liquid cooling, and thermal paste to
transfer heat away from the CPU.
 Modern CPUs often include thermal sensors and power management features to
optimize performance and reduce power consumption.
CPU MANUFACTURERS AND MODELS
 Leading CPU manufacturers include Intel and AMD.
 CPUs come in various models, each with different specifications, such as core count,
clock speed, and cache size.
 Compatibility with the motherboard's socket type is crucial when selecting a CPU.
OVERCLOCKING
 Overclocking is the process of increasing a CPU's clock speed beyond its
default settings to achieve higher performance.
 It carries risks, including increased heat generation and potential hardware
damage, and often requires specialized cooling solutions.

Importance of the CPU in System Performance

 The CPU's performance significantly impacts the overall speed and
responsiveness of a computer.
 For tasks like gaming, video editing, and scientific simulations, a
powerful CPU is crucial

STORAGE HARD DRIVE

Storage hard drives are fundamental components in a computer
system, used for storing data, operating systems, applications, and
more. This lesson will explore storage hard drives, their types, and
their significance in computing.

TYPES OF STORAGE HARD DRIVES

Hard Disk Drives (HDDs): HDDs use spinning magnetic disks (platters) to store
data. They are known for their high storage capacities but relatively slower speeds
compared to SSDs.
 Solid-State Drives (SSDs): SSDs use NAND flash memory to store data. They are
significantly faster and more reliable than HDDs but often come at a higher cost per
gigabyte.

COMPONENTS OF A HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD):

 Platters: Circular disks coated with a magnetic material where data
is stored.
 Read/Write Heads: Tiny arms with read/write elements that access
and modify data on the platters.
 Actuator: The mechanism that moves the read/write heads across
the platters.
 Spindle: The motor that rotates the platters at a constant speed.
 Controller: The electronics that manage data read/write operations
and interface with the motherboard.
COMPONENTS OF A SOLID-STATE DRIVE (SSD)

 NAND Flash Memory Chips: These non-volatile memory

chips store data and have no moving parts.
 Controller: The controller manages data storage, retrieval,
and wear-leveling to ensure even use of NAND cells.
 Cache: SSDs often have a cache (DRAM or SLC NAND) to
accelerate data access.
 Interface: SSDs use interfaces like SATA, NVMe, or PCIe
to connect to the motherboard.

Speed and Performance

 SSDs are significantly faster than HDDs in terms of data access and transfer speeds.
They lead to quicker boot times and reduced application loading times.
 HDDs are slower due to the physical nature of their spinning platters and moving
read/write heads.
Capacity and Cost
 HDDs are available in larger capacities and are more cost-effective per gigabyte of
storage.
 SSDs are smaller in physical size and offer faster performance but can be pricier per
gigabyte.

Use Cases
 HDDs are suitable for mass storage, such as archiving large files, media libraries,
and backup solutions.
 SSDs are ideal for operating system drives, application storage, and tasks requiring
fast data access, like gaming and video editing.

Graphics Card (GPU)

 Graphics cards, or GPUs, are vital components in modern
computer systems, responsible for rendering images and
graphics. This lesson explores GPUs, their various types,
and their role in computing.

Functions of the GPU

 The GPU is responsible for rendering images, videos, and 3D graphics on a
computer's display.
 It offloads graphical processing tasks from the CPU, allowing the CPU to focus on
general computing tasks.
 GPUs are essential for tasks like gaming, video editing, 3D modeling, and scientific
simulations.
Types of GPUs
 Integrated GPUs: These are integrated within the CPU or motherboard chipset.
They are energy-efficient but less powerful, suitable for everyday tasks and basic
graphics.
 Dedicated GPUs: Dedicated graphics cards are separate components that provide
high-performance graphics rendering. They are ideal for gaming and professional
applications.
Components of a Graphics Card
 GPU Chip: The core processing unit of the graphics card, responsible for executing
rendering tasks.
 Video Memory (VRAM): High-speed memory dedicated to storing graphical data,
textures, and frame buffers.
 Cooling Solution: Graphics cards generate significant heat during operation,
necessitating cooling solutions like fans, heat sinks, or liquid cooling.
 Power Connectors: Graphics cards require external power through PCIe connectors
or dedicated power connectors from the power supply unit (PSU).
 Display Outputs: Graphics cards offer various video outputs, including HDMI,
DisplayPort, DVI, and more, to connect monitors and displays.
 PCB (Printed Circuit Board): The PCB serves as the physical platform for mounting
components, connectors, and cooling solutions.
 Connectors: PCIe connectors attach the graphics card to the motherboard, allowing
data transfer and power delivery.

GRAPHICS CARD PERFORMANCE:

 Graphics card performance is measured in terms of clock speed (measured in MHz
or GHz), the number of CUDA cores (for NVIDIA GPUs) or Stream Processors (for
AMD GPUs), and VRAM capacity.
 The choice of GPU depends on the intended use, such as gaming, content creation,
or professional applications.
MULTI-GPU CONFIGURATIONS
Some systems support multiple GPUs working in tandem, known as SLI (NVIDIA) or
CrossFire (AMD). This can improve graphics performance but may require specialized
motherboards and driver support.
GPU MANUFACTURERS
Major GPU manufacturers include NVIDIA and AMD, each offering a range of graphics card
models tailored to different performance levels and budgets.
DRIVER SOFTWARE
GPUs require driver software to communicate with the operating system and applications.
Regular driver updates often improve performance and compatibility.
RAY TRACING AND DLSS (DEEP LEARNING SUPER SAMPLING):
 Modern GPUs, particularly high-end models, support ray tracing technology for
realistic lighting and reflections.
 DLSS is a technology that uses AI and machine learning to upscale lower-resolution
images, improving performance without sacrificing image quality.
GPU COOLING AND OVERCLOCKING
Effective cooling is crucial for GPUs to prevent overheating. Some
enthusiasts may overclock GPUs to increase performance, but this
can void warranties and may require advanced cooling solutions.

Random Access Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM) is a crucial component in a computer system, responsible
for temporarily storing and providing quick access to data that the CPU and software need
for processing. This lesson explores RAM, its various aspects, and its role in computing.
FUNCTIONS OF RAM
 RAM serves as the computer's short-term memory, holding data and program
instructions that the CPU needs for immediate processing.
 It allows for fast and random access to data, significantly speeding up computing
tasks compared to fetching data from slower storage drives like HDDs or SSDs.
 RAM is essential for multitasking, as it enables the concurrent execution of multiple
applications and processes.
TYPES OF RAM
 DRAM (Dynamic RAM): This is the most common type of RAM. It requires constant
refreshing to maintain data, which is stored in capacitors within memory cells.
 SRAM (Static RAM): SRAM is faster and more power-efficient than DRAM but is
more expensive and less dense. It doesn't require constant refreshing and uses flip-
flops to store data.
 DDR Synchronous RAM: DDR (Double Data Rate) SDRAM is a common type of
DRAM used in modern computers. It offers improved data transfer rates compared to
standard SDRAM.

RAM Modules
 RAM is typically installed on modules that are inserted into slots on the motherboard.
 Common RAM modules include DIMMs (Dual In-line Memory Modules) and SO-
DIMMs (Small Outline Dual In-line Memory Modules) for laptops.
 RAM capacity, clock speed, and latency are important factors when selecting RAM
modules.

RAM capacity
  RAM capacity is measured in gigabytes (GB) and determines how much data can be
stored and accessed at once.
 For most users, 8GB to 16GB of RAM is sufficient for general computing. Gamers
and professionals may benefit from 32GB or more.

RAM SPEED (CLOCK SPEED)

 RAM speed, measured in megahertz (MHz), determines how quickly data can be
read from and written to RAM.
 Faster RAM can improve system performance, especially in tasks that rely heavily on
memory access.

DUAL-CHANNEL AND QUAD-CHANNEL RAM

Many motherboards support dual-channel or quad-channel memory configurations, which
can provide a performance boost by allowing parallel data access through multiple memory
modules.

IMPORTANCE OF RAM IN SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

 RAM plays a significant role in determining a computer's overall performance,
especially in tasks involving large files, multitasking, gaming, and content creation.
 Inadequate RAM can lead to performance bottlenecks, as the system may need to
rely on slower storage drives for data access.

VIRTUAL MEMORY
Virtual memory is a memory management technique that uses a portion of the storage drive
(usually SSD or HDD) as an extension of RAM when the physical RAM is insufficient.