Explain what is meant by a process in control and the advantages that accrue, Explain what is meant by a process out of control and the various out-of-control attemns. aoe the difference between individual measixrements and averages; and between control limits and specifications. Know the different situations between the process spread and specifications and what can be done to correct an undesirable situation. Be able to calculate process capability. © Know the statistical meaning of Six Sigma. Be able to identify the different types of variable control charts and the reasons for their use. INTRODUCTION Variation One of the truisms of manufacturing is that no two objects are ever made exactly alike. In fact, the variation concept is a law of nature, in that no two n-tural items in any category are exactly the same. The variation may be quite large and easily noticeable, such as the height of human beings, or the variation mav he very small, such as the weight of fiber-tipped pens or the shapes of snowflakes. When varia. tions are very small, it may appear that items are identical; however, precision instruments will show differences. If two items appear to have the same meas- urement, it is due to the limits of our measuring instruments. As measuring instruments have become more refined, variation has continued to exist—only the increment of variation has changed. The ability to measure variation is necessary before it can be controlled. There are three categories of variations in piece part production. L iece variation, This type of variation is illustrated by the surface roughness of a piece, wherein one portion of the surface is rougher than another Portion, or the printing on one end of the page is better than on the other end. 2. Piece-to-piece variation. This type of variation occurs among pieces pro- duced at the same time. Thus, the light intensity of four consecutive light bulbs produced from the same machine will be different. 3. -time variation. This type of variation is illustrated by the differ- ence in a product or service produced at different times of the day. Thus, a service given early in the morning will be different from one given iater in the day: or. as a entting tool wears, the cutting characteristics will change. on oe| Categorie v for other typ continuous i ‘ati es of processes, such as a con! .gories of variation fo types ; ous ‘cal process or an income tax audit, will not be exactly the same; however, chemical pt l iF Simi every process because of a combination of the ea40P- ater evironment, and operator. The first source of variation is Ie ment, mai nig source includes tool wear, machine vibration, ‘workholding device enn aa trical fluctuations. When all these variations are ~ voning, and hydraulic and elec ions. When ath ee there is a certain capability or precision within which ‘the equipment. robs. Bven supposedly identical machines have different capabilities, and this fact becomes a very important consideration when scheduling the manufacture of oe source of vasiation is the material. Since variation occurs in the finished product, it must also occur in the raw material (which was someone else’s finished product). Such quality ‘characteristics as tensile strength, ductility, thick- a4 ness, porosity, and moisture content can be expected to contribute to the overall variation in the final product. ; ‘A third source of variation is the environment. Temperature, light, radiation, electrostatic discharge, particle size, pressure, and humidity can all contribute to 4 variation in the product. In order to control this source, products are sometimes manufactured in “white rooms”. Experiments are conducted in outer space to learn more about the effect of the environment on product variation. A fourth source is the operator. This source of variation includes the method by which the operator performs the operation. The operator's physical and emo- tional well-being also contribute to the variation. A cut finger, a twisted ankle, a personai problem, or a headache can make an operator’s quality performance very. An operator’s lack of understanding of equipment and material variations due to lack of training may lead to frequent machine adjustments, thereby compounding, the variability. As our equipment has become more automated, the operator’s ef- fect on variation has lessened. These four sources together account for the true variation. There is also-a reported variation, which is due to the inspection activity. Faulty inspection equipment, incorrect application of a quality standard, or too heavy a pressure. ‘on a micrometer can be the cause of the incorrect reporting of variation. In gen- eral, variation due to inspection should be one-tenth of the four other sources of variations. It should be noted that three of these sources are present in the inspec- tion activity: an inspector, inspection equipment, and the environment. As long as these sources of variation fluctuate in a natural or expected manner, a stable pattern of many chance causes (random causes) of variation de- ee oar mes a variate are inevitable. Because they are numerous and Thote pansee game ly small importance, they are difficult to detect or identify. ariation that are large in magnitude, and therefore i s Teadily CONTROL CHARTS FOR VARIABLESa------- UCL; Upper Control Limit -Kg 0%) & 8 Central Line 8 Lely Lower Control Limit ‘Subgroup Averag: oe g 8 1 5 10 15 ‘Subgroup Number FIGURE 5-1 Example of a control chart. n only chance causes are present in a process, the process is considered to be in a state of statistical control. The Coatrol Chart Method - In order to indicate when observed variations in quality are greater than could be left to chance, the control chart method of analysis and Presentation of data is used. The control chart method for variables is a means of visualizing the varia- tions that occur in the central tendency and dispersion of a set of. observations. It is a graphical record of the quality of a particular characteristic. It shows whether or not the process is in a stable state, An example of a control chart is given in Figure 5-1. This particular chart is referred to as an X chart (average) and is used to record the variat. “| ion in the average n such as the R chart (range), would have also served for explanation Purposes@Mf&he horizontal axis is labeled “Subgroup Number,” ich certifies 4 partivaiar le consisting of a fixed number of ob- Servations. These subgroups are in order, with the first one i i the last one inspected being 14. The verti pe ees last one inspe cal axis of the graph i s which this panicula case is weight measured in llogeane, Me Variable, 'W.Eawards Deming uses the words common and specie! for, chance and assignable. CHAPTER Sue within a subgroup, Thus, Fach small solid circle represents the average subgroup number 5 consists of, say, four obscrvat AG, 3.49, 3.45, and 3.44, and their average is 3.46 kg. This value is the one posted on the chart fo number 5. Averages are usually used on control charts rather than indi servations because average values will indicate a change in variation much faster? ‘Also, with two or more observations in a sample, a measure of the dispersion can be obtaineU for a particular subgroup. The solid line in the center of the art can have three diffe.ent interpreta~ tions, depending on the available data. First, and most commonly, it can be the average of the plotted points, which in the case of an X chart is the average of the averages or “X-double bar,” X. Second, it can be a standard or reference value, Xo, based on representative prior data, an economic value based on production costs or service needs, or an aimed-at value based on specifications. Third, it can be the population mean, j, if that value is known. ‘Fhe two dashed outer lines are the upper-and lower control limits. These limits are established to assist in judging the significance of the variation in the quality of the product or service. Control limits are frequently confused with specification limits, which are the permissible limits of a quality characteristic of each individual unit of a product. However, control limits are used to evaluate the variations in quality from subgroup to subgroup. Therefore, for the X chart, the control limits are a function of the subgroup averages. A frequency distribut:un of the subgroup averages can be determined with its corresponding average ana stan- | dard deviation. The control limits are usually established at +3 standard deviations from the central line. One recalls, from the discussion of the normal curve, that the number of items between +30 Mid —3o° equals 99.73%. Therefore, it is expected that over 9,973 times Gut of 10,000, the subgroup values will fall between the upper and lower limits, and when this occurs, the process is considered to be in control. When a subgroup value falls outside the limits, the process is considered to be out of control and an assignable cause for the variation is present. There are = _——other-types-of out-of-control conditions, and these are discussed later in the chapter. Subgroup number 10 in Figure 5-1 is beyond the upper control limit; therefore, there has been a change in the stable nature of the process at that time, causing the out-of-control point. It is also true that the out-of-control condition could be due to a chance cause, and this fact can occur 27 times out of 10,000. The average run length (ARL) before a chance cause occurs at 3.70 units (10,000 = 27), In practice, control charts are posted at work centers to control a particular quality characteristic. Usually, an X chart for the central tendency and an R chart for the dispersion are used together. An example of this dual charting is illustrated in Figure 5-2, which shows a method of charting and reporting inspection results 5 i For a proof ofthis statement, see J. M. Juran, ed., Quality Control Hand : nie ity ibook, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, CONTROL CHARTS FOR VARIABLESEach small solid circle represents the average value within a subgroup. Thus, subgroup number 5 consists of, say, four observations, 3.46, 3.49, 3.45, and 3.44, and their average is 3.46 kg, This value is the one posted on the chart for subgroup number 5. Averages are usually used on control charts rather than individual ob- servations because average values will indicate a change in variation much faster. ‘Also, with two or more observations in a sample, a measure of the dispersion can be obtained for a particular subgroup. The solid line in the center of the chart can have three diffe.ent interpreta tions, depending on the available data. First, and most commonly, it can be the average of the plotted points, which in the case of an X chart is the average of the averages or “X-double bar,” X. Second, it can be a standard or reference value, Xo, based on representative prior data, an economic value based on production costs or service needs, or an aimed-at value based on specifications. Third, it can be the population mean, y, if that value is known. ‘Fhe two dashed outer lines are the upper-and lower control limits. These limits are established to assist in judging the significance of the variation in the quality of the product or service. Control limits are frequently confused with specification limits, which are the permissible limits of a quality characteristic of each individual unit of a product. However, control limits are used to evaluate the. in quality from subgroup to subgroup. Therefore, for the X chart, the mits are a function of the subgroup averages. A frequency distribution of the subgroup averages can be determined with its corresponding average and stan- dard deviation. The control limits are usually established at +3 standard deviations from the central line, One recalls, from the discussion of the normal curve, that the number of items between +30 nd —3o equals 99.73%. Therefore, it is expected that over 9,973 times Gut of 10,000, the subgroup values will fall between the upper and lower limits, and when this occurs, the process is considered to be in control. When a subgroup value falls outside the limits, the process is considered to be out of control and an assignable cause for the variation is present. There are ___—-ethertypes-ef_out-of-control conditions, and these are discussed later in the chapter. Subgroup number 10 in Figure 5-1 is beyond the upper control limit; therefore, there has been a change in the stable nature of the process at that time, causing the out-of-control point. It is also true that the out-of-control condition could be due to a chance cause, and this fact can occur 27 times out of 10,000. The average run length (ARL) before a chance cause occurs at 3.70 units (10,000 + 27), In practice, control charts are posted at work centers to contro! a particular quality characteristic. Usually, an X chart for the central tendency and an R chart for the dispersion are used together. An example of this dual charting is illustrated in Figure 5-2, which shows a method of charting and reporting inspection results >For a proof ofthis statement, see J. M. Juran, e4., Quality Control Ha : et 9 indbook, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, CONTROL CHARTS FOR VARIABLESSXAND R CHART ter Number _365—: 2 west Whar Dato__3/6__ —T— ww [oo |B | || smoot 1 Lets te ts fel teteiel ate 4 x, | 55 | 67 | 48 | 45 | $8 x | 62 | 62 147 143 | $0 | % [5 | 57 | 50 [45 |48 — x, | 53 | 50 [47 | 43 | 50 “sum | 2/7 | 2/0 | 1% | 176 201 %_(528|625| 49 | 44 [502 e [a4[7/2{2l65 | Durometer Durometer ko © 6 Subgroup Number 20 FIGURE 5-2 Example of a method of reporting inspection results, cHarrer 5for rubber durometers. At work center number 365-2 at 8:30 A.M., the operator Se- ects four items for testing, and records the observations of 55, 52, 5i, and 53 in the rows marked X;, X, Xs, and X,, respectively. A subgroup average value of 52.8 is obtained by summing the observation and dividing by 4, and the range value of 4 is obtained by subtracting the low value, 51, from the high value, 55. ‘The oper- ator places a small solid circle at 52.8 on the X chart and a small solid circle at 4 on the R chart and then proceeds with other duties. 7 The frequency with which the operator inspects a product at a particular work center is determined by the quality of the product. When the process is in control and-no difficulties are being encountered, fewer inspections may be re- quired; conversely, when the process is out of control or during startup, more in- spections may be needed. The inspection frequency, at a work center can also be determined by the amount of time that must be spent on non-inspection activi: ties. In the example problem, the inspection frequency appears to be every 60 or 65 minutes: ‘At 9:30 A.M. the operator performs the activities for subgroup 2 in the same manner as for subgroup 1. It is noted that the range value of 7 falls right on the upper control limit. Whether to consider this in control or out of control would be ‘a matter of organization policy. It is suggested that it be classified as in control And a cursory examination for an assignable cause be conducted by the operatér. A plotted point that falls on the -ontroi limit will bg a.rare occurrence. The inspection results £7 suvgsoup 2 shows third observation, X3, has a value of 57, which exceeds the upper control limit. Th&geader is cautioned to re~ member the earlier discussion on control limits and specifi¢ptions. In other words, the 57 value is an individual observation and does not relatéyo the control limits. Therefore, the fact that an individual observation is greater than or less than a con- oa “el Limit is meaningless. Subgroup 4 has an average value of 44, which is less than the lower control limit oF 45. Therefore, subgroup 4 is out of control, and the operator will report this fact to'the departmental supervisor. The operator and supervisor will then look for an assignable cause and, if possible, take corrective action, Whatever correc- tive action is taken will be noted by the operator on the X and’R chart or on a sep- arate form. The control chart indicates when and where trouble has occurred; the identification and elimination of the difficulty is a production problem. Ideally, the control chart should be maintained by the operator, provided time is available and proper training has been given. When the operator cannot maintain the chart, then it is maintained by quality control. A control chart is a statistical tool that distinguishes between natural and un- natural variation as shown in Figure 5-3. Unnatural variation is the result of as- signable causes. It usually, but not always, requires corrective action b le close to the process, such as operators, technicians, ee ; clerks, maintenance workei and first-line supervisors. “ CONTROL CHARTS FOR VARIABLESUnnatural Variation Assignable Causes Present Operations 20.0 a E < | & Natural Variation “o 150 Chance Causes Present 2 Management (System) 2 3 g g 3 100 a Unnatural Variation Assignable Causes Present Operations o 5 10 Subgroup FIGURE 5-3 Natural and unnatural causes of variation. Natural variation is the result of chance causes. It requires management in- tervention to achieve quality improvement. In this regard, ‘The control chart is used to keep a continuing record of a particular quality char- acteristic. Itis a picture of the process over time. When the chart is completed, it is re- placed by a fresh chart, and the completed chart is stored in an office file. The chart is used to improve the process quality, to determine the process capability, to help deter- mine effective specifications, to determine when to leave the process alone and when to make adjustments, and to investigate causes of unacceptable or marginal quality. Variable control charts provide information: ok faving a variable control chart merely because it indicates that there is a quality control program is missing the point. A variable Control chart is an excellent technique for achieving quality improvement, 5 “Wallace Davis IM, “Using Corrective Action to Make Matters Worse," ‘Quality Progress (October 2000): 56-61. anes2. true process capability can be achieved only after substantial quality improvement has been achieved. During the quality improvement cycle, the ‘control chart will indicate that no further improve- arent is possible without a large dollar expenditure. At that point the true Process capability is obtained. 3. .ce the true process capability is obtained, effective specifications can be determined. If the process capability is 0.003, then specifications of 0.004 are realistically obtainable by operating personn is needed to judge whether control exists. If not, the contrel. Once control is obtained, the control chart is used to maintain control. ‘Thus, the control chart is used to decide when a natural pattern of variation occurs and the process should be left alone, and when an unnatural pattem of variation is cecurring, which requires action to find and eliminate the assignable cases. in this regard, operating personnel are giving a quality performance as long as the plotted points are within the control limits. If this performance is not satis- factory, the solution is the responsibility of the system rather than the operator. trol chart is used items should be released to the next phase of the Sequence or some alternative dis- wn made, such as sorting and repairing. The purposes ate frequently dependent on each other. For example, quality improvement'is needed prior to determining the true process capability, whieh is needed prior to determining effective specifications. Control charts for variables Should be established to achieve a particular purpose. Their use should be discon- tinued when the purpose has been achieved or their use continued with inspection substantially reduced. emus CONTROL CHART TECHNIQUES Introdéiction In order to establish a pair of control charts for the average (X) and the range (R), it is desirable to follow a set procedure. The steps in this procedure are as follows: 1. Select the quality characteristic. 2. Choose the rational subgroup. 3, Collect the data. CONTROL CHARTS FOR VARIABLES