MSc(I.

T) PART-1 SEM-I Subject : Applied Artificial Intelligence

1-Machine Learning Paradigms

Introduction

 Machine Learning is a system that can learn from example through self-improvement and
without being explicitly coded by programmer.
 The breakthrough comes with the idea that a machine can singularly learn from the data
(i.e., example) to produce accurate results.
 Machine learning combines data with statistical tools to predict an output.
 This output is then used by corporate to makes actionable insights.
 Machine learning is closely related to data mining and Bayesian predictive modeling.
 The machine receives data as input, use an algorithm to formulate answers.
 Machine learning is also used for a variety of task like fraud detection, predictive
maintenance, portfolio optimization, automatize task and so on.

Machine Learning vs. Traditional Programming

Traditional programming differs significantly from machine learning.

 In traditional programming, a programmer code all the rules in consultation with an

expert in the industry for which software is being developed. Each rule is based on a
logical foundation; the machine will execute an output following the logical statement.
When the system grows complex, more rules need to be written. It can quickly become
unsustainable to maintain.

Machine learning is supposed to overcome this issue. The machine learns how the input and
output data are correlated and it writes a rule. The programmers do not need to write new rules
each time there is new data. The algorithms adapt in response to new data and experiences to
improve efficacy over time.

Prof. Mohd. Shahid Ansari

MSc(I.T) PART-1 SEM-I Subject : Applied Artificial Intelligence

How does Machine learning work?

 Machine learning is the brain where all the learning takes place. The way the machine
learns is similar to the human being. Humans learn from experience. The more we know,
the more easily we can predict.

 By analogy, when we face an unknown situation, the likelihood of success is lower than
the known situation.

 Machines are trained the same. To make an accurate prediction, the machine sees an
example. When we give the machine a similar example, it can figure out the outcome.
However, like a human, if its feed a previously unseen example, the machine has
difficulties to predict.

 The core objective of machine learning is the learning and inference.

 First of all, the machine learns through the discovery of patterns. This discovery is made
thanks to the data. One crucial part of the data scientist is to choose carefully which data
to provide to the machine.

 The list of attributes used to solve a problem is called a feature vector. You can think of
a feature vector as a subset of data that is used to tackle a problem.

Prof. Mohd. Shahid Ansari

MSc(I.T) PART-1 SEM-I Subject : Applied Artificial Intelligence

Inferring

When the model is built, it is possible to test how powerful it is on never-seen-before data. The
new data are transformed into a features vector, go through the model and give a prediction. This
is all the beautiful part of machine learning. There is no need to update the rules or train again
the model. You can use the model previously trained to make inference on new data.

Prof. Mohd. Shahid Ansari

MSc(I.T) PART-1 SEM-I Subject : Applied Artificial Intelligence

Supervised learning
• Supervised learning as the name indicates the presence of a supervisor as a teacher.
• Basically supervised learning is a learning in which we teach or train the machine using
data which is well labeled that means some data is already tagged with the correct
answer.
• After that, the machine is provided with a new set of examples(data) so that supervised
learning algorithm analyses the training data(set of training examples) and produces a
correct outcome from labeled data.
• For instance, suppose you are given an basket filled with different kinds of fruits. Now
the first step is to train the machine with all different fruits one by one like this:

Prof. Mohd. Shahid Ansari

MSc(I.T) PART-1 SEM-I Subject : Applied Artificial Intelligence

• If shape of object is rounded and depression at top having color Red then it will be
labelled as –Apple.
• If shape of object is long curving cylinder having color Green-Yellow then it will be
labelled as –Banana.
• Now suppose after training the data, you have given a new separate fruit say Banana from
basket and asked to identify it.

• Since the machine has already learned the things from previous data and this time have to
use it wisely.
• It will first classify the fruit with its shape and color and would confirm the fruit name as
BANANA and put it in Banana category.
• Thus the machine learns the things from training data(basket containing fruits) and then
apply the knowledge to test data(new fruit).

Prof. Mohd. Shahid Ansari

MSc(I.T) PART-1 SEM-I Subject : Applied Artificial Intelligence

There are two categories of supervised learning:

 Classification task
 Regression task

Classification task

 In machine learning, classification refers to a predictive modeling problem where a

class label is predicted for a given example of input data.
 Classification in machine learning and statistics is a supervised learning approach in
which the computer program learns from the data given to it and make new observations
or classifications.
 Classification is a process of categorizing a given set of data into classes, It can be
performed on both structured or unstructured data. The process starts with predicting the
class of given data points. The classes are often referred to as target, label or categories.

 The classification predictive modeling is the task of approximating the mapping function
from input variables to discrete output variables. The main goal is to identify which
class/category the new data will fall into.

Regression task

 Regression analysis consists of a set of machine learning methods that allow us to

predict a continuous outcome variable (y) based on the value of one or multiple predictor
variables (x). Briefly, the goal of regression model is to build a mathematical equation
that defines y as a function of the x variables.
 Regression models are used to predict a continuous value. Predicting prices of a house
given the features of house like size, location etc is one of the common examples of
Regression. It is a supervised technique.

Prof. Mohd. Shahid Ansari

MSc(I.T) PART-1 SEM-I Subject : Applied Artificial Intelligence

Types of Regression

1. Simple Linear Regression

2. Polynomial Regression

3. Support Vector Regression

4. Decision Tree Regression

5. Random Forest Regression

Unsupervised learning

• Unsupervised learning is the training of machine using information that is neither

classified nor labeled and allowing the algorithm to act on that information without
guidance.
• Here the task of machine is to group unsorted information according to similarities,
patterns and differences without any prior training of data.
• Unlike supervised learning, no teacher is provided that means no training will be given to
the machine.
• Therefore machine is restricted to find the hidden structure in unlabeled data by our-self.
• For instance, suppose it is given an image having both dogs and cats which have not seen
ever.

• Thus the machine has no idea about the features of dogs and cat so we can’t categorize it
in dogs and cats.

• But it can categorize them according to their similarities, patterns, and differences i.e., we
can easily categorize the above picture into two parts.

• First first may contain all pics having dogs in it and second part may contain all pics
having cats in it.

Prof. Mohd. Shahid Ansari

MSc(I.T) PART-1 SEM-I Subject : Applied Artificial Intelligence

• Here you didn’t learn anything before, means no training data or examples.

Clustering
 Cluster analysis, or clustering, is an unsupervised machine learning task. It involves
automatically discovering natural grouping in data.
 Unlike supervised learning (like predictive modeling), clustering algorithms only
interpret the input data and find natural groups or clusters in feature space.
 Clustering is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets (called clusters) so that
observations in the same cluster are similar in some sense.
 Clustering is a method of unsupervised learning, and a common technique for statistical
data analysis used in many fields.

Reinforcement Learning

 Reinforcement Learning is a feedback-based Machine learning technique in which an

agent learns to behave in an environment by performing the actions and seeing the results
of actions. For each good action, the agent gets positive feedback, and for each bad
action, the agent gets negative feedback or penalty.

Prof. Mohd. Shahid Ansari

MSc(I.T) PART-1 SEM-I Subject : Applied Artificial Intelligence

 In Reinforcement Learning, the agent learns automatically using feedbacks without any
labeled data, unlike supervised learning.
 Since there is no labeled data, so the agent is bound to learn by its experience only.
 The agent interacts with the environment and explores it by itself. The primary goal of an
agent in reinforcement learning is to improve the performance by getting the maximum
positive rewards.
 The agent learns with the process of hit and trial, and based on the experience, it learns to
perform the task in a better way. Hence, we can say that "Reinforcement learning is a
type of machine learning method where an intelligent agent (computer program) interacts
with the environment and learns to act within that." How a Robotic dog learns the
movement of his arms is an example of Reinforcement learning.

Prof. Mohd. Shahid Ansari

MSc(I.T) PART-1 SEM-I Subject : Applied Artificial Intelligence

Inductive Learning

 Inductive learning: system tries to induce a “general rule” from a set of observed
instances.
 Inductive Learning is where we are given examples of a function in the form of data (x)
and the output of the function (f(x)). The goal of inductive learning is to learn the
function for new data (x).
 From the perspective of inductive learning, we are given input samples (x) and output
samples (f(x)) and the problem is to estimate the function (f). Specifically, the problem is
to generalize from the samples and the mapping to be useful to estimate the output
for new samples in the future.

Example:
System tries to make a “general rule” from a set of observed
data.
Mango -> f(Mango) -> sweet(e1)
Banana -> f(Banana) -> sweet(e2)
Apple -> f(Apple) -> sweet(e3)
…….
…..
Machine makes a general rule as
Fruits -> f(Fruits) -> sweet general rule

Prof. Mohd. Shahid Ansari

MSc(I.T) PART-1 SEM-I Subject : Applied Artificial Intelligence

Summary of Inductive Learning

Deductive learning

 Deductive learning is a subclass of machine learning that studies algorithms for learning
provably correct knowledge.
 Typically such methods are used to speedup problem solvers by adding knowledge to
them that is deductively entailed by existing knowledge, but that may result in faster
solutions.

Example :
A=B
B=C
Then we can deduce much confidence that
A = C (Deductive learning )

Basis for Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning

comparison
Definition Deductive reasoning is the form of Inductive reasoning arrives at a conclusion
valid reasoning, to deduce new by the process of generalization using
information or conclusion from specific facts or data.
known related facts and information.
Approach Deductive reasoning follows a top- Inductive reasoning follows a bottom-up
down approach. approach.

Prof. Mohd. Shahid Ansari

MSc(I.T) PART-1 SEM-I Subject : Applied Artificial Intelligence

Starts from Deductive reasoning starts from Inductive reasoning starts from the
Premises. Conclusion.
Validity In deductive reasoning conclusion In inductive reasoning, the truth of premises
must be true if the premises are true. does not guarantee the truth of conclusions.
Usage Use of deductive reasoning is Use of inductive reasoning is fast and easy,
difficult, as we need facts which must as we need evidence instead of true facts.
be true. We often use it in our daily life.
Process Theory→ hypothesis→ Observations-
patterns→confirmation. →patterns→hypothesis→Theory.
Argument In deductive reasoning, arguments In inductive reasoning, arguments may be
may be valid or invalid. weak or strong.
Structure Deductive reasoning reaches from Inductive reasoning reaches from specific
general facts to specific facts. facts to general facts.
Inductive Machine Learning Deductive Machine Learning
Observe and learn from the set of Derives conclusion and then work on it
instances and then draw the based on the previous decision
conclusion
It is Statistical machine learning like Machine learning algorithm to deductive
KNN (K-nearest neighbor) or SVM reasoning using a decision tree

A ⋀ B ⊢ A → B (Induction) A ⋀ (A → B) ⊢ B (Deduction)
(Support Vector Machine)

Clustering

 Clustering is the task of dividing the population or data points into a number of groups
such that data points in the same groups are more similar to other data points in the same
group and dissimilar to the data points in other groups.

 It is basically a collection of objects on the basis of similarity and dissimilarity between

them.

 Cluster analysis, or clustering, is an unsupervised machine learning task.

 It involves automatically discovering natural grouping in data.

 Unlike supervised learning (like predictive modeling), clustering algorithms only

interpret the input data and find natural groups or clusters in feature space.

For example, when you go out for grocery shopping, you easily distinguish between apples and
oranges in a given set containing both of them. You distinguish these two objects based on their
color, texture and other sensory information that is processed by your brain. Clustering is an
emulation of this process so that machines are able to distinguish between different objects.

Prof. Mohd. Shahid Ansari

MSc(I.T) PART-1 SEM-I Subject : Applied Artificial Intelligence

Cased based reasoning and learning

 Case-based reasoning (CBR), broadly construed, is the process of solving new problems
based on the solutions of similar past problems.
 An auto mechanic who fixes an engine by recalling another car that exhibited similar
symptoms is using case-based reasoning.
 Case-based reasoning has been formalized for purposes of computer reasoning as a four-
step process:

Retrieve:

Given a target problem, retrieve from memory cases relevant to solving it. A case consists of a
problem, its solution, and, typically, annotations about how the solution was derived.

Reuse:

Map the solution from the previous case to the target problem. This may involve adapting the
solution as needed to fit the new situation.

Revise:

Prof. Mohd. Shahid Ansari

MSc(I.T) PART-1 SEM-I Subject : Applied Artificial Intelligence

Having mapped the previous solution to the target situation, test the new solution in the real
world (or a simulation) and, if necessary, revise.

Retain:

After the solution has been successfully adapted to the target problem, store the resulting
experience as a new case in memory.

Prof. Mohd. Shahid Ansari